COLLEGE OF AGRICULTURE

CHHATNA, BANKURA
(AN EXTENDED CAMPUS OF BIDHAN CHANDRA KRISHI VISWAVIDYALAYA)
LECTURE DELIVERED BY: MRINMOY MONDAL, ASSISTANT PROFESSOR (PLANT
PATHOLOGY)

FUNGI
Fungi are living organism which is usually filamentous, achlorophyllous, thallophytic,
heterophytic, eukaryotic having cell and spore bearing nature or reproduction.

(Filamentous: - A fine or very thin thread or fiber.

Achlorophyllous: - Having no chlorophyll.
Thallophytic:- any of a group of plants or plantlike organisms (as algae and fungi) that lack
differentiated stems, leaves, and roots
Heterophytic:- A plant that secure its nutrition directly from other organism; a parasite or
saprophyte.
Eukaryotic:- Those having a true nucleus.)
CHARACTERISTICS OF THE FUNGI:-
(i). Fingi are heterotrophic in nature.
(ii). Fungi are unicellular or filamentous, septate or aseptate.
(iii). Fungal cell wall composed of chitin.
(iv). Fungi are Eukaryotic in nature.
(v). Life cycle is simple to complex.
(vi). Both sexual and asexual reproduction occur.
(vii). In fungi the main reserved food material is glucogen.
(viii). Most of them are multicellular with a few exception.(Eg- yeast).
(ix). Fungi are typically non motile, although a few (Eg- Chytrids) have a motile phase.
(x). All chemotrophic in nature.

SOMATIC STRUCTURES:-
Thallus/Soma: -
Thallus/soma commonly called as vegetative body or fungal body. A thallus (in plural it is thalli)
is a simple, entire body of the fungus devoid (Absent) of chlorophyll with no differentiation into
stem, roots & leaves lacking vascular system.
Hypha (Hypha=web, in plural Hyphae):-
Hypha is a thin, transparent, tubular filament filled with protoplasm. It is the unit of a
filamentous thallus and grows by apical elongation

Mycelium (In plural Mycelia):-

A network of hyphae (aggregation of hyphae) constituting the filamentous thallus of a fungus. It
may be colourless that is hyaline or coloured due to presence of pigments in cell wall. Mycelium
may be ectophytic or endophytic.
(Ectophytic:- a parasitic agent that lives on the surface of its host
Endopphytic:- a parasitic agent that lives within the host).

TYPES OF FUNGAL THALLI

(i). Plasmodium (Moulded body):-

It is a naked, multinucleate mass of protoplasm moving and feeding in amoeboid fashion.
Eg- Plasmodiophora brassicae.

(ii). Unicellular thallus:-

Consisting of a single cell. Eg- Chytrids, Synchytrium

 (iii). Multicellular or Filamentous thallus:-
Majority of fungi that is a true fungi are filamentous, consisting of a number of branched,
thred like filaments called hyphae.
Eg- Many fungi (Alternaria).

CLASSIFICATION OF FUNGI BASED ON REPRODUCTIVE STRUCTURE

(i). HOLOCARPIC FUNGI (HOLOS = WHOLE + KARPOS = FRUIT):-
If the thallus is entirely converted into one or more reproductive structures, such thallus is called
holocarpic thallus.
Eg- Synchytrium.

(ii). EUCARPIC FUNGI (EU = GOOD + KARPOS = FRUIT):-

If the thallus is differentiated into a vegetative part which absorbs nutrients and a reproductive
part which forms reproductive structures, such thallus is called eucarpic thallus.
Eg- Pythium.

ECTOPHYTIC FUNGUS:-
If the fungal thallus is present on the surface of the host plant, it is called ectophytic fungus.
Eg- Olpidium.
ENDOPHYTIC FUNGUS:-
If the fungus penetrates into the host cell / present inside the host, it is called endobiotic fungus.
Endophytic fungus may be intercellular or intra cellular or vascular.
(i). Intercellular endophytic fungus:-
When hyphae grows in between the cells.

(ii). Intracellular endophytic fungus:-

When hyphae penetrats into the host cells. Eg- Ustilago.

(iii). Vascular endophytic fungus:-

When hyphae grows in xylem vessels. Eg- Fusarium oxysporun .
 CLASSIFICATION OF FUNGI BASED ON SEPTATION OF HYPHAE
Some fungal hyphae are provided with partitions on cross walls which divide the fungus into a
number of compartments / cells. These cross walls are called septa.

(I). ASEPTATE HYPHAE / COENOCYTIC HYPHAE ( KOINOS = COMMON, KYTOS =

HOLO VESSELS):-
A hyphae without septa is called aseptate / non-septate / coenocytic hyphae wherein the nuclei
are embedded in cytoplasm.
Eg- Lower fungi like Oomycetes and Zygomycetes.
(II). SEPTATE HYPHAE:-
Hyphae with septa or cross walls are called septate hyphae.
Eg- Common in higher fungi like Ascomycotina, Basidiomycotina and deuteromycotina.

GENERAL TYPES OF SEPTA

1. BASED ON FORMATION
(i). Primary septa:-
These are formed in direct association with nuclear division (mitotic or meiotic) and are laid
down between daughter nuclei separating the nuclei / cells.
Eg – Higher fungi like Ascomycotina and Basidiomycotina.
(ii). Adventitious septa:-
These are formed independent of nuclear division and these are produced to delimit(demark)
the reproductive structures.
Eg- Lower fungi like Oomycetes and Zygomycetes in which septa are produced below
gametangia (sex organs) which separate them from rest of the cells.
 2. BASED ON CONSTRUCTION
(i). Simple septa:-
It is most common which is a plate like, with or without perforation (Opening).
(ii). Complex Septa:-
A septum with a central pore surrounded by a barrel shaped swelling of the septal wall and
covered on both sides by a perforated membrane termed the septal pore cap or parenthosome.
Eg- Dolipore septum in basidiomycotina.

3. BASED ON PERFORATION

(i). Complete septa:-

A septum is a solid plate without any pore or perforations.
Eg- Adventitious septa in lower fungi.
(ii). Incomplete septa:-
A septum with a central pore.
FUNGAL TISSUES

Prosenchyma:-
It is a loosely woven tissue. The component hyphae retain their individuality which can be easily
distinguishable as hyphae and lie parallel to one another.
Eg- Trauma in Agaricus.
 Pseudoparenchyma:-
It is compactly woven tissue. It consists of closely packed cells which are isodiametric or oval in shape
resembling parenchymatous cells of plants. The component hyphae lose their individuality and are not
distinguishable as hyphae.
Eg- Sclerotial bodies of Sclerotium and rhizomorph of Armillariella

MODIFICATION OF MYCELIUM/SPECIALISED SOMATIC

STRUCTURES
RHIZOMORPHS (Rhiza=Root, Morph=shape):-
A root-like aggregation of hyphae in certain fungi.
Rhizomorph, a thread like or cordlike structure in fungi (kingdom Fungi) made up of parallel hyphae, branched
tubular filaments that make up the body of a typical fungus. Rhizomorphs act as an absorption and
translation organ of nutrients.
Eg- Armillariella mellea.

SCLEROTIUM (Skleron=Hard):-
It is a hard, round (looks like mustard seed)/cylindrical or elongated (claviceps) dark coloured (Black or Brown)
resting body formed due to aggregation of mycelium, the component hyphae lose their individuality, resistant to
unfavourable conditions and remain dormant for a longer period of time and germinate on the return of favourable
conditions.
Eg- Sclerotium, Rhizoctonia
STROMA (Stroma=Mattress):-
It is a compact somatic structure looks like a mattress or a cushion on which or in which fructification (spores or
fruiting bodies) are usually formed.

A. Sub-Stomatal stroma:-
Cushion like structure formed below epidermis in sub stomatal region from which sporophores are produced.
Cercospora personata
B. Perithecial Stroma:-
When reproductive bodies like perithecia of some fungi are embedded characteristically throughout periphery
of stroma , such stroma are called perithecial stroma.
Eg- Claviceps, Xylaria

HAUSTORIUM (Hauster=Drinker):-
It is a outgrowth of somatic hyphae regarded as special absorbing organ produced on certain hyphae by parasitic
fungi for obtaining nourishment by piercing into living cells of host. They may be knob like(Albugo), Elongated
(Erysiphe , Uncinula), finger like (Peronospora).

RHIZOIDS (Rhiza=root, Oeides=like):-

These are slender root like branched structures found in the substratum produced by some fungi which are useful
for anchoring the thallus to substratum and for obtaining nourishment from the substrate.
Eg- Rhizopus, Stolonifer

APPRESORIUM (Apprimere=to press against):-

A flattened tip of hyphae or germ tube acting as pressing organ by attaching to the host surface and gives rise to a
minute infection peg which usually grows and penetrates the epidermal cells of the host.
Eg- Puccinia, Colletotrichum, Erysiphe.
 GROUPS OF FUNGI BASED ON MODE OF NUTRITION
A. SAPROPHYTES (sapros=Rotten, Phytos=Plant):-
Organisms which obtain nutrition on from dead organic matter either completely or for a part of their life. A
large number of fungi fall under this category.
Eg- Saprolegnia, Rhizopus, Mucor, Alternaria.
a. Obligate saprophytes:-
Organisms which can never grow on living organisms or can never obtain their food from living sources.
They get their food only from dead organic matter.
Example- Mucor, Agaricus
b. Facultative saprophytes:-
Organisms which are usually saprophytic but have ability to become a parasites.
Example- Pythium aphanidermatum, Fusarium solani, Rhizoctonia solani.

A. PARASITES:-
Organisms which live within or outside another organisms for their nutrition either completely or for a part
of their life.
a. Obligate parasite:-
Organisms which obtain food from living organisms(living protoplasm) and can never derive their food
from dead organic matter or artificial medium.
Example- Puccinia graminis, Plasmopara viticola.
b. Facultative parasite:-
Organisms which are usually parasites but have ability to become saprophytes.
Example- Ustilago maydis

COLLEGE OF AGRICULTURE
 CHHATNA, BANKURA
(AN EXTENDED CAMPUS OF BIDHAN CHANDRA KRISHI VISWAVIDYALAYA)
LECTURE DELIVERED BY: MRINMOY MONDAL, ASSISTANT PROFESSOR (PLANT
PATHOLOGY)

REPRODUCTION IN FUNGI
The production of off spring by a sexual or asexual process.
Reproduction is the formation of new individuals having all the characteristics of the species.
Types of reproduction:-
Asexual/ Non-sexual/Vegetative/Somatic reproduction.
Sexual reproduction.
ASEXUAL REPRODUCTION:-
Asexual reproduction stage is also known as imperfect stage and technically called as anamorphic stage.
There is no union of nuclei/sex cells/sex organs. It is repeated several times during the life span of a
fungus producing numerous asexual spores. Hence, it is more important for fungi than sexual
reproduction. Asexual spores are formed after mitosis, hence also called mito spores.
METHODS OF ASEXUAL REPRODUCTION:-
1. Fragmentation.
2. Fission.
3. Budding
4. Sporulation ( production of spores)

1. Fragmentation:-
It is the most common method. Hyphae of fungus breaks into small pieces, each broken piece is
called a fragment. Which function as a propagating unit and grows into a new mycelium. The
spores produced by fragmentation are called Athrospores (Arthron=Joint & Spora=seed) or
oidia.
Example- Oidium, Geotrichum.

2. Fission/Transverse fission:-
The parent cell elongates, nucleus undergo mitotic division and forms two nuclei, then the
contents divide into equal halves by the formation of a transverse septum and separates into two
daughter cells.
Example- Saccharomyces cerevisiae
 3. Budding:-
The spores formed through budding are called blastospores. The parent cell puts out initially a
small outgrowth called bud. Blastos that is sprout or out growth which increases in size and
nucleus divides, one daughter nucleus accompanied by a portion of cytoplasm migrates into bud
and the other nucleus remains in the parent cell. Latter the bud increases in size and a
constriction is formed at the base of the bud, cutting off completely from parent cell. Bud when
spread from parent cell, can function as an independent propagating unit. Sometimes multiple
buds are also seen that is bud over bud and looks like pseudomycelium.
Example- Saccharomyces cerevisiae

4. Sporulation (spores):-
The process of production of spores is called sporulation.
Spore-It is a minute, simple propagating unit of the fungi, functioning as a seed but differs from
it in lacking a performed embryo that serves in the reproduction of same species.
Spores vary in colouur, size, number of cells and the way in which they are borne.
There are two main types of spores.
A. Sporangiospores.
B. Conidia.
A. Sporangiospores:-
When the asexual spores are produced internally, within the sporangia, such spores are called
sporangiospores. The sac like structure which produces sporangiospores is called sporangium. The special
hyphae bearing sporangium is called sporangiophore which may or may not be distinguishable from
hypha. A small sporangium with or without colulmella containing a few or single spore is called as
sporangiolum.
Example- Choanephora trispora.
Sporangium which is cylindrical in shape is called as merosporangium.
Example- Syncephalastrum racemosum.
Sporangium with columella is called as columellate sporangium.
Example- Rhizopus stolonifer
 SEXUAL REPRODUCTION

Sexual reproduction involves union of two compatible nuclei or sex cells or sex organs or
somatic cells or somatic hyphae for the formation of new individuals. Sexual stage is the perfect
stage and technically called as teleomorphic stage. Sexual cycle normally occurs once in the life
span of the fungus. Sexual spores or sexual structures which contain sexual spores are thick
walled, resistant to unfavourable conditions and are viable for longer period and thus these
spores help the fungus to perpetuate from one season to another, hence these are called as resting
spores . Sexual spores are definite in number.

SEX ORGANS OF FUNGI

Gametangia:-
Sex organs of fungi are called gametangia containing gametes or gamete nuclei.
Gametes:-
Sex cells are called gametes.
Antheridium (pl. Antheridia):-
Male gametangium is called as antheridium. male gametangium is small and club shaped.
Oogonium/Ascogonium (pl. oogonia/ascogonia):-
The female gametangium is called Oogonium (Oomycetes) or Ascogonium. Female
gametangium is large and globose shaped.
Male gametes are called antherozoids or sperm or spermatozoids.
Female gametes are called egg or Oosphere.
Planogametes:-
if gametes are motile, they are called Planogametes.
Isogametangia:-
If gametangia are morphologically similar or identical i.e., indistinguishable as male and female,
they are called as isogametangia.
Isogametes:-
If gametes are similar morphologically, they are called as isogametes.
Heterogametangia:-
If gametangia differ morphologically in size and structure, they are called as heterogametangia.
Heterogametes:-
If gametes differ morphologically, they are called heterogametes.
“+” or “-” signs:-
In some sexually undifferentiated fungi, male and female are symbolically designated as “+”
(male) and “-” (Female).

CLASSIFICATION OF FUNGI BASED ON SEX

A. MONOECIOUS FUNGI / HERMAPHRODITIC FUNGI (MONO = Single &

OIKOS = HOME):-
The fungi which produce distinguishable male and female sex organs on the same thallus,
which may or may not be compatible are called monoecious/ hermaphroditic fungi.
 Example- Pythium aphanidermatum.

B. DIOECIOUS FUNGI (DI = Two, OIKOS = Home):-

The fungi which produce distinguishable male and female sex organs on two different
thalli i.e, there will be separate male and female thalli.
Example- Phytophthora infestans.

CLASSIFICATION OF FUNGI BASED ON COMPATIBILITY

A. HOMOTHALLIC FUNGI :-
Fungi in which both sexes occur on the same thallus, which can reproduce sexually
by itself without the aid of another thallus i.e., self compatible/self fertile are called
homothallic fungi.
Example- Pythium aphanidermatum.
B. HETEROTHALLIC FUNGI:-
A fungal species consisting of self sterile (Self incompatible) thallus requiring the
union of two compatible thalli for sexual reproduction, regardless of the possible
presence of both male and female organs on the same thallus. Heterothallic fungi are
dioecious.
Example- Phytophthora infestans

PHASES IN SEXUAL REPRODUCTION

There are three (3) phases in sexual reproduction.
A. PLASMOGAMY:-
Union of two protoplasts takes place. As a result of it the two nuclei come
together within the same cell.
B. KARYOGAMY:-
Union of 2 sexually compatible nuclei brought together by plasmogamy to form a
diploid nucleus (2n) i.e., Zygote.
C. MEIOSIS:-
This is reduction division. The number of chromosomes is reduced to haploid (n)
i.e., diploid nucleus results into haploid nucleus.
In lower fungi (Phycomycetes- Mastigomycotina and Zygomycotina)
Plasmogamy, Karyogamy, and Meiosis occurs at regular intervals/ sequence i.e.
Karyogamy follows immediately after Plasmogamy.
In higher fungi (Ascomycotina, Basidiomycotina) Karyogamy is delayed, as a
result the nuclei remain in pairs (Dikaryotic phase: n+n condition), which may be
brief or prolonged.

METHODS OF SEXUAL REPRODUCTION: - 5 METHODS

1. PLANOGAMETIC COPULATION. 2. GAMETANGIAL CONTACT. 3. GAMETANGIAL

COPULATION. 4. SPERMATISATION. 5. SOMATOGAMY
1. PLANOGAMETIC COPULATION (GAMETOGAMY):-
This involves the union of 2 naked gametes one or both of which are motile.
A. ISOGAMY (Isogamous Planogametic Copulation):-
If both gametes are motile and similar.
Example- Plasmodiopjora brassicae
B. ANISOGAMY (Anisogamous Planogametic Copulation):-
If both gametes are motile but dissimilar.
Example- Allomyces macrogynus.
C. OOGAMY:-
If gametes are dissimilar, one motile, another is non motile.
Example- Monoblepharis polymorpha.

2. GAMETANGIAL CONTACT (GAMETANGY / OOGAMY):-

Male and Female gametangia come in contact. At the place of contact, dissolution of wall
occurs and a fertilization tube is formed. The contents of male gametangium migrate into
Female gametangium through a pore or fertilization tube developed at the point of
contact. The gametangia do not lose their identity.
Example- Pythium aphanidermatum.

3. GAMETANGIAL COPULATION (GAMETANGIOGAMY):-

The isogametangia come in contact, their intervening wall dissolves leading to fusion of
entire contents of two contacting gametangia to form a single unit. Gametangia loose
their identity. The protoplasts fuse and the unit increases in size.
Example- Rhizopus stolonifer.

4. SPERMATIZATION:-
Minute, uninucleate male cells called as spermatia which are produced on
spermatiophores in a fruiting body (Pycnium) are carried to female reproductive
structures called receptive hyphae. Spermatia and receptive hyphae come in contact and
contents of male spermatium migrate into female receptive hypha, thus making the cell
binucleate. This process is called Dikaryotization.
Example- Puccinia graminis tritici

5. SOMATOGAMY:-
Many higher fungi do not produce sex organs. in such cases somatogamy takes place. It
is the union of 2 somatic hyphae or somatic cels representing opposite sexes to form
sexual spores.
Example- Agaricus campestris.

PARASEXUAL CYCLE / PARASEUALITY:-

 Parasexual cycle is a process in which plasmogamy, Karyogamy and haplodisation (Non
meiotic process) takes place in a sequence but not at specified points in the life cycle of a
fungus. It was first discovered in1952 by Pontecorvo and Roper in Aspergillus nidulans,
the imperfect stage of Emericela nidulans.

DIFFERENT TYPES OF SEXUAL SPORES

Sexual process are formed after meiosis, hence also called meiospores.
1. Oospores.
2. Zygospores.
3. Ascospores.
4. Basidiospores.

1. Oospores:-
A thick walled sexual resting spore produced by the union of two morphologically different
gametangia.
Example- Pythium, Phytophthora, Members of the class Oomycetes.

2. Zygospores:-
A thick walled sexual resting spore produced by the fusion of two morphologically
different gametangia.
 Example- Rhizopus, Members of the sub-division Zygomycotina.
3. Ascospores:-
Sexual spores produced in a specialized sac like structure known as ascus. Generally 8
Ascospores are formed.
Example- Erysiphe, members of the sub-division Ascomycotina.

4. Basidiospore:-
Sexual spores produced on a club shaped structure known as basidium. Generally 4
basidiospores are formed.
Example- Puccinia, Members of the sub-division Basidiomycotina.

1. OOSPORES:-
A thick walled sexual resting spore produced by the union of two morphologically different
gametangia (Gametangia= Gametangia is an organ or cell in which gametes are produced).
Oospphere:-
A nonmotile female gamete formed in the oogonium that is fully mature and ready for
fertilization.

Oogonium:-
The female sex organ of certain algae and fungi, typically a rounded cell or sac containing
one or more oospheres.
Paragynous:-
When anthredial make contacted at the side of the oogonium, this arrangement is called
paragynous.
Example- Pythium sp.
Amphygynous:-
When anthredium make contacted at the base of the oogonium, this arrangement is known
as amphygynous.
Example- Phytophthora infestans.

2. Zygospores:-
A thick walled sexual resting spore produced by the fusion of two morphologically
different gametangia
Zygophore:-
A specialized branch of hyphae containing isogametes that unites to form a Zygospore.

Zygosporangium:-
A sporangium in which Zygospores are produced.

Progametangia:-
The hyphal tip of certain fungi that produces the gametangium and subsequent gamete.

Gametangium:-
An organ or cell in which gametes are produced.

Suspensor cell:-
Suspensors are filamentous structural formations employed by fungi in holding a zygospore
between two strains of hyphae.

3. Ascospores:-
Sexual spores produced in a specialized sac like structure known as ascus. Generally 8
Ascospores are formed.
Ascus:-
Ascus is the sexual spore-bearing cell produced in ascomycetous fungi. Asci usually
contain eight Ascospores, produced by meiosis followed, in most species, by a mitotic cell
division.

Asci are three types.

i. Protunicate Asci:-
Protunicate asci have no active spore-shooting mechanism. These asci are usually more
or less spherical, and are found in cleistothecial (Occasionally perithecial), and
hypogeous (An organism’s activity below the soil surface) ascomata. Sometimes the wall
of this kind od ascus dissolves at maturity and releases the Ascospores.

ii. Unitunicate Asci:-

Other Asci have no operculum, but have a special elastic ring mechanism built into
their tip. This is a pre-set pressure release valve, or sphincter, and the ring eventually
stretches momentarily, or turns inside out, to let the spores shoot through.

iii. Bitunicate Asci:-

Bitunicate asci have a double wall. A thin, intextensible outer wall covers a thick,
elastic inner wall. At maturity the thin outer wall splits, and the thick inner wall absorbs
water and expands upward, carrying the Ascospores with it (upper left). This ‘Jack-in-
a-box’ design allows the ascus to stretch up into the neck of the ascoma to expel its
spores.

Operculate Ascus:-
Some Asci have a”Lid” that can be seen under the microscope in both an opened and
unopened state; this type of ascus is called operculate and the ascus is called an
operculum. In the operculate ascomycetes, the spores are blown out through opening.
Inoperculate Ascus:-
In the inoperculate ascomycetes, the tip of the ascus usually has a small pore which is
stuffed with loose material similar to that of the ascus wall. The spores are discharged
through this pore.

ASCUS DEVELOPMENT
 The apical compartment of a dikaryotic ascogenous hypha elongates and bends
over to form a hook (Crozier).
 The two compatible nuclei in the apical compartment then undergo mitosis
simultaneously.
 two septa develop in such a way that the crozier becomes divided into three
compartments-the tip and basal compartments are uninucleate; the middle
compartment is bitunicate and is called Ascus Mother cell (Since it is destined
to become as ascus).
 The nuclei in the ascus mother cell fuse to form a diploid nucleus, which then
undergoes meiosis to form four haploid nuclei.
 Each haploid nucleus then divides mitotically-resulting in eight haploid nuclei.
 A portion of protoplasm surrounds each nucleus – this becomes enveloped by a
wall and matures into an Ascospore.
 Meanwhile, another ascus mother cell will have been developing alongside the
first.
 In most (Not all) fungi belonging to the Ascomycota the Asci don’t occur
singly-they form in groups, surrounded by hyphae and are enclosed in fruiting
bodies (Ascocarps).
 4. Basidiospore

Sexual spore produced on a club shaped structure known as basidium. Generally 4

basidiospores are formed. It is aspore, borne on the outside of a specialized spore
producing structure, called basidium, following Karyogamy and meiosis. Basidiospore is
more uniform compared to Ascospores.

Basidium:-
Basidium is a microscopic, spore-producing structure found on the fruiting bodies of
basidiomycetes fungi. The presence of basidia is one of the main characteristic features of
the Basidiomycota.
Sterigmata:-
 The sterigmata are the slender extensions that connect the spores to the basidia.

Probasidium:-
A cell in which two haploid nuclei fuse to form a diploid nucleus form which the basidium
arises in some Basidiomycetes.
Metabasidium:-
The cell in which meiosis occurs in members of the Basidiomycotina.
Holobasidia:-
Single celled aseptate basidia are called holobasidia.
Phragmobasidia:-
Transversely or longitudinally septate basidia are termed as Phragmobasidia or
heterobasidia.

VARIOUS LIFE CYCLE PATTERNS DISPLAYED BY THE FUNGI

1. Haplobiontic Life Cycle.

2. Diplobiontic Life Cycle.

1. Haplobiontic Life Cycle:-

If there is only one free living thallus, which is haploid or diploid in life cycle of a
fungus, it is called as haplobiontic life cycle
(Long haploid somatic phase and short diploid phase confirmed to zygote cell, which
undergoes meiosis immediately after Karyogamy and develop Ascospores)
Example- Schizosaccharomyces octosporus.

2. Diplobiontic Life Cycle:-

If haploid thallus alternates with a diploid thallus, the life cycle is called Diplobiontic
life cycle, which has a long diploid somatic phase and a very short haploid phase.
Example- Saccharomyces ludwigii.
 COLLEGE OF AGRICULTURE
CHHATNA, BANKURA
(AN EXTENDED CAMPUS OF BIDHAN CHANDRA KRISHI VISWAVIDYALAYA)
LECTURE DELIVERED BY: MRINMOY MONDAL, ASSISTANT PROFESSOR (PLANT
PATHOLOGY)
 SEXUAL FRUITING BODIES
1. Pycnium:-
A flask-shaped or conical sporangium of a rust fungus, which develops below the
epidermis of the host and bears pycniospores.
 It was first described by Person in Early 1880s but its function was first
understood in 1927 by Craigie.
 Pycnia are produced from primary uninucleate mycelium growing in the host
tissues.

Ostiole:-
An ostiole is a small hole or opening through which algae or fungi release their mature spores.

Periphyses:-

The mouth of the flask (Ostiole) is lined by a bunch of unbranched, tapering, ponted, orange coloured
hairs called periphyses.
Recptive hyphae:-
A hyphae that receives a gametic nucleus during sexual reproduction is called Receptive hyphae.
Example- In the union of a hyphae of a spermogonium (a reproductive body in some fungi and lichens
in which spermatia areformed) with a spermatium, as in Puccinia spp,. of Uridinales.

Spermatiophores:-
A hyphae that gives rise to spermatia.

Spermatia:-
Minute, colourles cell, of certain fungi and lichens, believed to be a male reproductive body, developed
within the sporangia.
 2. Aecium:-
Aecium (In plural Aecia) is a specialized reproductive structure found in some rusts and smuts
which produced aeciospores.
Aecium is a shallow deep cup-shaped sexual structure of rust fungi produced at lower surface and
break through the low epidermis.
It is a group of typically dikaryotic hyphal cells within the parasitized host that give rise to chains
of dikaryotic aeciospores.
Larger aeciospores are alternated with small sterile intercalary cells or disjunctor cells.

Peridium:-
The covering of the spore-bearing organ in many fungi

3. Ascocarp:-
An Ascocarp or Ascoma (In plural Ascomata) is the fruiting body (Sporocarp) of an ascomycetes
fungus. It consists of very tightly interwoven hyphae and may contain millions of asci, each of which
typically contains four to eight Ascospores.
Ascocarps are five types:-

A. Cleistothecium.
B. Perithecium.
C. Apothecium.
D. Gymnothecium
E. Pseudothecium.

A. Cleistothecium:-
A closed spore bearing structure in some ascomycetous fungi from the asci and spores are released
only by decay or disintegration.
 It has no ostiole.
 It is deep brown to black in colour.
 More or less spherical and often provided with appendages on its body.
 They may contain one to several asci which discharge their spores violently.
 Cleistothecium of Sphaerotheca and Podosphaera contains a single Ascus where as each
Cleistothecium of Erysiphe , Microsphaera, Uncinula, Leveillula and Phyllactinia contain several
Asci. Cleistothecia crack open at maturity by swelling of the contents.
 They are found in order Eurotiales and Erysiphales (Powdery mildew).

B. Perithecium:-
Round or flask-shaped fruiting body with a pore through which the spores are discharged. It is
provided with a narrow ostiole through which the asci are released at maturity. The asci arranged
in a regular manner and lined the inside wall. The perithecia may be borne singly or in groups.
Perithecia are produced by fungi in Hypocrea, Nectria, Ceratocystis, Podospora, Chaetomium,
Xylaria, Claviceps and Cordiceps.
Paraphyses:-
Paraphyses are filament-like support structures in the reproductive apparatus of fungi, ferns and moses. In
certain fungi they are part of the fertile spore bearing layer.
Periphyses:-
One of the sterile filaments that line the ostiole of many perithecia and other fruiting structures.

C. Apothecium:-
An ascocarp or ascoma (In plural Ascomata) is the fruiting body (Sporocarp) of an ascomycetes
fungus. It consists of very tightly interwoven hyphae and may contain millions of Asci, each of which
typically contains four to eight Ascospores.
An apothecium consists of three parts viz- Hymenium, Hypthecium and Excipulum. the hymenium is
the layer of Asci that lines the surface of hollow part of the disc, cup or saddle. It is made up of club-
shaped or cylindrical asci, usually with many or few paraphyses among them. These paraphyses may
be as long as the asci longer or somewhat shorter.
In some apothecia, the tip of the paraphyses may be branched and tip of branches may unite above the
asci and form a layer called epithecium.
The hypothecium is a thin layer of interwoven hyphae, which is found immediately below the
hymenium.
D. Gymnothecium:-
Similar to a cleistothecium, a gymnothecium is a completely enclosed structure containing globose or
pear-shaped, deliquescent asci. However, unlike the cleistothecium, the peridial wall of a
gymnothecium consists of a loosely woven "tuft" of hyphae, often ornamented with elaborate coils or
spines. Examples are the Gymnoascus, Talaromyces and the dermatophyte Arthroderma.

E. Pseudothecium:-
This is similar to a perithecium, but the asci are not regularly organised into a hymenium and they
are bitunicate, having a double wall that expands when it takes up water and shoots the enclosed
spores out suddenly to disperse them. Example species are Apple scab (Venturia inaequalis) and the
horse chestnut disease Guignardia aesculi.

Describe the modification of the Fungal Mycelium

Mycelium of most fungi may be modified as such-

A. Plectenchyma.
B. Sclerotium.
C. Stroma.
D. Rhizoids.
E. Rhizomorph.
A. Plectenchyma:-
When hyphae grow together, inter-weaven and become organized into loosly or compactly woven
massive tissues, it is called plectenchyma.
partially all organized fungal tissues are called plectenchyma. Plectenchyma may be of two types.
I. Prosenchyma:-
In this case the tissue is loosely woven in which the component hyphae be more or less parallel to
one another and their elongated cells are easily distinguishable as such.
II. Pseudoparenchyma:-
It consists of closely packed hyphae which under sections resembles the parenchyma of higher
plants.
B. Sclerotium:-
It is also usually composed of pseudoparenchyma in which interior cells are hyaline and stored with
food and outer cells are thick-walled, dark brown or black and crust like. structurally it is rounded or
cushion shaped.

C. Stroma:-
By further growth, the mycelia mat may develop into a compact structure, is called stroma.
Example- Xylaria sp.

D. Rhizoid:-
Many fungi produce relatively short thin hyphae which penetrate the substratum and serve the purpose
of anchorage as well as food absorbers of the mycelium that remains externally on the surface of the
substratum such hyphae superficially resembling roots are known as Rhizoids.
Example- Rhizopus sp.
E. Sporodochium:-
Conidiophores may also stick together forming complex structures called sporodochium.

F. Acervulus:-
Conidiophores may be organized into definite fruiting bodies. The most common type of such fruiting
bodies is called acervulus. In acervulus, a mat of hyphae generally formed by parasitic fungi, just
beneath the epidermis or cuticle of host plant, such hyphal mat gives rise to short conidiophores
closely packed together forming a bed-like mass.
example- Colletotrichum sp.

G. Pycnidium:-
Conidiophores may be organized into definite fruiting bodies. The most common type of such fruiting
bodies is Pycnidium. a pycnidium is a hollow, globose, flask-shaped structure formed by
Pseudoparenchymatous fungal tissues which open by an ostiole. Inner surface of a pycnidium is lined
with conidiopores.
H. Synnema:-
A synnema (plural synnemata, also coremia; "Threads together") is a large, erect reproductive
structure borne by some fungi, bearing compact conidiophores, which fuse together to form a strand
resembling a stalk of wheat, with conidia at the end or on the edges.