DIPLOMA IN ME/CE/CSE/RA (1ST Semester)

Engineering Mechanics (ES102)

DME/DCE/DCSE/DRA
2023-2024
CHAPTER 2: EQUILIBRIUM OF FORCES

2.1 DEFINITION

A little consideration will show, that if the resultant of a number of forces, acting on a particle is zero,
the particle will be in equilibrium. Such a set of forces, whose resultant is zero, are called equilibrium
forces..

A body can be said to be in equilibrium when all the force acting on a body balance each other or in
other word there is no net force acting on the body.

Equilibrium of a body is a state in which all the forces acting on the body are balanced(cancelled out),
and the net force acting on the body is zero.

i.e ΣF =0
PRINCIPLES OF EQUILIBRIUM

1. Two force principle. As per this principle, if a body in equilibrium is acted upon by two forces, then
they must be equal, opposite and collinear.
2. Three force principle. As per this principle, if a body in equilibrium is acted upon by three forces,
then the resultant of any two forces must be equal, opposite and collinear with the third force.
3. Four force principle. As per this principle, if a body in equilibrium is acted upon by four forces, then
the resultant of any two forces must be equal, opposite and collinear with the resultant of the other two
forces.

ANALYTICAL CONDITIONS OF EQUILIBRIUM OF A CO-PLANAR SYSTEM OF

CONCURRENT FORCES

We know that the resultant of a system of co-planar concurrent forces is given by

R = (∑X)2 + (∑Y)2, where ƩX (=ƩH) = algebraic sum of the resolved parts of the forces along a
horizontal direction, and ƩY (=ƩV) = algebraic sum of the resolved parts of the forces along a vertical
direction
Or, R2 = (ƩX) 2 + (ƩY) 2
If the forces are in equilibrium, R = 0 =>O = (ƩX) 2 + (ƩY) 2
Sum of the squares of two quantities is zero when each quantity is separately equal to zero.
i.e. ƩX = 0 , ƩY = 0
Hence necessary and sufficient conditions of a system of, co-planar concurrent forces are:

1. The algebraic sum of the resolved parts of the forces in some assigned direction is equal tozero,
39
ARNAB DAS SARMA
ASSISTANT PROFESSOR, MECHANICAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT
Brainware University, Kolkata
DIPLOMA IN ME/CE/CSE/RA (1ST Semester)
Engineering Mechanics (ES102)
DME/DCE/DCSE/DRA
2023-2024
and

2. The algebraic sum of the resolved parts of the forces in a direction at right angles to the
assigned direction is equal to zero.

ANALYTICAL CONDITIONS OF EQUILIBRIUM OF A SYSTEM OF COPLANAR NON-

CONCURRENT FORCES

If R = resultant of a system of co-planar non-concurrent forces,

ƩX = algebraic sum of the resolved parts of those forces along any direction, and
ƩY = algebraic sum of the resolved parts of those forces along a direction at right angles to the
previous direction.
Then, R = (∑X)2 + (∑Y)2
R2 = (ƩX) 2 + (ƩY) 2

If the force system is in equilibrium, R = 0.0 = R2 = (ƩX) 2 + (ƩY) 2

ƩX = 0, ƩY = 0
(If sum of the squares of two digits is zero, then each digit is zero)

Thus, the necessary and sufficient conditions of equilibrium for a system of co-planar and non-
concurrent forces are:
(i) The algebraic sum of the resolved parts of the forces along any direction is equal tozero
(i.e., ƩX= 0),
(ii) The algebraic sum of the resolved parts of the forces along a directional right angles tothe
previous direction is equal to zero (i.e. ƩY = 0),and
(iii) The algebraic sum of the moments of the forces about any point intheir plane is equal tozero
(i.e. ƩM = 0).

TYPES OF EQUILIBRIUM

Fig 2.1
Stable equilibrium
A body is said to be in stable equilibrium, if it returns back to its original position, after it is slightly
displaced from its position of rest. This happens when some additional force sets up due to displacement
40
ARNAB DAS SARMA
ASSISTANT PROFESSOR, MECHANICAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT
Brainware University, Kolkata
DIPLOMA IN ME/CE/CSE/RA (1ST Semester)
Engineering Mechanics (ES102)
DME/DCE/DCSE/DRA
2023-2024
and brings the body back to its original position.

Unstable equilibrium
A body is said to be in an unstable equilibrium, if it does not return back to its original position, and
heels farther away, after slightly displaced from its position of rest.

Neutral equilibrium
A body is said to be in a neutral equilibrium, if it occupies a new position (and remains at rest in this
position) after slightly displaced from its position of rest.

Free body: A body is said to be free body if it is isolated from all other connected members

FREE BODY DIAGRAM

Free body diagram of a body is the diagram drawn by showing all the external forces and reactions on
the body and by removing the contact surfaces.

Steps to be followed in drawing a free body diagram

a. Isolate the body from all other bodies.
b. Indicate the external forces on the free body. (The weight of the body should also be included.
It should be applied at the centre of gravity of the body)
c. The magnitude and direction of the known external forces should be mentioned.
d. The reactions exerted by the supports on the body should be clearly indicated.
e. Clearly mark the dimensions in the free body diagram.

Fig 2.2

A spherical ball is rested upon a surface as shown in figure 2.2 (a). By following the necessary steps
41
ARNAB DAS SARMA
ASSISTANT PROFESSOR, MECHANICAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT
Brainware University, Kolkata
DIPLOMA IN ME/CE/CSE/RA (1ST Semester)
Engineering Mechanics (ES102)
DME/DCE/DCSE/DRA
2023-2024
we can draw the free body diagram for this force system as shown in figure 2.2(b). Similarly fig 2.3 (b)
represents free body diagram for the the force system shown in figure 2.3(a).

Fig 2.3

METHOD OF EQUILIBRIUM OF COPLANAR FORCES

The methods of finding outequilibrium for concurrent and non-concurrent forces in a coplanar force
system are:

• Analytical method
• Graphical method

ANALYTICAL METHOD:

The equilibrium of coplanar concurrent and non-concurrent forces can be studied analytically by
Lami’s theorem.

2.2 LAMI’S THEOREM

It states, “If three coplanar forces acting at a point be in equilibrium, then each force isproportional to
the sine of the angle between the other two.” Mathematically.

42
ARNAB DAS SARMA
ASSISTANT PROFESSOR, MECHANICAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT
Brainware University, Kolkata
DIPLOMA IN ME/CE/CSE/RA (1ST Semester)
Engineering Mechanics (ES102)
DME/DCE/DCSE/DRA
2023-2024
Fig 2.4

Where, P, Q, and Rare three forces and α, β, γ are the angles as shown in Fig.

Proof:
Consider three coplanar forces P, Q, and R acting at a point O. Let the opposite angles to threeforces
be α, β and � as shown in Fig.
Now let us complete the parallelogram OACB with OA and OB as adjacent sides as shown in the
figure. We know that the resultant of two forces P and Q will be given by the diagonal OC both in
magnitude and direction of the parallelogram OACB.

Since these forces are in equilibrium, therefore the resultant of the forces P and Q must be in line with
OD and equal to R, but in opposite direction

From the geometry of the figure, we find

Fig 2.5

43
ARNAB DAS SARMA
ASSISTANT PROFESSOR, MECHANICAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT
Brainware University, Kolkata
DIPLOMA IN ME/CE/CSE/RA (1ST Semester)
Engineering Mechanics (ES102)
DME/DCE/DCSE/DRA
2023-2024

44
ARNAB DAS SARMA
ASSISTANT PROFESSOR, MECHANICAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT
Brainware University, Kolkata
DIPLOMA IN ME/CE/CSE/RA (1ST Semester)
Engineering Mechanics (ES102)
DME/DCE/DCSE/DRA
2023-2024

Example 2.1: An electric light fixture weighting 15 N hangs from a point C, by two strings AC
and BC. The string AC is inclined at 60° to the horizontal and BC at 45° to the horizontal as
shown in Fig. Using Lami’s theorem, or otherwise, determine the forces in the strings AC and
BC.

Fig 2.6

Solution.
Given:
Weight at C = 15 N
Let TAC = Force in the string AC, and
TBC = Force in the string BC.
The system of forces is shown in Fig. From the geometry of the figure, we find that angle between
TAC and 15 N is 150° and angle between TBC and 15 N is 135°.
∠ ACB = 180° – (45° + 60°) = 75°. Applying Lami’s equation at C,

Fig 2.7

45
ARNAB DAS SARMA
ASSISTANT PROFESSOR, MECHANICAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT
Brainware University, Kolkata
DIPLOMA IN ME/CE/CSE/RA (1ST Semester)
Engineering Mechanics (ES102)
DME/DCE/DCSE/DRA
2023-2024

Example 2.2: A string ABCD, attached to fixed points A and D has two equal weights of 1000 N
attached to it at B and C. The weights rest with the portions AB and CD inclined at angles as
shown in Fig2.8. Find the tensions in the portions AB, BC and CD of the string,if the inclination
of the portion BC with the vertical is 120°.

Fig 2.8

Solution: Given: Load at B = Load at C = 1000 N For the sake of convenience, let us split up the string
ABCD into two parts. The system of forces at joints B and is shown in Fig.2.9 (a) and (b).

Fig 2.9

Let,
TAB = Tension in the portion AB of the string, TBC = Tension in the portion BC of the string,
andTCD = Tension in the portion CD of the string.

46
ARNAB DAS SARMA
ASSISTANT PROFESSOR, MECHANICAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT
Brainware University, Kolkata
DIPLOMA IN ME/CE/CSE/RA (1ST Semester)
Engineering Mechanics (ES102)
DME/DCE/DCSE/DRA
2023-2024

Applying Lami’s equation at joint B,

Again applying Lami’s equation at joint C,

Example 2.3. A light string ABCDE whose extremity A is fixed, has weights W1 and W2 attached
to it at B and C. It passes round a small smooth peg at D carrying a weight of300 N at the free
end E as shown in Fig 2.10 below. If in the equilibrium position, BC is horizontal and AB and CD
make 150° and 120° with BC, find (i) Tensions in the portion AB, BC and CD of the string and
(ii) Magnitudes of W1and W2.

Fig 2.10

Solution: Given: Weight at E = 300 N For the sake of convenience, let us split up the string
ABCD into two parts. The system of forces at joints B and C is shown in Fig (a) and (b).

47
ARNAB DAS SARMA
ASSISTANT PROFESSOR, MECHANICAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT
Brainware University, Kolkata
DIPLOMA IN ME/CE/CSE/RA (1ST Semester)
Engineering Mechanics (ES102)
DME/DCE/DCSE/DRA
2023-2024

Fig 2.11

(i) Tensions is the portion AB, BC and CD of the string

Let TAB = Tension in the portion AB, and
TBC = Tension in the portion BC,
We know that tension in the portion CD of the string.
TCD = TDE = 300 N Ans.
Applying Lami’s equation at C,

Again applying Lami’s equation at B,

48
ARNAB DAS SARMA
ASSISTANT PROFESSOR, MECHANICAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT
Brainware University, Kolkata
DIPLOMA IN ME/CE/CSE/RA (1ST Semester)
Engineering Mechanics (ES102)
DME/DCE/DCSE/DRA
2023-2024

(ii) Magnitudes of W1 and W2

From the above calculations, we find that the magnitudes of W1 and W2 are 86.6 N and 259.8N
respectively.

Example 2.4 Three cylinders weighting 100 N each and of 80 mm diameter are placed in a channel
of 180 mm width as shown in Fig. Determine the pressure exerted by (i) the cylinder A on B at
the point of contact (ii) the cylinder B on the base and (iii) the cylinder B on the wall.

Fig 2.12
Solution. Given: Weight of each cylinder = 100 N; Dia. of each cylinder = 80 mm and width of
channel = 180 mm
(i) Pressure exerted by the cylinder A on the cylinder B
Let R1 = Pressure exerted by the cylinder Aon B. It is also equal to pressure exerted by thecylinder
Aon B.
First of all, consider the equilibrium of the cylinder A. It is in equilibrium under the action of the
following forces, which must pass through the centre of the cylinder as shown in Fig 2.13 (a).
1. Weight of the cylinder 100 N acting downwards.
2. Reaction R1 of the cylinder B on the cylinder A.
3. Reaction R2 of the cylinder C on the cylinder A.

49
ARNAB DAS SARMA
ASSISTANT PROFESSOR, MECHANICAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT
Brainware University, Kolkata
DIPLOMA IN ME/CE/CSE/RA (1ST Semester)
Engineering Mechanics (ES102)
DME/DCE/DCSE/DRA
2023-2024
Now join the centres O, P and Q of the three cylinders. Bisect PQ at S and join OS as shown inFig
2.15 (b).

Fig 2.13

From the geometry of the triangle OPS, we find thatOP = 40 + 40 = 80 mm

and PS = 90 – 40 = 50 mm

Since the triangle OSQ is similar to the triangle OPS, therefore ∠SOQ is also equal to 38.7°. Thus the
angle between R1 and R2 is 2 × 38.7° = 77.4°. And angle between R1 and OS (alsobetween R2 and
OS). = 180° – 38.7° = 141.3°
The system of forces at O is shown in Fig (b).Applying Lami’s equation at O,

(ii) Pressure exerted by the cylinder B on the base

Let R3 = Pressure exerted by the cylinder B on the wall, andR4 = Pressure exerted by the cylinder
B on the base.
Now consider the equilibrium of the cylinder B. It is in equilibrium under the action of the following
forces, which must pass through the centre of the cylinder as shown in Fig 2.14 (a).

50
ARNAB DAS SARMA
ASSISTANT PROFESSOR, MECHANICAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT
Brainware University, Kolkata
DIPLOMA IN ME/CE/CSE/RA (1ST Semester)
Engineering Mechanics (ES102)
DME/DCE/DCSE/DRA
2023-2024

Fig 2.14

1. Weight of the cylinder 100 N acting downwards.

2. Reaction R2 equal to 64.0 N of the cylinder A on the cylinder B.
3. Reaction R3 of the cylinder B on the vertical side of the channel.
4. Reaction R4 of the cylinder B on the base of the channel.
A little consideration will show that weight of the cylinder B is acting downwards and the reaction R4
is acting upwards. Moreover, their lines of action also coincide with each other. Therefore net
downward force will be equal to (R4 – 100) N. The system of forces is shown in Fig 2.14 (b). Applying
Lami’s equation at P,

R4 = 50 + 100 = 150 N Ans.

(iii) Pressure exerted by the cylinder B on the wall. From the above Lami’s equation, we alsofind that
R3 = 64 sin 38.7° = 64 × 0.6252 = 40 N Ans.
Note. Since the cylinders B and C are symmetrically placed, therefore pressures exerted by the
cylinder C on the wall as well as channel will be the same as those exerted by the cylinder B.

51
ARNAB DAS SARMA
ASSISTANT PROFESSOR, MECHANICAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT
Brainware University, Kolkata
DIPLOMA IN ME/CE/CSE/RA (1ST Semester)
Engineering Mechanics (ES102)
DME/DCE/DCSE/DRA
2023-2024

GRAPHICAL METHOD FOR THE EQUILIBRIUM OF COPLANAR FORCES

The equilibrium of coplanar forces may also be studied, graphically, by drawing the vector
diagram. This may also be done by studying the
1. Converse of the Law of Triangle of Forces.
2. Converse of the Law of Polygon of Forces.

CONVERSE OF THE LAW OF TRIANGLE OF FORCES

If three forces acting at a point be represented in magnitude and direction by the three sides atriangle,
taken in order, the forces shall be in equilibrium.
CONVERSE OF THE LAW OF POLYGON OF FORCES
If any number of forces acting at a point be represented in magnitude and direction by the sidesof a
closed polygon, taken in order, the forces shall be in equilibrium.

Example 2.6 Five strings are tied at a point and are pulled in all directions, equally spaced from one
another. If the magnitude of the pulls on three consecutive strings is 50 N, 70 N and 60 N respectively,
find graphically the magnitude of the pulls on two other strings.
Solution. Given: Pulls = 50 N; 70 N and 60 N and angle between the forces = 360/5=72Let P1 and
P2 = Pulls in the two strings.
First of all, let us draw the space diagram for the given system of forces and name themaccording to

Bow’s notations as shown in Fig 2.15 (a)

Fig 2.15

Now draw the vector diagram for the given forces as shown in Fig 2.15 (b) and as discussed below:
1. Select some suitable point a and draw a horizontal line ab equal to 50 N to some suitablescale
representing the force AB.
2. Through b draw a line bc equal to 70 N to the scale and parallel to BC.
3. Similarly through c, draw cd equal to 60 N to the scale and parallel to CD.
4. Through d draw a line parallel to the force P1 of the space diagram.
5. Similarly through a draw a line parallel to the force P2 meeting the first line at e, thus closingthe
polygon abcde, which means that the point is in equilibrium.
6. By measurement, we find that the forces P1 = 57.5 N and P2 = 72.5 N respectively.
52
ARNAB DAS SARMA
ASSISTANT PROFESSOR, MECHANICAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT
Brainware University, Kolkata