ECE309/EEE309/EEE209

LECTURE 04A
Semiconductor Devices Physics
Carrier Lifetime and Conductivity
➢ When excess electrons and holes are created in a semiconductor, there is a corresponding
increase in the conductivity
➢ 𝝈 ↑= 𝒏 ↑ 𝒒𝝁
Direct recombination of electrons and holes
➢ Direct recombination: an excess population of electrons and holes decays by electrons falling from the
conduction band to empty states (holes) in the valence band.
➢ Energy lost by an electron in making the transition is given up as a photon.
➢ Direct recombination occurs spontaneously; that is, the probability that an electron and a hole will
recombine is constant in time.
➢ In this case the rate of decay of electrons at any time 𝒕 is proportional to the number of electrons
remaining at 𝒕 and the number of holes, with some constant of proportionality for recombination 𝜶𝒓 . The
net rate of change in the conduction band electron concentration is

Change in conduction band

electron concentration

𝒅𝒏(𝒕)
= 𝜶 𝒓 𝒏𝒊 𝟐 − 𝜶 𝒓 𝐧 𝐭 𝐩(𝐭)
𝒅𝒕

Generation rate - Recombination rate

Direct recombination of electrons and holes
• The excess electron–hole pair is created at 𝒕 = 𝟎
• The initial excess electron and hole concentrations 𝜟𝒏 and 𝜟𝒑 are equal
• The electrons and holes recombine in pairs
• The instantaneous concentrations of excess carriers 𝜟𝒏(𝒕) and 𝜟𝒑(𝒕) are also equal
• The total concentrations in terms of the equilibrium values 𝒏𝟎 and 𝒑𝟎 and the excess carrier
concentrations 𝜹𝒏(𝒕) = 𝜹𝒑(𝒕)
𝒅𝜹𝒏(𝒕)
= 𝜶 𝒓 𝒏𝒊 𝟐 − 𝜶 𝒓 𝒏𝟎 + 𝜹𝐧 𝐭 𝒑𝟎 + 𝜹𝐩 𝐭
𝒅𝒕
= −𝜶 𝒓 (𝒏𝟎 +𝒑𝟎 )𝜹𝒏 𝒕 + 𝜹𝒏𝟐 (𝒕)
• The excess carrier concentrations are small, we can neglect the 𝜹𝒏𝟐 (𝒕) term
• The material is p-type (𝒑𝟎 >> 𝒏𝟎 )
• for the case of low-level injection
𝒅𝜹𝒏(𝒕)
= −𝜶 𝒓 𝒑𝟎 𝜹𝒏 𝐭
𝒅𝒕

𝜹𝒏 𝒕 = 𝚫𝒏𝒆−𝜶 𝒓 𝒑𝟎𝒕 = 𝚫𝒏𝒆−𝒕/𝝉𝒏

• Excess electrons in a p- type semiconductor recombine with a decay constant 𝝉𝒏 = (𝜶 𝒓 𝒑𝟎 )−𝟏 , called
the recombination lifetime
• 𝝉𝒏 is often called the minority carrier lifetime
• The decay of excess holes in n- type material occurs with 𝝉𝒑 = (𝜶 𝒓 𝒏𝟎 )−𝟏
Direct recombination of electrons and holes
• At room temperature 𝒏𝒊 = 𝟏. 𝟓 × 𝟏𝟎𝟏𝟎 𝒄𝒎−𝟑
• For p-type
• Acceptor 𝑵𝒂 = 𝟏𝟎𝟏𝟓 𝒄𝒎−𝟑
• Holes 𝒑𝟎 = 𝑵𝒂 + 𝒏𝒊 = 𝟏𝟎𝟏𝟓 + 𝟏. 𝟓 × 𝟏𝟎𝟏𝟎 ≈ 𝟏𝟎𝟏𝟓
• Electrons 𝒏𝟎 = 𝒏𝒊 = 𝟏. 𝟓 × 𝟏𝟎𝟏𝟎
• 𝒑𝟎 ≫ 𝒏𝟎 ; 𝟏𝟎𝟏𝟓 ≫ 𝟏. 𝟓 × 𝟏𝟎𝟏𝟎
• Excess carriers at 𝒕 = 𝟎; ∆𝒏 = ∆𝒑 = 𝟎. 𝟏 × 𝟏𝟎𝟏𝟓 𝒄𝒎−𝟑
• Holes 𝒑 𝒕 = 𝟎 = 𝒑𝟎 + ∆𝒑 = 𝑵𝒂 + 𝒏𝒊 + ∆𝒑 = 𝟏𝟎𝟏𝟓 + 𝟏. 𝟓 × 𝟏𝟎𝟏𝟎 + 𝟎. 𝟏 × 𝟏𝟎𝟏𝟓 ≈ 𝟏. 𝟏 × 𝟏𝟎𝟏𝟓
𝒑 𝒕=𝟎 −𝒑𝟎 ∆𝒑 𝟏.𝟏×𝟏𝟎𝟏𝟓 −𝟏𝟎𝟏𝟓 𝟎.𝟏×𝟏𝟎𝟏𝟓
• % of change Holes = = = = 𝟏𝟎𝟏𝟓 = 𝟎. 𝟏 → 𝟏𝟎%
𝒑𝟎 𝒑𝟎 𝟏𝟎𝟏𝟓
• Electrons 𝒏 𝒕 = 𝟎 = 𝒏𝟎 + ∆𝒏 = 𝒏𝒊 + ∆𝒏 = 𝟏. 𝟓 × 𝟏𝟎𝟏𝟎 + 𝟎. 𝟏 × 𝟏𝟎𝟏𝟓 ≈ 𝟎. 𝟏 × 𝟏𝟎𝟏𝟓
𝒏 𝒕=𝟎 −𝒏𝟎 ∆𝒏 𝟎.𝟏×𝟏𝟎𝟏𝟓 −𝟏.𝟓×𝟏𝟎𝟏𝟎 𝟎.𝟏×𝟏𝟎𝟏𝟓
• % of change Electrons = = = = = 𝟔𝟔𝟔𝟓. 𝟔𝟕 → 𝟔𝟔𝟔𝟓𝟔𝟕%
𝒏𝟎 𝒏𝟎 𝟏.𝟓×𝟏𝟎𝟏𝟎 𝟏.𝟓×𝟏𝟎𝟏𝟎
• Electron is the minority carrier in p-type
• % change of majority carrier 𝒑𝟎 is very small 𝟏𝟎%
• % change of minority carrier 𝒏𝟎 is very large 𝟔𝟔𝟔𝟓𝟔𝟕%
• Change of carrier concentration → Change of current → Change of resistance
• large Change of minority carrier concentration → large Change of minority current → large Change of resistance
• small Change of majority carrier concentration → small Change of majority current → small Change of resistance
Excess carrier → large change in minority carrier → large change in resistance
Diffusion Process
• The diffusion is the natural result of the random motion of the individual molecules.
• All the molecules undergo random thermal motion and collisions with other molecules
• Each molecule moves in an arbitrary direction until it collides with another air molecule, after which it
moves in a new direction.
• If the motion is truly random, a molecule has equal probabilities of moving to left or right on its next
step
• After a mean free time 𝒕, half the molecules will move to left and half will move to right
• The net effect is that the space containing dye molecules has increased
• This process will continue until the molecules are uniformly distributed
• Only then will a given volume gain as many molecules as it loses in a given time
• Net diffusion will continue as long as gradients exist in the distribution of molecules.

1 1
2 2
Diffusion of Carriers
➢ When excess carriers are created non uniformly in a
semiconductor, the electron and hole concentrations vary
with position in the sample.
➢ Any such spatial variation (gradient) in 𝒏 and 𝒑 calls for a
net motion of the carriers from regions of high carrier
concentration to regions of low carrier concentration.
➢ This type of motion is called diffusion and represents an
important charge transport process in semiconductors.
➢ The two basic processes of current conduction are
➢ diffusion due to a carrier gradient
➢ drift in an electric field.
➢ Carriers in a semiconductor diffuse in a carrier gradient by
random thermal motion and scattering from the lattice and
impurities.
➢ a pulse of excess electrons injected at 𝒙 = 𝟎 at time 𝒕 =
𝟎 will spread out in time
➢ Initially, the excess electrons are concentrated at 𝒙 = 𝟎
➢ As time passes, electrons diffuse to regions of low electron
concentration until finally 𝒏(𝒙) is constant
Diffusion Process • The rate at which the electrons diffuse in a one-
dimensional problem can be calculated by considering
an arbitrary distribution 𝒏(𝒙)
• The mean free path 𝒍ҧ between collisions is a small
incremental distance, we can divide 𝒙 into segments 𝒍ҧ
wide, with 𝒏(𝒙) evaluated at the center of each segment
• The electrons in segment (𝟏) to the left of 𝒙𝟎 have equal
chances of moving left or right
• In a mean free time 𝒕 one-half of them will move into
segment (𝟐)
• The same is true of electrons within one mean free path
of 𝒙𝟎 to the right
• one-half of these electrons will move through 𝒙𝟎 from
𝒍ҧ right to left in a mean free time.
𝝓𝒏 𝒙𝟎 = 𝒏 − 𝒏𝟐 • The net number of electrons passing 𝒙𝟎 from left to right
𝟐𝒕ҧ 𝟏 𝟏 ҧ − 𝟏 𝒏𝟐 𝒍𝑨
ҧ
in one mean free time is 𝟐 𝒏𝟏 𝒍𝑨 where the
𝟐
area perpendicular to x is 𝑨
• The rate of electron flow in the +x-direction per unit area
(the electron flux density 𝝓𝒏 ) is given by
Diffusion Process
• Since the mean free path 𝒍ҧ is a small differential length, the difference in electron concentration 𝒏𝟏 − 𝒏𝟐
can be written as 𝒏 𝒙 − 𝒏(𝒙 + ∆𝒙)
𝒏𝟏 − 𝒏𝟐 = 𝒍ҧ
∆𝒙
• where 𝒙 is taken at the center of segment (𝟏) and ∆𝒙 = 𝒍.ҧ In the limit of small ∆𝒙 (i.e., small mean free
path 𝒍ҧ between scattering collisions), in terms of the carrier gradient 𝒅𝒏(𝒙)/𝒅𝒙:

𝒍ҧ𝟐 𝒏 𝒙 − 𝒏(𝒙 + ∆𝒙) −𝒍ҧ𝟐 𝒅𝒏(𝒙)

𝜱𝒏 𝒙 = 𝒍𝒊𝒎 =
𝟐𝒕ҧ 𝜟𝒙→𝟎 ∆𝒙 𝟐𝒕ҧ 𝒅𝒙
𝒍ҧ𝟐
• The quantity 𝟐𝒕ҧ is called the electron diffusion coefficient 𝑫𝒏 , with units 𝒄𝒎𝟐 /𝒔
• The minus sign indicates that the net motion of electrons due to diffusion is in the direction of decreasing
electron concentration
• This is the result we expect, since net diffusion occurs from regions of high particle concentration to
regions of low particle concentration
• By identical arguments, we can show that holes in a hole concentration gradient move with a diffusion
coefficient 𝑫𝒑 𝒅𝒏(𝒙)
𝜱𝒏 𝒙 = −𝑫𝒏
𝒅𝒙
𝒅𝒑(𝒙)
𝜱𝒑 𝒙 = −𝑫𝒑
𝒅𝒙
Diffusion Process
• The diffusion current crossing a unit area (the current density) is the particle flux density multiplied by the
charge of the carrier: 𝒅𝒏 𝒙 𝒅𝒏(𝒙)
𝑱𝒏 𝒅𝒊𝒇𝒇 = − −𝒒 𝑫𝒏 = +𝒒𝑫𝒏
𝒅𝒙 𝒅𝒙

𝒅𝒑 𝒙 𝒅𝒑(𝒙)
𝑱𝒑 𝒅𝒊𝒇𝒇 = − +𝒒 𝑫𝒑 = −𝒒𝑫𝒑
𝒅𝒙 𝒅𝒙
• It is important to note that electrons and holes move together in a carrier gradient, but the resulting
currents are in opposite directions because of the opposite charge of electrons and holes.
Diffusion and Drift of Carriers: Built-in field
If an electric field is present in addition to the carrier gradient, the current densities will each have a drift
component and a diffusion component
𝒅𝒏 𝒙
𝑱𝒏 𝒙 = 𝒒𝝁𝒏 𝒏 𝒙 ℰ(x) + 𝒒𝑫𝒏
𝒅𝒙
drift diffusion
𝒅𝒑(𝒙)
𝑱𝒑 𝒙 = 𝒒𝝁𝒑 𝒑 𝒙 ℰ(x) − 𝒒𝑫𝒑
𝒅𝒙

• The total current density is the sum of the contributions due to electrons and holes:
𝑱 𝒙 = 𝑱𝒏 𝒙 +𝑱𝒑 𝒙
• Minority carriers can contribute significantly to the current through diffusion
• The drift terms are proportional to carrier concentration, minority carriers seldom provide much drift
current
• Diffusion current is proportional to the gradient of concentration
• In n- type material the minority hole concentration 𝒑 may be many orders of magnitude smaller than the
electron concentration 𝒏, but the gradient 𝒅𝒑/𝒅𝒙 may be significant
• As a result, minority carrier currents through diffusion can sometimes be as large as majority carrier
currents.
Diffusion and Drift of Carriers: Built-in field
Diffusion and Drift of Carriers: Built-in field

𝒅𝒑 𝒙
ℰ(x) 𝑱𝒑 𝒅𝒓𝒊𝒇𝒕 𝑬𝑪
𝑱𝒑 𝒙 = 𝒒𝝁𝒑 𝒑 𝒙 ℰ(x) − 𝒒𝑫𝒑 =𝟎 +
𝒅𝒑 𝒙
𝒅𝒙 𝒑 𝒙
𝒅𝒑 𝒙
𝑬𝒊
𝝁𝒑 𝒑 𝒙 ℰ(x) − 𝑫𝒑 =𝟎 ∝−
𝒅𝒙
ℰ(x) =
𝑫𝒑 𝟏 𝒅𝒑 𝒙
𝒅𝒙
+
𝑬𝑭
𝝁𝒑 𝒑 𝒙 𝒅𝒙 𝑱𝒑 𝒅𝒊𝒇𝒇
• At equilibrium
• 𝑽=𝟎 𝑬𝑽
• 𝑱𝒑 𝒙 = 𝑱𝒑 𝒅𝒓𝒊𝒇𝒕 + 𝑱𝒑 𝒅𝒊𝒇𝒇 = 𝟎
• But if there is any concentration gradient an internal electric field is built up
Diffusion and Drift of Carriers: Built-in field
− 𝑬𝑭 −𝑬𝒊 ൗ
𝒑 𝒙 = 𝒏𝒊 𝒆 𝒌𝑻
𝑫𝒑 𝟏 𝒅𝑬𝒊 𝒅𝑬𝑭
ℰ(x) = −
𝝁𝒑 𝒌𝑻 𝒅𝒙 𝒅𝒙
𝒅𝑬𝑭
=𝟎
𝒅𝒙 • This result is obtained for either carrier type.
𝑫𝒑 𝟏 𝒅𝑬𝒊
ℰ(x) = • This important equation is called the Einstein relation.
𝝁𝒑 𝒌𝑻 𝒅𝒙 • It allows us to calculate either 𝑫 or 𝝁 from a measurement of the other.
𝑬𝒊 = −𝒒 𝑽 • It is clear from these values that 𝑫/𝝁 ≃ 𝟎. 𝟎𝟐𝟔 𝑽
𝑫𝒑 𝒒 𝒅𝑽
ℰ(x) = −
𝝁𝒑 𝒌𝑻 𝒅𝒙
𝒅𝑽
ℰ(x) = −
𝒅𝒙
𝑫𝒑 𝒒
𝟏=
𝝁𝒑 𝒌𝑻
𝑫 𝒌𝑻
=
𝝁 𝒒
 Diffusion and Drift of Carriers: Built-in field
Electron
𝒅𝑽 𝒙
𝝃=−
𝒅𝒙
𝑬𝒊 𝒙
𝑽 𝒙 =
−𝒒
𝝃=−
𝒅𝑽 𝒙
=−
𝒅 𝑬𝒊 𝒙
=
𝟏 𝒅𝑬𝒊 𝒙 𝑬𝑪
𝒅𝒙 𝒅𝒙 −𝒒 𝒒 𝒅𝒙
𝑬𝒊
න 𝟏 𝒅𝑬𝒊 𝒙 = 𝒒 න 𝝃 𝒅𝒙

𝑬𝒊 𝒙 = 𝒒𝝃𝒙
𝑬𝑭
𝝓𝒏 𝒅𝒓𝒊𝒇𝒕 ℰ(x) 𝑱𝒏 𝒅𝒓𝒊𝒇𝒕
-
𝒏 𝒙 𝑬𝑽
𝒅𝒏 𝒙
∝− Hole
𝒅𝒙 Electron
-
𝑱𝒏 𝒅𝒊𝒇𝒇 𝝓𝒏 𝒅𝒊𝒇𝒇