Problem 1

When comparing H2+ (the hydrogen molecular ion) and H2 (the neutral hydrogen molecule), the
differences in bond distance and bond dissociation enthalpy can be attributed to the number of
electrons and the resultant bonding interactions.
Bond Distance:
• H2+: The bond distance is 106 pm.
• H2: The bond distance is 74.2 pm.
Reason: The H2 ion has only one electron to create a bond between the two hydrogen nuclei, leading
to a weaker bond and thus a longer bond distance compared to the neutral H2 molecule, which has
two bonding electrons forming a stronger bond.
Bond Dissociation Enthalpy:
• H2+: The bond dissociation enthalpy is 255 kJ/mol.
• H2: The bond dissociation enthalpy is 436 kJ/mol.
Reason: The higher bond dissociation enthalpy of H2 reflects the stronger bond due to the presence
of two electrons creating a stable bonding orbital. In H2+, the single electron results in a less stable
bond, thus requiring less energy to dissociate the molecule.
In summary, H2 has a shorter bond distance and higher bond dissociation enthalpy due to the
presence of an additional bonding electron, which results in a stronger, more stable bond compared to
H2+.

Problem 2
a. BaH₂ (Barium Hydride)
• Saline (Ionic) Hydride: Formed by an alkaline earth metal (barium), this hydride has ionic
bonding.
b. SiH₄ (Silane)
• Molecular Hydride: Formed by a non-metal (silicon), this hydride has covalent bonding and
is a gas at room temperature.
c. UH₃ (Uranium Hydride)
• Metallic Hydride: Formed by a transition metal (uranium), this hydride exhibits metallic
bonding.
d. AsH₃ (Arsine)
• Molecular Hydride: Formed by a non-metal (arsenic), this hydride has covalent bonding and
is a gas at room temperature.
e. HI (Hydrogen Iodide)
• Molecular Hydride: Formed by a non-metal (iodine), this hydride has covalent bonding and
is a gas at room temperature.
f. KH (Potassium Hydride)
• Saline (Ionic) Hydride: Formed by an alkali metal (potassium), this hydride has ionic
bonding.

Problem 3
a. Sodium and hydrogen:
𝑡𝑜
2Na + H2 → 2NaH
b. Nitrogen and hydrogen (Haber process):
450𝑜 𝐶, 100 𝑎𝑡𝑚, 𝐹𝑒
N2 + 3H2 → 2NH3
c. Copper(II) oxide and hydrogen:
𝑡𝑜
CuO + H2 → Cu + H2O
d. Calcium hydride and water:
CaH2 + 2H2O → Ca(OH)2 + 2H2
e. Sodium hydride and ethanol:
NaH + C2H5OH → NaOC2H5 + H2
f. Potassium hydride and ammonia:
KH + NH3 → KNH2 + H2
g. Sodium hydride and borane:
NaH + BH3 → NaBH4
h. Lithium hydride and silicon tetrachloride:
4LiH + SiCl4 → SiH4 + 4LiCl
Problem 4
a. Bond Angles in Gas Phase
• CH₄ (Methane): 109.5°
• NH₃ (Ammonia): 106.7°
• H₂O (Water): 104.5°
Rationalization: The difference in bond angles among these molecules is primarily due to the
number of lone pairs on the central atom and the repulsion they cause:
• CH₄: No lone pairs, all bonding pairs. Tetrahedral geometry results in the bond angle of
109.5°.
• NH₃: One lone pair on nitrogen. The lone pair-bond pair repulsion slightly reduces the bond
angle to 106.7°.
• H₂O: Two lone pairs on oxygen. The lone pair-lone pair and lone pair-bond pair repulsions
further decrease the bond angle to 104.5°.
b. Boiling Points at Standard Pressure
• H₂O: 100 °C
• H₂S: -59 °C
• H₂Se: -41 °C
• H₂Te: -2 °C
Rationalization: The variation in boiling points is influenced by molecular weight and the strength
of intermolecular forces, particularly hydrogen bonding:
• H₂O: Strong hydrogen bonding due to high electronegativity of oxygen, leading to a much
higher boiling point.
• H₂S, H₂Se, H₂Te: As you move down the group in the periodic table, the molecular weight
increases, and Van der Waals forces become stronger, leading to an increase in boiling point.
However, they do not have significant hydrogen bonding like H₂O.
c. O–O Bond Lengths
• O₂⁺ (1.12 Å)
• O₂ (1.21 Å)
• O₂²⁻ (1.49 Å)
Rationalization: The bond length is influenced by the bond order (number of shared electron pairs):
• O₂⁺: Bond order is 2.5, shorter bond length due to additional bonding interaction.
• O₂: Bond order is 2, typical double bond length.
• O₂²⁻: Bond order is 1.5, longer bond length due to fewer bonding interactions compared to O₂
and O₂⁺.
The greater the bond order, the stronger and shorter the bond. Conversely, a lower bond order results
in a longer bond.

Problem 5
Here’s a summary of the relationships between atomic radii, ionization energy, and metallic
character:
1. Atomic Radii:
• Definition: The atomic radius is the distance from the nucleus of an atom to the outermost
shell of electrons.
• Trend:
o Across a period: Atomic radii decrease from left to right due to increasing nuclear
charge which pulls electrons closer to the nucleus.
o Down a group: Atomic radii increase as additional electron shells are added, making
the atoms larger.
2. Ionization Energy:
• Definition: Ionization energy is the energy required to remove an electron from a gaseous
atom or ion.
• Trend:
o Across a period: Ionization energy increases from left to right as the nuclear charge
increases, making it harder to remove an electron.
o Down a group: Ionization energy decreases because the outer electrons are further
from the nucleus and are shielded by inner electrons, making them easier to remove.
3. Metallic Character:
• Definition: Metallic character refers to how easily an atom can lose an electron and exhibit
properties typical of metals, such as conductivity, malleability, and ductility.
• Trend:
o Across a period: Metallic character decreases from left to right as atoms more
readily gain electrons to achieve a stable electron configuration (non-metals).
o Down a group: Metallic character increases because atoms more easily lose electrons
due to larger atomic radii and lower ionization energies.
Interrelationships:
• Atomic Radii and Ionization Energy: Generally, the larger the atomic radius, the lower the
ionization energy because the outermost electrons are further from the nucleus and more
easily removed.
• Atomic Radii and Metallic Character: Larger atomic radii often correspond to higher
metallic character because these atoms can more easily lose electrons.
• Ionization Energy and Metallic Character: Lower ionization energy is associated with
higher metallic character, as metals tend to lose electrons easily.
Problem 6
a. Third Ionization Energy of Phosphorus (IE₃)
The third ionization energy refers to the energy required to remove the third electron from a
positively charged ion. For phosphorus (PP), the equation for the third ionization energy is:
P2+(g) → P3+(g) + e−
This process is endothermic because it requires energy to remove an electron from the ion.
b. Sum of the First Three Ionization Energies (IE₁ + IE₂ + IE₃) for Phosphorus
The sum of the first three ionization energies is the total energy required to remove the first three
electrons from a neutral phosphorus atom. The equations for these steps are:
1. First ionization energy (IE1):
P(g) → P+(g) + e−
2. Second ionization energy (IE2):
P+(g) → P2+(g) + e−
3. Third ionization energy (IE3):
P2+(g) → P3+(g) + e−
Combining these steps, the overall equation is:
P(g) → P3+(g) + 3e−
This entire process is also endothermic, as energy is required to remove each electron from the
atom.

Problem 7
a. Large Increase Between the Third and Fourth Ionisation Energies
The large increase in ionization energy between the third (3660 kJ mol⁻¹) and the fourth (25000 kJ
mol⁻¹) ionization energies occurs because:
• After removing the first three electrons, boron has lost its three valence electrons and reaches
a stable configuration resembling a noble gas (helium).
• The fourth electron to be removed is from a more tightly bound inner shell (1s²), which
requires significantly more energy to ionize due to its proximity to the nucleus and stronger
effective nuclear charge.
b. Confirming the Electronic Structure of Boron (2, 3)
The electronic structure of boron is 1s² 2s² 2p¹, or in terms of shells, 2, 3. Here's how the ionization
energies confirm this:
 1. First Ionization Energy (799 kJ mol⁻¹): This involves removing the first valence electron
from the 2p orbital, which is relatively less energy-intensive.
2. Second Ionization Energy (2420 kJ mol⁻¹): This involves removing the second valence
electron from the 2s orbital, which requires more energy than removing the 2p electron due to
closer proximity to the nucleus.
3. Third Ionization Energy (3660 kJ mol⁻¹): This involves removing the third valence electron
from the 2s orbital. This is higher than the second but still manageable within the valence
shell.
4. Fourth Ionization Energy (25000 kJ mol⁻¹): This involves removing an electron from the
1s² inner shell, which is significantly higher due to the stable and tightly bound nature of the
inner shell electrons.
5. Fifth Ionization Energy (32800 kJ mol⁻¹): This continues with the removal of another
electron from the inner shell, still requiring a very high energy.
These values confirm the sequence of energy levels: two lower energy levels (1s²) and three higher
energy valence electrons (2s²2p¹), fitting the electronic configuration of boron.

Problem 8
a) A1: K2O A2: KOH A3: KHCO3
A4: K2CO3 A5: KCl A6: KH
A7: KNH2
𝑡𝑜
b) (1) 4K + O2 → 2K2O
(2) K2O + H2O → 2KOH
(3) KOH + CO2 dư → KHCO3
(4) K2O + CO2 → K2CO3
𝑡𝑜
(5) KHCO3 + KOH → K2CO3 + H2O hoặc 2KHCO3 → K2CO3 + CO2 + H2O
(6) 2K + Cl2 → 2KCl
đ𝑝𝑑𝑑
(7) 2KCl + 2H2O → 2KOH + Cl2 + H2 hoặc 2KCl + Ca(OH)2 → 2KOH + CaCl2
𝑡𝑜
(8) K + H2 → KH
(9) KH + H2O → KOH + H2
(10) KH + NH3 (l) → KNH2 + H2