SHAH AND ANCHOR KUTCHHI ENGINEERING

COLLEGE

DEPARTMENT
OF
ELECTRONICS & TELECOMMUNICATION ENGINEERING
presentation
on

Stability Analysis in Time Domain

( Electronics Instrumentation and control system , III)
by
Dr. Kalpana L Chaudhari
(Assistant Professor, Department of Electronics & Telecommunication Engineering)
Email: [email protected]
 What is Stability?
A system is said to be stable, if its output
is under control. Otherwise, it is said to
be unstable. A stable system produces a
bounded output for a given bounded
input.
Figure 1 The response of first
order control system for unit
step input.
The 1st order control system response has the values between 0 and 1. So, it is bounded output. We
know that the unit step signal has the value of one for all positive values of t including zero. So, it is
bounded input. Therefore, the first order control system is stable since both the input and the output
are bounded.
Types of Systems based on Stability:
•Absolutely stable system
•Conditionally stable system
•Marginally stable system
Stability Analysis Electronics & Telecommunication Engineering
Absolutely Stable System: If the system is stable for all the range of system component values,
then it is known as the absolutely stable system. The open loop control system is absolutely
stable if all the poles of the open loop transfer function present in left half of ‘s’ plane. Similarly,
the closed loop control system is absolutely stable if all the poles of the closed loop transfer
function present in the left half of the ‘s’ plane.
Conditionally Stable System: If the system is stable for a certain range of system component
values, then it is known as conditionally stable system.
Marginally Stable System:If the system is stable by producing an output signal with constant
amplitude and constant frequency of oscillations for bounded input, then it is known
as marginally stable system. The open loop control system is marginally stable if any two poles
of the open loop transfer function is present on the imaginary axis. Similarly, the closed loop
control system is marginally stable if any two poles of
Stability Analysis Electronics & Telecommunication Engineering
Stability Definitions

• A system is stable if the natural

response approaches zero as time
approaches infinity
• A system is unstable if the natural
response approaches infinity as time
approaches infinity
• A system is marginally stable if the
natural response neither decays nor
grows but remains constant or
oscillates.

• A system is stable if every bounded

input yields a bounded output
• A system is unstable if any bounded
input yields an unbounded output
 Common cause of problems in finding closed-loop poles:

a. original system;
b. equivalent system

Stable systems have closed-loop transfer functions with poles in the left half-plane.
Unstable systems have closed-loop transfer functions with at least one pole in the right
half-plane, and/or poles of multiplicity greater than one on the imaginary axis
Marginally stable systems have closed-loop transfer functions with only imaginary axis
poles of multiplicity one and poles in the left half-plane.
Stability Analysis Electronics & Telecommunication Engineering
 Routh-Hurwitz Criterion

Using this method we can tell how many closed-loop poles

are in the left half-plane, in the right half-plane and on the
imaginary axis.
The method requires two steps:
(1) Generate the data table (Routh table) and
(2) Interpret the table to determine the number of poles in
LHP and RHP.

Stability Analysis Electronics & Telecommunication Engineering

Necessary Condition for Routh-Hurwitz Stability
The necessary condition is that the coefficients of the characteristic polynomial should be positive.
This implies that all the roots of the characteristic equation should have negative real parts.
 Initial layout for Routh table

Initial layout for Routh table

Completed Routh table
Feedback system for Example 1;

b. Equivalent closed-loop system

Completed Routh table for Example1

Interpretation of Routh table

The number of roots of the polynomial that are in the right half-plane is equal
to the number of sign changes in the first column.
 Example2
Let us find the stability of the control system having characteristic equation,

Step 1 − Verify the necessary condition for the Routh-Hurwitz stability. All the coefficients of the
characteristic polynomial, are positive. So, the control system satisfies the necessary condition.

Step 2 − Form the Routh array for the given characteristic polynomial.
Step 3 − Verify the sufficient condition for the Routh-Hurwitz stability.
All the elements of the first column of the Routh array are positive.

There is no sign change in the first column of the Routh array. So, the
control system is stable.
 Exercise
What have we learned today?
The Routh-Hurwitz Stability Criterion:
• Determine whether a system is stable.
• Construct the Routh Table
Practice example
Since not all the elements of the first column are positive, the system is unstable
and as there is one sign change, there is one pole in the right half of the s-plane.
 We may come across two types of situations, while forming the
Routh table.

It is difficult to complete the Routh table from these two

situations.
The two special cases are −

•The first element of any row of the Routh array is zero.

•All the elements of any row of the Routh array are
zero.

Stability Analysis Electronics & Telecommunication Engineering

If any row of the Routh array contains only the first element as zero and at least one of the
remaining elements have non-zero value, then replace the first element with a small
positive integer, ϵ. And then continue the process of completing the Routh table.
Now, find the number of sign changes in the first column of the Routh table by
substituting ϵ tends to zero.
Example Let us find the stability of the control system having characteristic equation,

Step 1 − Verify the necessary condition for the Routh-Hurwitz stability.

So, the control system satisfied the necessary condition.

Step 2 − Form the Routh array for the given characteristic polynomial.

Stability Analysis Electronics & Telecommunication Engineering

The row s3 elements have 2 as the common factor. So, all these elements are divided
by 2.
Special case (i) − Only the first element of row s2 is zero. So, replace it by ϵ and
continue the process of completing the Routh table
Stability Analysis Electronics & Telecommunication Engineering
 Step 3 − Verify the sufficient condition for the Routh-Hurwitz stability.
As ϵ tends to zero, the Routh table becomes like this.

There are two sign changes in the first column of Routh table. Hence, the
control system is unstable.
Replace the zero with
from –ve or +ve side.
 , the value of  Is then allowed to approach zero
Problem Determine the stability of the closed-loop transfer function
10
T (s ) = 5
s + 2s 4 + 3s 3 + 6s 2 + 5s + 3

System is unstable there is sign change in first

column
 In this case, follow these two steps −
•Write the auxilary equation, A(s) of the row, which is just above the row of
zeros.
•Differentiate the auxiliary equation, A(s) with respect to s. Fill the row of
zeros with these coefficients.
Example
Let us find the stability of the control system having characteristic
equation,

Step 1 − Verify the necessary condition for the Routh-Hurwitz stability.

All the coefficients of the given characteristic polynomial are positive. So,
the control system satisfied the necessary condition.
 Step 2 − Form the Routh array for the given characteristic polynomial.

The row s4 elements have the common factor of 3. So, all these elements are
divided by 3.
Special case (ii) − All the elements of row s3 are zero. So, write the auxiliary
equation, A(s) of the row s4.
Place these coefficients in row s3.
Step 3 − Verify the sufficient condition for the Routh-Hurwitz stability.

There are two sign changes in the first column of Routh table. Hence, the
control system is unstable.

In the Routh-Hurwitz stability criterion, we can know whether the closed

loop poles are in on left half of the ‘s’ plane or on the right half of the ‘s’
plane or on an imaginary axis.

So, we can’t find the nature of the control system. To overcome this
limitation, there is a technique known as the root locus.
Problem Determine the number of right-half-plane poles in the closed transfer
function 10
T (s ) =
s 5 + 7s 4 + 6s 3 + 42s 2 + 8s + 56
Solution: Form an auxiliary polynomial, P(s) using the entries of row above row of
zeros as coefficient, then differentiate with respect to s finally use coefficients to
replace the rows of zeros and continue the RH procedure.
dP (s )
P (s ) = s + 6s + 8
4 2 = 4s 3 + 12s + 0
ds
 Example Determine a rang of values of a system parameter K for which the system is stable.

• The Routh table of the given system is computed and shown is the table below;

• For system stability, it is necessary that the conditions 8 – k >0, and 1 + k > 0, must be
satisfied. Hence the rang of values of a system parameter k must be lies between -1 and 8 (i.e., -
1 < k < 8).
Example-: Find the stability of the continues system having the characteristic equation of

The Routh table of the given system is computed and shown is the table below;

• Since there is no changes of the sign in the first column of the Routh table, it means that all
the roots of the characteristic equation have negative real parts and hence this system is
stable.
Example: Find the stability of the continues system having the characteristic polynomial of a
third order system is given below

• The Routh array is

• Because TWO changes in sign appear in the first column, we find that two roots of the
characteristic equation lie in the right hand side of the s-plane. Hence the system is unstable.
 Exercise1
C(s)/R(S)=K/ S^4+5S^3+5S^2+4S+K

Subject name
Electronics & Telecommunication Engineering
 Exercise2

Determine the stability to

S^6+2S^5+8S^4+12S^3+20S^2+16S+16
 How to Determine System Stability?

Let us focus on the natural response definitions of stability

• Stable systems have closed-loop transfer functions with poles

only on the left half-plane.

• If the closed-loop system poles are on the right half of the s-

plane and hence have a positive real part, the system is
unstable.

Stability Analysis Electronics & Telecommunication Engineering

 Routh-Hurwitz Stability Criterion
• The characteristic equation of the nth order continuous system can be write as:

• The stability criterion is applied using a Routh table which is defined as;

• Where are coefficients of the characteristic equation.

 Generating a Basic Routh Table
• First label the rows with powers of s from highest power of s down to lowest power of s in a
vertical column.
• Next form the first row of the Routh table, using the coefficients of the denominator of the
closed-loop transfer function (characteristic equation).
• Start with the coefficient of the highest power and skip every other power of s.
• Now form the second row with the coefficients of the denominator skipped in the previous
step.
• The table is continued horizontally and vertically until zeros are obtained.
• For convenience, any row can be multiplied or divide by a positive constant before the next row
is computed without changing the values of the rows below and disturbing the properties of the
Routh table.
 Routh’s Stability Condition

• If the closed-loop transfer function has all poles in the left half of the s-plane, the system
is stable. Thus, a system is stable if there are no sign changes in the first column of the
Routh table.

• The Routh-Hurwitz criterion declares that the number of roots of the polynomial that
are lies in the right half-plane is equal to the number of sign changes in the first column.
Hence the system is unstable if the poles lies on the right hand side of the s-plane.
 Example: Generating a basic Routh Table.

• Only the first 2 rows of the array are obtained from the characteristic eq. the remaining are
calculated as follows;
 Four Special Cases or Configurations in the
First Column Array of the Routh’s Table:

1. Case-I: No element in the first column is zero.

2. Case-II: A zero in the first column but some other elements of the row containing

the zero in the first column are nonzero.

3. Case-III: A zero in the first column and the other elements of the row containing the

zero are also zero.

4. Case-IV: As in the third case but with repeated roots on the jw -axis.
 Case-I: No element in the first column is zero.
Second-Order System.

The characteristic polynomial of a second order system is given below

The Routh array is written as

Where

The requirement for a stable second order system is simply that all the coefficient be
positive or all the coefficient s be negative.
Third-Order System.

The characteristic polynomial of a third order system is given below

The Routh array is

Where

• The requirement for a stable third order system is that the coefficients be positive
and
• The condition when results in a marginally stability case (recognized as
Case-3 because there is a zero in the first column) and one pair of roots lies on the
imaginary axis in the s-plane.
Example-1: Find the stability of the continues system having the characteristic equation of

The Routh table of the given system is computed and shown is the table below;

• Since there is no changes of the sign in the first column of the Routh table, it means that all
the roots of the characteristic equation have negative real parts and hence this system is
stable.
Example-2: Find the stability of the continues system having the characteristic polynomial of
a third order system is given below

• The Routh array is

• Because TWO changes in sign appear in the first column, we find that two roots of the
characteristic equation lie in the right hand side of the s-plane. Hence the system is unstable.
 Example-3: Determine a range of values of a system parameter K for which the system is
stable.

• The Routh table of the given system is computed and shown is the table below;

• For system stability, it is necessary that the conditions 8 – k >0, and 1 + k > 0, must be
satisfied. Hence the rang of values of a system parameter k must be lies between -1 and 8 (i.e., -
1 < k < 8).
 Example-4: Find the stability of the system shown below using Routh criterion.

The close loop transfer function is shown in the figure

The Routh table of the system is shown in the table

Because TWO changes in sign appear in the first column, we find that two roots of the
characteristic equation lie in the right hand side of the s-plane. Hence the system is unstable.
 Example-5: Find the stability of the system shown below using Routh criterion.

• The Routh table of the system is

• System is unstable because there are two sign changes in the first column of the
Routh’s table. Hence the equation has two roots on the right half of the s-plane.
 Exercise

Determine the stability

S^5+S^4+2S^3+2S^2+3S++5=0
 Case-II: Stability via Epsilon Method
Example-6: Determine the stability of the system having a characteristic equation given below;

The Routh array is shown in the table;

Where

There are TWO sign changes due to the large negative number in the first column,
Therefore the system is unstable, and two roots of the equation lie in the right half of the s-plane.
 Example-7: Determine the range of parameter K for which the system is unstable.

The Routh array of the above characteristic equation is shown below;

Where

• Therefore, for any value of K greater than zero, the system is unstable.
• Also, because the last term in the first column is equal to K, a negative value of K will
result in an unstable system.
• Consequently, the system is unstable for all values of gain K.
 Example-8: Determine the stability of the of the closed-loop transfer function;

Table-1: The complete Routh table is Table-2: shows the first column of Table-1 along with the resulting
formed by using the denominator of the signs for choices of ε positive and ε negative.
characteristic equation T(s).

• A zero appears only in the first column (the s3 row).

• Next replace the zero by a small number, ε, and complete the table.
• Assume a sign, positive or negative, for the quantity ε.
• When quantity ε is either positive or negative, in both cases the sign in the first column of Routh
table is changes twice.
• Hence, the system is unstable and has two poles in the right half-plane.
 Case-II: Stability via Reverse Coefficients (Phillips, 1991).

• A polynomial that has the reciprocal roots of the original polynomial has its roots distributed the

same—right half-plane, left half plane, or imaginary axis—because taking the reciprocal of the

root value does not move it to another region.

• If we can find the polynomial that has the reciprocal roots of the original, it is possible that the

Routh table for the new polynomial will not have a zero in the first column.

• The polynomial with reciprocal roots is a polynomial with the coefficients written in reverse

order.

• This method is usually computationally easier than the epsilon method.

 Example-9: Repeated example-8: Determine the stability of
the closed-loop transfer function;

• First write a polynomial that has the reciprocal roots of the denominator of T(s).
• This polynomial is formed by writing the denominator of T(s) in reverse order. Hence,

• The Routh table is

• Since there are TWO sign changes, the system is unstable and has TWO right-half-
plane poles.
• This is the same as the result obtained in the previous Example.
• Notice that Table does not have a zero in the first column.
 Case-III: Entire Row is Zero.
• Sometimes while making a Routh table, we find that an entire row consists of zeros.

• This happen because there is an even polynomial that is a factor of the original polynomial.

• This case must be handled differently from the case of a zero in only the first column of a

row.
 Example-10: Determine the stability of the system.
The characteristic equation q(s) of the system is
Where K is an adjustable loop gain. The Routh array is then;

For a stable system, the value of K must be;

When K = 8, the two roots exist on the jω axis and the system will be marginally stable.
• Also, when K = 8, we obtain a row of zeros (case-III).
• The auxiliary polynomial, U(s), is the equation of the row preceding the row of Zeros.
• The U(s) in this case, obtained from the s2 row.
• The order of the auxiliary polynomial is always even and indicates the number of symmetrical root
pairs.
Example-10: continue.

• The auxiliary polynomial, U(s), can be obtain as;

• To show that the auxiliary polynomial, U(s), is indeed a factor of the characteristic polynomial,
q(s), we divide q(s) by U(s) to obtain

• When K = 8, the factors of the characteristic polynomial, q(s), are

 Case-IV: Repeated roots of the characteristic
equation on the jω-axis.
• If the jω-axis roots are repeated, the system response will be unstable with a form tsin(ωt +
Ф). The Routh-Hurwitz criteria will not reveal this form of instability.

Example-11: Determine the stability of the system with the characteristic equation of

The Routh array is;

 Example-
11:Continue.
Therefore, the Auxiliary polynomial, U(s), is;

Which indicates that TWO roots are on the imaginary jω-axis.

To examine the remaining roots, we divide the characteristic equation, q(s), by the auxiliary polynomial,
U(s), to obtain;
(a)

Establishing a Routh table for this equation, we have;

• The TWO changes in sign in the first column indicate the presence of TWO roots in the right-hand
plane, and the system is unstable.
• There are THREE roots of eq. (a). The ONE root in left-hand side is s = - 3.
• The TWO roots in the right-hand plane are
 Test your Skill

Problem: Make a Routh table and tell how many roots of the following polynomial are

in the right half-plane and in the left half-plane.

The root locus is a graphical representation in s-domain and it is symmetrical about the real
axis.

Because the open loop poles and zeros exist in the s-domain having the values either as real or as
complex conjugate pairs.

Basics of Root Locus

The RL is the locus of the roots of the characteristic equation by varying
system gain K from zero to infinity.

Stability Analysis Electronics & Telecommunication Engineering

We know that, the characteristic equation of the closed loop control system is
 Case 1: K = 0
If K=0, then D(s)=0.
That means, the closed loop poles are equal to open loop poles when K is
zero.

Case 2 : K = ∞
Re-write the above characteristic equation as

If k =∞, then N(s)=0. It means the closed loop poles are equal to the
open loop zeros when K is infinity.
From above two cases, we can conclude that the root locus branches
start at open loop poles and end at open loop zeros.
Angle Condition and Magnitude Condition

Characteristic equation of closed loop control system is

1+G(s) H(s)= 0

G(s)H(s)= −1+j0

The phase angle of G(s)H(s) is

Rules for Construction of Root Locus

Rule 1 − Locate the open loop poles and zeros in the ‘s’ plane.(RL is symmetrical with respect
to real axis)
Rule 2 − Find the number of RL branches. We know that the RL branches start at the open loop
poles and end at open loop zeros.
So, the number of RL branches N is equal to the number of finite open loop poles P or the
number of finite open loop zeros Z, whichever is greater.

Mathematically, we can write the number of RL branches N as

N=P if P≥Z
N=Z if P<Z Or we can say Total Loci=max(P,Z)

Rule 3 − Identify and draw the real axis root locus branches.
If the angle of the open loop transfer function at a point is an odd multiple of 1800, then that
point is on the root locus. If odd number of the open loop poles and zeros exist to the left side of
a point on the real axis, then that point is on the root locus branch. Therefore, the branch of
points which satisfies this condition is the real axis of the root locus branch.
Rule 4 − Find the centroid (sigma б c or α ) and angle of asymptotes.(Asymptotes
θ)

•If P=Z, then all the RL branches start at finite open loop poles and end at finite open loop
zeros.
•If P>Z , then Z number of RL branches start at finite open loop poles and end at finite open
loop zeros and P−Z number of RL branches start at finite open loop poles and end at infinite
open loop zeros.

•If P<Z , then P number of RL branches start at finite open loop poles and end at finite open
loop zeros and Z−P number of RL branches start at infinite open loop poles and end at finite
open loop zeros.
So, some of the RL branches approach infinity, when P≠Z.
Asymptotes give the direction of these RL branches.
The intersection point of asymptotes on the real axis is known as centroid.
 calculate the centroid α or б c by using this formula,

бc OR
Rule 5 − Find the intersection points of RL branches with an imaginary axis.
We can calculate the point at which the RL branch intersects the imaginary
axis and the value of K at that point by using the Routh array method and
special case (ii).

•If all elements of any row of the Routh array are zero, then the RL branch
intersects the imaginary axis and vice-versa.

•Identify the row in such a way that if we make the first element as zero, then
the elements of the entire row are zero. Find the value of K for this
combination.

•Substitute this K value in the auxiliary equation. You will get the intersection
point of the root locus branch with an imaginary axis.

Rule 6 − Find Break-away and Break-in points.

•If there exists a real axis root locus branch between two open loop poles,
then there will be a break-away point in between these two open loop poles.
•If there exists a real axis root locus branch between two open loop zeros, then there will be
a break-in point in between these two open loop zeros.
Rule 7 − Find the angle of departure and the angle of arrival.
The Angle of departure and the angle of arrival can be calculated at complex
conjugate open loop poles and complex conjugate open loop zeros respectively.

The formula for the angle of departure ϕd is

ϕd=1800−ϕ

The formula for the angle of arrival ϕa is

ϕa=1800+ϕ

Where,
Sum of all angles contributed by poles - Sum of
ϕ=∑ϕP−∑ϕZ
angles contributed by Zero
 Example
Draw the root locus of the control system having open loop transfer
function, G(s)H(s)=K /s(s+1)(s+5)

Step 1 − For given TF , three poles at s=0, s=−1 and s =−5 .

It doesn’t have any zero. Therefore, the number of RL branches is equal to the
number of poles of the open loop transfer function.
N=P=3

The three poles are located are shown in the above figure. The line
segment between s=−1 and s=0 is one branch of root locus on real axis. And the
other branch of the root locus on the real axis is the line segment to the left of
s=−5.
Step 2 − We will get the values of the centroid and the angle of asymptotes by
using the given formulae.
Centroid α=−2
The angle of asymptotes are θ=600,1800 and 300 0.
The centroid and three asymptotes are shown in the following figure.
No need to find angle of departure because we don’t have poles and zeros on imaginary
axis
Step 3 − Since two asymptotes have the angles of 600 and 3000 , two root locus
branches intersect the imaginary axis. By using the Routh array method and special
case(ii),
the root locus branches intersects the imaginary axis at √j5 and −j5.

There will be one break-away point on the real axis root locus branch between the
poles s=−1 and s=0.
By following the procedure given for the calculation of break-away point, we will get
it as s=−0.473.
 Introduction
 Consider a unity feedback control system shown below.

K
R (s ) C (s )
s +1

K
 The open loop transfer function G(s) of the system is G (s) =
s +1
 And the closed transfer function is

C ( s) G( s) K
= =
R( s ) 1 + G ( s ) s + 1 + K
 Introduction
 Location of closed loop Pole for different values of K (remember K>0).

C ( s) K
K Pole =
0.5 -1.5 R( s) s + 1Pole-Zero
+ K Map
1
1 -2
2 -3
0.5
3 -4
Imaginary Axis

5 -6 0
10 -11
15 -16 -0.5

-16 -14 -12 -10 -8 -6 -4 -2

 What is Root Locus?
 The root locus is the path of the roots of the characteristic equation
traced out in the s-plane as a system parameter varies from zero to
infinity.
How to Sketch root locus?
 One way is to compute the roots of the characteristic
equation for all possible values of K.

K Pole
0.5 -1.5
1 -2
C ( s) K
= 2 -3
R( s ) s + 1 + K
3 -4
5 -6
10 -11
15 -16
How to Sketch root locus?
 Computing the roots for all values of K might be tedious for
higher order systems.
K Pole
0.5 ?
1 ?
2 ?
C ( s) K 3 ?
=
R( s) s( s + 1)( s + 10)( s + 20) + K 5 ?
10 ?
15 ?
 Construction of Root Loci
 Finding the roots of the characteristic equation of degree higher
than 3 is difficult and will need computer solution.

 A simple method for finding the roots of the characteristic

equation has been developed by W. R. Evans and used extensively
in control engineering.

 This method, called the root-locus method, is one in which the roots
of the characteristic equation are plotted for all values of a system
parameter.
Construction of Root Loci
 The roots corresponding to a particular value of this
parameter can then be located on the resulting graph.

 By using the root-locus method the designer can predict the

effects on the location of the closed-loop poles of varying
the gain value or adding open-loop poles and/or open-loop
zeros.
Angle & Magnitude Conditions
 In constructing the root loci angle and magnitude conditions
are important.

 Consider the system shown in following figure.

 The closed loop transfer function is

C ( s) G( s)
=
R( s ) 1 + G ( s ) H ( s )
Construction of Root Loci
 The characteristic equation is obtained by setting the
denominator polynomial equal to zero.

1 + G ( s) H ( s) = 0
 Or

G ( s ) H ( s ) = −1

 Since G(s)H(s) is a complex quantity it can be split into angle

and magnitude part.
Angle & Magnitude Conditions
 The angle of G(s)H(s)=-1 is

G ( s) H ( s) =  − 1
G ( s) H ( s) = 180 (2k + 1)
 Where k=1,2,3…

 The magnitude of G(s)H(s)=-1 is

G (s) H (s) = − 1
G (s) H (s) = 1
 Angle & Magnitude Conditions
 Angle Condition

G(s) H (s) = 180 (2k + 1) (k = 1,2,3...)

 Magnitude Condition
G( s ) H ( s ) = 1

 The values of s that fulfill both the angle and magnitude

conditions are the roots of the characteristic equation, or the
closed-loop poles.
 Construction of root loci
 Step-1: The first step in constructing a root-locus plot is to
locate the open-loop poles and zeros in s-plane.
Pole-Zero Map
1

0.5

Imaginary Axis
0

-0.5
K
G ( s) H ( s) =
s( s + 1)( s + 2) -1
-5 -4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2
Real Axis

The angle is − s − ( s + 1) − ( s + 2)
 Construction of root loci
 Step-2: Determine the root loci on the real axis.

• To determine the root loci on Pole-Zero Map

real axis we select some test 1

points.
• e.g: p1 (on positive real axis). 0.5

Imaginary Axis
p1
0

• The angle condition is not

satisfied. -0.5

• Hence, there is no root locus

-1
on the positive real axis. -5 -4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2
Real Axis
 Construction of root loci
 Step-2: Determine the root loci on the real axis.

• Next, select a test point on the

negative real axis between 0 and –1. Pole-Zero Map
1
• Then

0.5

• Thus

Imaginary Axis
p2
0

• The angle condition is satisfied. -0.5

Therefore, the portion of the negative
real axis between 0 and –1 forms a
portion of the root locus. -1
-5 -4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2
Real Axis
 Construction of root loci
 Step-2: Determine the root loci on the real axis.

• Now, select a test point on the

negative real axis between -1 and – Pole-Zero Map
2. 1

• Then
0.5

Imaginary Axis
p3
• Thus 0

-0.5
• The angle condition is not
satisfied. Therefore, the negative
real axis between -1 and –2 is not -1
-5 -4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2
a part of the root locus. Real Axis
 Construction of root loci
 Step-2: Determine the root loci on the real axis.

Pole-Zero Map
• Similarly, test point on the 1

negative real axis between -2 and –

∞ satisfies the angle condition. 0.5

Imaginary Axis
• Therefore, the negative real axis p4
0
between -2 and – ∞ is part of the
root locus.
-0.5

-1
-5 -4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2
Real Axis
 Construction of root loci
 Step-2: Determine the root loci on theMap
Pole-Zero real axis.
1

0.5
Imaginary Axis

-0.5

-1
-5 -4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2
 Construction of root loci
 Step-3: Determine the asymptotes of the root loci. That is, the
root loci when s is far away from origin.
Asymptote is the straight line approximation of a curve

Ψ Actual Curve
Asymptotic Approximation
𝜎

𝜎 𝐶𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑟𝑜𝑖𝑑 𝑜𝑓 𝐴𝑠𝑦𝑚𝑝𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑒𝑠
Ψ 𝐴𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝐴𝑠𝑦𝑚𝑝𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑒𝑠
 Construction of root loci
 Step-3: Determine the asymptotes of the root loci.

 180(2k + 1)
Angle of asymptotes =  =
n−m
 where
 n-----> number of poles
 m-----> number of zeros

 For this Transfer Function G ( s) H ( s) =

K
s( s + 1)( s + 2)
𝐾 𝐾
𝑎𝑝𝑝𝑜𝑎𝑐ℎ𝑒𝑠 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑠 𝑖𝑠 𝑙𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑒,
𝑠(𝑠 + 1)(𝑠 + 2) 𝑠+1 3
𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑖𝑠 − 3∠𝑠 + 1 = ±180°(2𝑘 + 1)
 180(2k + 1)
=
3−0
 Construction of root loci
 Step-3: Determine the asymptotes of the root loci.
 180(2k + 1)
 = 60 whe n k = 0 =
3−0
= 180 when k = 1
= 300 when k = 2
= 420 when k = 3
 Since the angle repeats itself as k is varied, the distinct angles for the
asymptotes are determined as 60°, –60°, and 180°.
 Construction of root loci
 Step-3: Determine the asymptotes of the root loci.

 Before we can draw these asymptotes in the complex plane, we

need to find the point where they intersect the real axis.

 Point of intersection of asymptotes on real axis (or centroid of

asymptotes) is

 poles −  zeros
=
n−m
 Construction of root loci
 Step-3: Determine the asymptotes of the root loci.

K
 For G ( s) H ( s) =
s( s + 1)( s + 2)
𝐾 𝐾
𝑎𝑝𝑝𝑜𝑎𝑐ℎ𝑒𝑠 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑠 𝑖𝑠 𝑙𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑒,
𝑠(𝑠 + 1)(𝑠 + 2) 𝑠+1 3
𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑖𝑠 − 3∠𝑠 + 1 = ±180°(2𝑘 + 1)

( 0 − 1 − 2) − 0
 =
3−0

−3
 = = −1
3
 Construction of root loci
 Step-3: Determine the asymptotes of the root loci.
Pole-Zero Map
1

0.5

 = 60 ,−60 , 180

Imaginary Axis

180 60

 = −1
0
 − 60

-0.5

-1
-5 -4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2
Real Axis
 Construction of root loci
 Step-4: Determine the breakaway/break-in point.

Pole-Zero Map
• The breakaway/break-in 1
point is the point from
which the root locus
branches leaves/arrives 0.5

real axis. Imaginary Axis

-0.5

-1
-5 -4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2
Real Axis
 Construction of root loci
 Step-4: Determine the breakaway point or break-in point.

• The breakaway or break-in points can be determined from the roots of

dK
=0
ds the solutions of dK/ds=0 correspond to
• It should be noted that not all
actual breakaway points.

• If a point at which dK/ds=0 is on a root locus, it is an actual breakaway or

break-in point.
 Construction of root loci
 Step-4: Determine the breakaway point or break-in point.

 The characteristic equation of the system is

K
1 + G( s) H ( s) = 1 + =0
s( s + 1)( s + 2)

K
= −1
s( s + 1)( s + 2)

K = −s(s + 1)( s + 2)

 The breakaway point can now be determined as

= − s ( s + 1)( s + 2)
dK d
ds ds
 Construction of root loci
 Step-4: Determine the breakaway point or break-in point.

= − s ( s + 1)( s + 2)
dK d
ds ds
dK
ds
=−
d 3
ds

s + 3s 2 + 2 s 
dK
= −3s 2 − 6 s − 2
ds
 Set dK/ds=0 in order to determine breakaway point.

− 3s 2 − 6s − 2 = 0
3s 2 + 6s + 2 = 0

s = −0.4226
= −1.5774
 Construction of root loci
 Step-4: Determine the breakaway point or break-in point.
s = −0.4226 G ( s) H ( s) =
K
s( s + 1)( s + 2)
= −1.5774
 Since the breakaway point needs to be on a root locus between 0 and
–1, it is clear that s=–0.4226 corresponds to the actual breakaway
point.

 Point s=–1.5774 is not on the root locus. Hence, this point is not an
actual breakaway or break-in point.
 Construction of root loci
 Step-4: Determine the breakaway point.
Pole-Zero Map
1

0.5

s = −0.4226
Imaginary Axis

180 60
0
 − 60

-0.5

-1
-5 -4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2
Real Axis
 Construction of root loci
 Step-4: Determine the breakaway point.
Pole-Zero Map
1

0.5
Imaginary Axis

s = −0.4226
0

-0.5

-1
-5 -4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2
Real Axis
 Construction of root loci
 Step-5: Determine the points where root loci cross the imaginary
axis.
Pole-Zero Map
1

0.5
Imaginary Axis

180 60
0
 − 60

-0.5

-1
-5 -4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2
 Construction of root loci
 Step-5: Determine the points where root loci cross the imaginary
axis.
• Let s=jω in the characteristic equation, equate both the real part and
the imaginary part to zero, and then solve for ω and K.

• For present system the characteristic equation is

s 3 + 3s 2 + 2 s + K = 0

( j )3 + 3( j ) 2 + 2 j + K = 0

( K − 3 2 ) + j (2 −  3 ) = 0
 Construction of root loci
 Step-5: Determine the points where root loci cross the imaginary
axis.
( K − 3 2 ) + j (2 −  3 ) = 0
 Equating both real and imaginary parts of this equation to zero

(2 −  3 ) = 0
 Which yields ( K − 3 2 ) = 0
 Root Locus
5

2
Imaginary Axis

-1

-2

-3

-4

-5
-7 -6 -5 -4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2
Real Axis
What is Angle of departure ?
Ans: is valid for complex conjugate poles
Angle of departure is pole is departed from its position
by angle

What is Angle of Arrival ?

Ans: is valid for complex conjugate zeros

Angle of arrival is poles arrives near complex zero by
angle

Sum of all angles contributed by poles - Sum of

angles contributed by Zero
Effects of Adding Open Loop Poles and Zeros on Root Locus
➢The RL can be shifted in ‘s’ plane by adding the open loop poles and the open
loop zeros.

➢If we include a pole in the open loop transfer function, then some of RL
branches will move towards right half of ‘s’ plane. Because of this, the damping
ratio δ decreases. Which implies, damped frequency ωd increases and the time
domain specifications like delay time td, rise time tr and peak time tp decrease.
But, it effects the system stability.
➢If we include a zero in the open loop transfer function, then some ofRL
branches will move towards left half of ‘s’ plane. So, it will increase the control
system stability. In this case, the damping ratio δ increases. Which implies,
damped frequency ωd decreases and the time domain specifications like delay
time td, rise time tr and peak time tp increase.

➢So, based on the requirement, we can include (add) the open loop poles or
zeros to the transfer function.
 Example
k
Gk ( s ) =
s (2 s + 1)
Solution：
1）Find zeros and poles of open-loop transfer function on s
plane 0.5k K
Gk ( s ) = = K g = 0.5k
g
,
s ( s + 0.5) s ( s + 0.5)
jω

Poles:
-p2 -p1
− p1 = 0 , − p2 = −0.5
× ×0 σ
-0.5
There are no zeros.
 2）Inspecting the real axis：

s1>0 ( s1 + p1 ) = ( s1 + p2 ) = 0 Argument equation
is not satisfied.
-< s1 <-p2 ( s + p ) = ( s + p ) = 180
1 1 1 2 jω

-p2 S1 -p1
× ×0 σ
-0.5

-p2< s1 <-p1 ( s1 + p1 ) + ( s1 + p2 ) = 180 + 0 = 180

The all values between − p1 ~ − p2 of the real axis are the
points of root locus
For s1=-0.1 K g = s1 + p1  s1 + p2 = 0.1 0.4 = 0.04
 3）Examine locations off the real axis: arbitrarily
choose an s1 S1
• jω
In order to satisfy
− ( s1 + p1 ) − ( s1 + p2 ) = −180 -p2 -p1
× ×0 σ
s1 should be on the -0.5 -0.25
perpendicular bisector of the
line between the two poles.

Let s1=-0.25 + j0.25

− ( s1 + p1 ) − ( s1 + p2 ) = −1350 − 450 = −1800

2
K g = s1 + p1  s1 + p2 = 0.25  2 = 0.125
 Example : The open-loop transfer function is given by
k ( s + 4)
G (s) H (s) =
s ( s + 2)( s + 6.6)
Check if s1= -1.5+j2.5 is on the root locus. If yes, please
determine the parameter gain k
1)Via argument equation
( s1 + z1 ) − ( s1 + p1 ) −
( s1 + p2 ) − ( s1 + p3 )
S1 = 45 - 120 - 79 - 26 = −180
k =12.15
2)Via magnitude equation
s1 + p1  s1 + p2  s1 + p3
k= s1 + z1
26O 45O 79O 120O
2.9  2.6  5.8
-P3 -Z1 -P2 -P1 = = 12.15
3.6
 We can rapidly sketch the root-loci of a control system.

Sketch the root-loci for the following open-loop transfer functions:

K ( s + 2)( s + 6) K ( s + 2)( s + 4) K ( s + 3)
(1) G ( s ) = (2) G ( s ) = (3) G ( s ) =
s ( s + 4) s ( s + 6) s ( s + 2)

K ( s + 2)(s + 3) K ( s 2 + 6 s + 13) K ( s + 1)( s + 2)

(4) G ( s) = (5) G ( s ) = (6) G ( s ) =
s( s + 1) s ( s + 2) ( s 2 + 6 s + 13)
Im Im Im

Re Re Re

Im Im Im

Re Re Re
Example
 Determine the Breakaway and breaking points
 Solution

K ( s 2 − 8s + 15) ( s 2 + 3s + 2)
= −1 K =− 2
s + 3s + 2
2 ( s − 8s + 15)
• Differentiating K with respect to s and setting the derivative equal to zero yields;

dK [( s 2 − 8s + 15)(2 s + 3) − ( s 2 + 3s + 2)(2 s − 8)]

=− =0
ds ( s − 8s + 15)
2 2

11s 2 − 26 s − 61 = 0
Hence, solving for s, we find the
break-away and break-in points s = -1.45 and 3.82

s = −1.45, ( s − 3) + ( s − 5) − ( s + 1) − ( s + 2) = −180 − 180 − 180 − 0 = −540

s = 3.82, ( s − 3) + ( s − 5) − ( s + 1) − ( s + 2) = 0 − 180 − 0 − 0 = −180
Solution

-1.45 3.82
 Review of the RL
Before starting with an example, let's first discuss the steps to solve any
problem on the root locus.
•Find the number of poles, zeroes, number of branches, etc., from the given transfer
functions.
•Draw the plot that shows the poles and zeroes marked on it.
•Calculate the angle of asymptotes and draw a separate sketch.
•Find the centroid and draw a separate sketch.
•Find the breakaway points. These points can also be in the form of complex numbers. We
can use the angle condition to verify such points in the complex form.
•Calculate the intersection points of the root locus with the imaginary axis (or y-axis).
•Calculate the angle of arrival and departure if applicable.
•Draw the final sketch of the root locus by combining all the above sketches.
•We can also predict the stability and performance of the given system using the root locus
technique.
 Rules for Plotting Root Locus

Rule 1: Starting and end points end starting j

1)For Kg=0, we can get from magnitude
equation that
s = −pj 
s + p1 ... s + pn
Kg =
s + z1 ... s + z m ( j = 1,2...n)
2) For Kg →+∞, it may result in one of the following facts

s = − zi (i = 1,2...m) Using Magnitude Equation

s→+∞ (n>m)
Rule #1: The locus starts at a pole for Kg=0 and finishes
at a zero or infinity when Kg=+∞.
 Poles and zeros at infinity
Gk(s) has a zero at infinity if Gk (s→+∞) →0
Gk(s) has a pole at infinity if Gk (s→+∞) → +∞

Example K
Gk ( s ) =
s ( s + 1)( s + 2 )
This open-loop transfer function has three poles, 0,-1,-2. It has no
finite zeros.
K
For large s, we can see that Gk ( s )  3 .
s

So this open-loop transfer function has three (n-m) zeros at infinity.

Rule 2: Number of segments
j
Rule #2: The number of segments
equals to the number of poles of 
open-loop transfer function.
m segments end at the zeros, and
(n-m) segments goes to infinity. Sometimes, max{m,n}
Rule 3: Symmetry rule

Rule #3: The loci are symmetrical about the real axis
since complex roots are always in conjugate pairs.
Rule 4: Segments of the real axis

Segments of the real axis to the left of an odd

number of poles and zeros are segments of the root
locus, remembering that complex poles or zeros
have no effect.

j
S1 Using Argument Equation

 Example Argument equation
Gk (s) = (2k + 1)   (s + zi ) −  (s + p j ) = (2k + 1)
m n

i =1 j =1
( s + pk ) ( s + pk ), ( s + zi ) = 
Im ( s + zi ) = 0
− pj ( s + z i ) ( s + pk ) = 0
Im
− zi
Re Re
( )
 s + pk
−p 
s
(
 s + zi ) − zi − pk s − pk − zi
j − zi
For complex zeros and poles For real zeros and poles on the right
( s + pk ) + ( s + pk ) = 360 ( s + pk ) = 
( s + zi ) + ( s + zi ) = 360 ( s + zi ) = 

Real-axis segments are to the left of an odd

number of real-axis finite poles/zeros.
5. Asymptotes of locus as s Approaches infinity
The asymptotes intersect the real axis at σ, where
(− p1 − p2 −  − pn ) − (− z1 − z2 −  − z m )
=
n−m
(− p j ) −  (− zi )
n m

j =1 i =1
The intercept σ can be obtained by
= applying the theory of equations.
n−m

The angle between asymptote and positive real axis is

180 (2k + 1)
= (k = 0,1, 2, ) j
n−m
To obey the symmetry rules, the 60o
negative real axis is one asymptote 
when n-m is odd.
Using Argument Equation
 Example K
Gk ( s ) =
s ( s + 1)( s + 2 )

This open-loop transfer function has three finite poles and three
zeros at infinity.
(n-m) segments go to zeros at infinity.
1 1
Gk ( s ) = = → 0, K g → +
s ( s + 1)( s + 2 ) K g
1
 3 →0  = 60 , −60 ,180
s
Assume the root of closed-loop system s1 at infinity has the same
angle to each finite zero or pole.
( n − m) = 180 (2k + 1) k = 0,1, 2,
 Rule 6: Breakaway and Break-in Points on the
Real Axis

j j
Breakaway point Break-in point

 

When the root locus has segments on For two finite zeros or one finite
the real axis between two poles, zero and one at infinity, the
there must be a point at which the segments are coming from
two segments break away from the complex region and enter the
real axis and enter the complex real axis.
region.
Using Magnitude Equation
Breakaway point
Kg starts with zero at the
poles.
There is a point somewhere
the Kg for the two segments
simultaneously reach a
maximum value.

Break-in point
The break-in point is that the
value of Kg is a minimum
between two zeros.

• Express Kg as a function of s
How? •Differentiating the function with respect to s
equals to zero and solve for s
Characteristic equation
P (s )
K g Z (s )F (s ) Kg = −
1 + Gk (s ) = 1 + = =0 Z (s )
P(s ) P(s )
Assuming there are r repeated roots at the point
S1, F(s) can be rewritten into
F (s ) = P(s ) + K g Z (s ) With the solution of s, we
= (s − s1 ) (s − s2 ) (s − sn − r ) can get Kg.
r

dF (s ) dP(s ) dZ (s )
For positive Kg, the
= + Kg =0 corresponding point may
ds s = s1 ds ds be the breakaway or
P (s ) P(s )
break-in point.
Kg = − =−
Z (s ) Z (s )
Use the following necessary condition
P(s )Z (s ) − P (s )Z (s ) = 0
 Example Gk (s ) = K g
(s − 3)(s − 5)
= Kg
Z (s )
(s + 1)(s + 2) P(s )

P(s )Z (s ) − P (s )Z (s )
= 11s 2 − 26s − 61 = 0
s1 = −1.45, s2 = 3.82

Alternatively, we
can solve
1 1
 =
s + zi s + pj
for real s.
 Rule 7: The point where the locus crosses the
imaginary axis
Rule #7: The point may be obtained by substituting s=jω
into the characteristic equation and solving for ω.

Example ： Gk ( s) =
k j
( s + 1)[( s + 2) + 6]
2 j3.74

Characteristic ( s + 1)[( s + 2) 2 + 6] + k = 0
equation 
Substitute s=j
-j3.74
(10 + K − 5 ) − j ( − 14 ) = 0
2 3
=

0 0
 = 14 = 3.74, k = 60 s=±j3.74
 (2) Utilize Routh’s Stability Criterion
Characteristic equation: s 3 + 5s 2 + 14s + (10 + k ) = 0
Routh array
3
s 1 14

s 2
5 10+k 5s + 70 = 0
2

s 1 70 − (10 + k )
=0
s1, 2 =  j 3.74
5
0
s 10+k
k = 60
 8. The angles of emergence and entry

The angle of emergence from

complex poles is given by
 pj = 180 (2k + 1) −
j
( pj −  zi ) 
 p2
 z1
Angles of the vectors Angles of the vectors  p1 
from all other open- from the open-loop
loop poles to the pole zeros to the complex
in question pole in question
 The angle of entry into a
complex zero is given by

 zi = 180 (2k + 1) −  j
(  zi −  p j )


Angles of the vectors Angles of the vectors  z1
from all other open- from the open-loop
loop zeros to the zero poles to the complex
in question zero in question
Example: Given the open-loop transfer function
K ( s + 3)
G( s) H ( s) =
s( s + 5)[( s + 2) 2 + 4]
draw the angle of emergence from complex poles.

 − 
zi pj

= 63.5 − (135 + 90 + 33.5 +  )
=  (2k + 1)180
33.5o 63.5o 135o

 = −15 or − 375
90o
Rule 9: The gain at a selected point st on the locus is
obtained by applying Magnitude Equation
n

 | (s
j =1
t + pj) |
Kg = m

 | (s
i =1
t + zi ) |

To locate a point with specified gain, use trial and error.

Moving st toward the poles reduces the gain. Moving st
away from the poles increases the gain.

Rule 10: The sum of real parts of the closed-loop

poles is constant, independent of Kg, and equal to
the sum of the real parts of the open-loop poles.
 Summary

Content Rules
1 Continuity and Symmetry Symmetry Rule
Starting and end points n segments start from n open-loop
2 Number of segments poles, and end at m open-loop zeros
and (n-m) zeros at infinity.
3 Segments on real axis On the left of an odd number of poles
or zeros
4 Asymptote n-m segments：
(2k + 1)
＝  , k = 0,1,2,
n−m
n m
5 Asymptote  (− p ) −  (− z )
j =1
j
i =1
i

=
n−m
 Breakaway d [ F (s )] F (s ) = P (s ) + K g Z (s ) = 0
= 0
6 ds
and break-in
points P(s )Z (s ) − P (s )Z (s ) = 0

m n
1 1

i =1 zi − 
=
j =1 pi − 

Angle of emergence m n

Angle of  p =  (2k + 1) +  i −   j
i =1 j =1
7 emergence and Angle of entry j p
entry n m
 z =  (2k + 1) +   j −  i
j =1 i =1
i z
8 Cross on the Substitute s = j to characteristic equation
imaginary axis and solve
Routh’s formula
 Example k
G ( s) H ( s) =
( s + 1) 2 ( s + 1 + j18)( s + 1 − j18)
d [( s + 1) 2 ( s + 1 + j18)( s + 1 − j18)] s 4 + 4 s 3 + 24 s 2 + 40 s + 19 + k = 0
=0
ds 2 s4 1 24 19 + k
yields s + 3s + 12s + 10 = 0
3
s3 4 40 0
Solutions s1 = −1 s2,3 = −1  j3 s2 14 19 + k
484 − 4k
s1 0
14
s0 19 + k

j3.16
14s 2 + 140 = 0 s =  j 3.16
k =121
Breakaway
484-4k=0 getk =121
-1  180  ( 2k + 1)
 = = 45  或  135 
4
k=121 n m

-j3.16 p j −  zi
1+1+1+1
 =− j =1 i =1
=− = −1
n−m 4
2024/11/13
Example

j
K * ( s + 1)
G( s) = s1
s2

0

s2
Example

R(s ) + K + 0 .5 C(s )

− s − s (0.5s + 1)