SHAH AND ANCHOR KUTCHHI ENGINEERING

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DEPARTMENT
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ELECTRONICS & TELECOMMUNICATION
presentation ENGINEERING
on

Stability Analysis in Frequency Domain

( Electronics Instrumentation and control system , III)
by
Dr. Kalpana L Chaudhari
(Assistant Professor, Department of Electronics & Telecommunication Engineering)
Email: [email protected]
 The response of a system can be partitioned into both the
transient response and the steady state response.
We can find the transient response by using Fourier
integrals.
The steady state response of a system for an input
sinusoidal signal is known as the frequency response
Let the input sinusoidal signal is
r(t)=A sin(ω0t)

The open loop transfer function will be −

G(s)=G(jω)

Stability Analysis in frequency domain Electronics & Telecommunication Engineering

We can represent G(jω) in terms of magnitude and phase
as shown below.

G(jω)= | G(jω) | ∠G(jω)

Substitute, ω=ω0 in the above equation.

G(jω0)= | G(jω0) | ∠G(jω0)

The output signal is

c(t)=A | G( jω0) | sin( jω0+∠G( jω0))
➢ The amplitude of the output sinusoidal signal is obtained by
multiplying the amplitude of the input sinusoidal signal and
the magnitude of G(jω) at ω= ω0
➢ The phase of the output sinusoidal signal is obtained by
adding the phase of the input sinusoidal signal and the phase
of G(jω) at ω= ω0
Where,
A is the amplitude of the input sinusoidal signal.
ω0 is angular frequency of the input sinusoidal signal.

jω0=2πf0

Here, f0 is the frequency of the input sinusoidal signal. Similarly,

you can follow the same procedure for closed loop control
system.
1 Resonant Peak- Maximum value of the closed loop transfer function.
2 Resonant Frequency- Frequency at which resonant peak occurs.
3 Bandwidth- range of frequencies for which the system normalized gain is
more than -3db.
4 Cut-off rate- It is the slop of the log-magnitude curve near the cut off
frequency.
5 Gain Margin- The value of gain to be added to system in order to bring the
system to the boundary of instability.
6 Phase Margin- Additional phase lag to be added at the gain cross over freq.
in order to bring the system to the boundary of instability

Stability Analysis in frequency domain Electronics & Telecommunication Engineering

 Frequency Response Plots

• Frequency domain analysis of a system can be carried either analytically

or graphically.
• The various graphical techniques are
1 Bode Plot
2 Polar Plot
3 Nichols Plot
4 M and N circles

• Frequency response plots are used to determine the frequency domain

specifications, to study the stability of the system

Stability Analysis in frequency domain Electronics & Telecommunication Engineering

 Frequency Domain Specifications
The frequency domain specifications are resonant peak,
resonant frequency and bandwidth.

Consider the transfer function of the second order

closed loop control system as,

Stability Analysis in frequency domain Electronics & Telecommunication Engineering

Stability Analysis in frequency domain Electronics & Telecommunication Engineering
 Resonant Frequency
It is the frequency at which the magnitude of the frequency response
has peak value for the first time.
It is denoted by ωr. At ω=ωr, the first derivate of the magnitude of
T(jω) is zero.
Differentiate M with respect to u.

Stability Analysis in frequency domain Electronics & Telecommunication Engineering

Stability Analysis in frequency domain Electronics & Telecommunication Engineering
 Resonant Peak
It is the peak (maximum) value of the magnitude
of T(jω).
It is denoted by Mr.
At u=ur, the Magnitude of T(jω) is -

Resonant peak in frequency response corresponds to

the peak overshoot in the time domain transient
response for certain values of damping ratio δ. So,
the resonant peak and peak overshoot are
correlated to each other.
Stability Analysis in frequency domain Electronics & Telecommunication Engineering
 Bandwidth
It is the range of frequencies over which, the magnitude
of T(jω) drops to 70.7% from its zero frequency value.

At ω=0, the value of u will be zero.

Substitute, u=0 in M.

Stability Analysis in frequency domain Electronics & Telecommunication Engineering

 Take square of both sides

Stability Analysis in frequency domain Electronics & Telecommunication Engineering

 Bandwidth ωb in the frequency response is inversely proportional to the rise
time tr in the time domain transient response.

Stability Analysis in frequency domain Electronics & Telecommunication Engineering

The Bode plot or the Bode diagram consists of two
plots −
• Magnitude plot
• Phase plot

In both the plots, x-axis represents angular frequency

(logarithmic scale).

Whereas, y axis represents the magnitude (linear scale) of open

loop transfer function in the magnitude plot and the phase angle
(linear scale) of the open loop transfer function in the phase plot.

Stability Analysis in frequency domain Electronics & Telecommunication Engineering

 The magnitude of the open loop transfer function in dB is -
M=20log|G(jω)H(jω)| Note − The base of logarithm is 10.)

The phase angle of the open loop transfer function in

degrees is -
ϕ=∠G(jω)H(jω)

Stability Analysis in frequency domain Electronics & Telecommunication Engineering

GM and PM calculation
 Basics of Bode Plots
The table shows the slope, magnitude and the phase angle values of
the terms present in the open loop transfer function. This data is
useful while drawing the Bode plots.
Type of term G(jω)H(jω) Slope(dB/dec) Magnitude (dB) Phase
angle(degrees)

Constant K 0 20logK 0
Zero at origin jω 20 20logω 90

n’ zeros at origin (jω) n 20n 20nlogω 90n

Pole at origin 1/ jω −20 −20logω −90or270

n’ poles at origin 1/ (jω) n −20n -20nlogω −90n or270n

Simple zero 1 /1+jωr 20 0 for ω<1/r 0 for ω<1/r

20logωr for ω>1/r 90 for ω>1 /r
Simple pole −20 0 for ω<1/r 0for ω<1/ r
1 /1+jωr −20logωr for ω>1/r −90or270forω>1
/r

Stability Analysis in frequency domain Electronics & Telecommunication Engineering

Type of G(jω)H(jω) Slope(dB/dec) Magnitude (dB) Phase
term angle(degrees)

Stability Analysis in frequency domain Electronics & Telecommunication Engineering

 Consider the open loop transfer function G(s)H(s)=K.
Magnitude M=20logK dB

Phase angle ϕ=0 degrees

If K=1, then magnitude is 0 dB.

If K>1, then magnitude will be positive.
If K<1, then magnitude will be negative.
The following figure shows the corresponding Bode plot.

Stability Analysis in frequency domain Electronics & Telecommunication Engineering

 Consider the open loop transfer function G(s)H(s)=s.

Magnitude M=20logω dB

Phase angle ϕ=900

At ω=0.1 rad/sec, the magnitude is -20 dB.
At ω=1 rad/sec, the magnitude is 0 dB.
At ω=10rad/sec, the magnitude is 20 dB.
The following figure shows the corresponding Bode plot.

Stability Analysis in frequency domain Electronics & Telecommunication Engineering

 Consider the open loop transfer function G(s)H(s)=1+sτ.

This Bode plot is called the asymptotic Bode plot.

Stability Analysis in frequency domain Electronics & Telecommunication Engineering
➢ Represent the open loop transfer function in the standard time constant
form.
➢ Substitute, s=jω in the given equation.
➢ Find the corner frequencies and arrange them in ascending order.
➢ Consider the starting frequency of the Bode plot as 1/10th of the
minimum corner frequency or 0.1 rad/sec whichever is smaller value
and draw the Bode plot upto 10 times maximum corner frequency.
➢ Draw the magnitude plots for each term and combine these plots
properly.
➢ Draw the phase plots for each term and combine these plots properly.
➢ Note − The corner frequency is the frequency at which there is a change
in the slope of the magnitude plot.
Stability Analysis in frequency domain Electronics & Telecommunication Engineering
From the Bode plots, we can find stability of CS by considering parameters
Gain cross over frequency and phase cross over frequency
Gain margin and phase margin
Phase Cross over Frequency:
The frequency at which the phase plot is having the phase of -1800 is
known as phase cross over frequency. It is denoted by ωpc. The unit of
phase cross over frequency is rad/sec.

Gain Cross over Frequency

The frequency at which the magnitude plot is having the magnitude of zero dB
is known as gain cross over frequency. It is denoted by ωgc. The unit of gain
cross over frequency is rad/sec.
The stability of the CS based on the relation between the phase cross over ωpc
frequency and the gain cross over frequency ωgc
•If ωpc= ωgc then the control system is marginally stable.
•If ωpc. < ωgc , then the control system is unstable.
Stability Analysis in frequency domain Electronics & Telecommunication Engineering
 Gain Margin
Gain margin GMGM is equal to negative of the magnitude in dB at
phase cross over frequency.

Where, Mpc is the magnitude at phase cross over frequency.

The unit of gain margin (GM) is dB.

Phase Margin
The formula for phase margin PM is
PM=1800+ϕgc
Where, ϕgc is the phase angle at gain cross over frequency.

The unit of phase margin is degrees.

Stability Analysis in frequency domain Electronics & Telecommunication Engineering

The stability of the CSbased on the relation between gain margin GM and
phase margin PM is.

• If both the gain margin GM and the phase margin PM are positive, then
the control system is stable.

• If both the gain margin GMGM and the phase margin PM are equal to
zero, then the control system is marginally stable.

• If the gain margin GM and / or the phase margin PM are/is negative, then
the control system is unstable.

Stability Analysis in frequency domain Electronics & Telecommunication Engineering

https://lpsa.swarthmore.edu/Bode/BodeWhat.htm

l
already equation is given in above form so no need to do step1
Step-4: Draw reference slopes on top left corner of the semi-log
graph paper.

For magnitude plot draw a 0 dB axis line, with positive values above it
like 20 dB, 40 dB etc.
negative values below it like −20 dB, 40 dB etc.

For phase plot, draw a −180° axis line.

Above it the values will be like −150°, −120°, −90° etc. and the values
below it will be like −210°, −240°, −270° etc.
Step-5: Start plotting the magnitude plot by drawing a line with initial slope of −20
dB/dec that intersects the 0 dB axis at 5 rad/s.

This slope continues till first corner frequency of 2 rad/s.

Since this corner frequency is due to a pole, an additional slope of −20 dB/dec will be
added, hence the slope now will be −40 dB/dec.
This slope will continue till second corner frequency of 20 rad/s.

Since the second corner frequency is also due to a pole, an additional slope of −20
dB/dec will be added, and hence the slope now will be −60 dB/dec. This slope will
continue for all the further values of ω.
Step-6: Phase calculation: Only denominator terms will contribute to phase
angle. The expression for phase angle is given by:
Exercise
• There, we have two separate plots for both
magnitude and phase as the function of
frequency in Bode plot .
• Polar plot is a plot which can be drawn
between magnitude and phase. Here, the
magnitudes are represented by normal
values only.
• The polar form of G(jω)H(jω) is
G(jω)H(jω)=|G(jω)H(jω)| ∠G(jω)H(jω)
• The Polar plot is a plot, which can be
drawn between the magnitude and the
phase angle of G(jω)H(jω) by
varying ω from zero to ∞.
Stability Analysis in frequency domain Electronics & Telecommunication Engineering
➢ This graph sheet consists of
concentric circles and radial lines.
The concentric circles and
the radial lines represent the
magnitudes and phase angles
respectively.

➢ These angles are represented by

positive values in anti-clock wise
direction. Similarly,
➢ we can represent angles with
negative values in clockwise
direction.
➢ For example, the angle 2700 in
anti-clock wise direction is equal to
the angle −900 in clockwise
direction.

Stability Analysis in frequency domain Electronics & Telecommunication Engineering

Rules for Drawing Polar Plots
➢ Substitute, s=jω in the open loop transfer function.
➢ Write the expressions for magnitude and the phase of G(jω)H(jω).
➢ Find the starting magnitude and the phase of G(jω)H(jω) by
substituting ω=0. So, the polar plot starts with this magnitude and the
phase angle.
➢ Find the ending magnitude and the phase of G(jω)H(jω) by
substituting ω=∞. So, the polar plot ends with this magnitude and the
phase angle.
➢ Check whether the polar plot intersects the real axis, by making the
imaginary term of G(jω)H(jω) equal to zero and find the value(s) of ω.
➢ Check whether the polar plot intersects the imaginary axis, by making real
term of G(jω)H(jω) equal to zero and find the value(s) of ω.
➢ For drawing polar plot more clearly, find the magnitude and phase of
G(jω)H(jω) by considering the other value(s) of ω.
Stability Analysis in frequency domain Electronics & Telecommunication Engineering
 The concentric circles represent the magnitude, and the radial lines represent phase angles.
Each point on the graph displays information about the magnitude and the phase angle.

The example of a polar graph is shown below:

The positive angle in a polar graph is measured in the

anti-clockwise direction, while the negative angle is
measured clockwise direction.

Both the angles are measured with respect to the

reference point, i.e., 0 degree axis.

Effect of addition of pole and zero

The addition of pole in the polar plot will shift its end by -90 degrees.
The addition of zero in the polar plot will shift its end by +90 degrees.
 Type and order of the system
The type of the system in the polar plot determines the
quadrant at which the polar plot starts.
The start of the polar plot of all poles is shown in the below
diagram

The order of the system in the polar plot determines the

quadrant at which the polar plot ends.

The end of the polar plot of all poles is shown in the below
diagram.
Type 0
Order: 1
Let, G(s) = 1/(1 + sT)
Put, s= jω
G(jω) = 1/(1 + jωT)

The above transfer function in the form of magnitude and angle can be represented as:
G(jω) = 1/[(1 + ω2 T2)1/2∠tan-1ωT]
If we consider the angle part in the numerator, we need to insert a negative sign due to the
transition from the denominator to the numerator or vice-versa.

G(jω) = 1∠-tan-1ωT /(1 + ω2 T2)1/2

Let's find the value of the above function at zero and infinity.
When, ω = 0
G(jω) = 1∠0/1
G(jω) = 1∠0
It is because tan-10 = 0
When, ω = infinity
G(jω) = 0∠-90
It is because tan-1 ∞ = 90 degrees
The polar plot at value 0 and infinity will appear as:
Type 0:
Order2:

Since, it is a 2 order system; the function includes the highest derivative variable (s) with the power 2.

Let, G(s) = 1/(1 + sT1) (1 + sT2)

Put, s= jω

G(jω) = 1/(1 + jωT1) (1 + jωT2)

The above transfer function in the form of magnitude and angle can be represented as:

G(jω) = 1/[(1 + ω2 T1 2)1/2∠tan-1ωT1][(1 + ω2 T2 2)1/2∠tan-1ωT2]

If we consider the angle part in the numerator, we need to insert a negative sign due to the transition
from the denominator to the numerator, as shown below:
G(jω) = 1∠(-tan-1ωT1 - tan-1ωT2) /(1 + ω2 T1 2)1/2(1 + ω2 T2 2)1/2
Let's find the value of the above function at zero and infinity.

When, ω = 0

G(jω) = 1∠(-0 - 0)/1x1

G(jω) = 1∠0
It is because tan-10 = 0
When, ω = infinity
G(jω) = 0∠(-90 - 90)/1
G(jω) = 0∠-180
It is because tan-1 ∞ = 90 degrees
The polar plot at value 0 and infinity will appear as:
Type 1
Order: 1
Let, G(s) = 1/s

When, ω = 0
G(jω) =∞ ∠-90
When, ω = infinity
G(jω) = 0∠-90

Order: 2
Let, G(s) = 1/s(1 + sT)
When, ω = 0
G(jω) =∞ ∠-90
When, ω = infinity
G(jω) = 0∠(-90-90)
G(jω) = 0∠-180
 Example to sketch Polar Plot
Suppose we have a Type 0 system whose transfer function is given as:

The first step is to convert the given transfer function into the frequency domain.

Thus, it will be written as:

Now, further calculating the magnitude,

Also, the phase angle condition

Now, we have to calculate magnitude and angle by substituting different
values of ω between 0 and ∞.

Hence, the tabulated data shows that the starting point is 1 ∠0° and terminating
point is 0 ∠-90°. Thus, the plot will terminate at the origin, tangential to the
axis of angle -90°.
Thus, the plot is represented as:
Example Consider the open loop transfer function of a closed loop control
system.

G(s)H(s)=5 / s(s+1)(s+2)

Let us draw the polar plot for this control system using the above rules.

Stability Analysis in frequency domain Electronics & Telecommunication Engineering

Stability Analysis in frequency domain Electronics & Telecommunication Engineering
How to find GM : Check the point where your polar plot is intersecting to 180 degree. the
distance from that point of intersection to origin is X , GM= 20 Log[1/x]
How to find PH: Draw circle with magnitude 1(unit circle ). Find the point where polar
plot intersect to unit circle and draw corresponding radial line through intersect point
from origin that angle is PM , PM=180+θ
(or measure angle with respective 180 that is your PM)
Draw the polar plot
How to find GM and PM

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=udUKC4KNyAs
Nyquist plots are the continuation of polar plots for finding the
stability of the closed loop control systems by varying ω from −∞
to ∞.
That means, Nyquist plots are used to draw the complete
frequency response of the open loop transfer function.
The Nyquist Path (with no poles on the jω
axis). The Nyquist Path (with poles on the jω axis).
Nyquist Stability Criterion
▪ The Nyquist stability criterion works on the principle of argument.
It states that if there are P poles and Z zeros are enclosed by the ‘s’ plane
closed path, then the corresponding G(s)H(s) plane must encircle the
origin P−Z times.
So, we can write the number of encirclements N as,

N=P−Z

▪ If the enclosed ‘s’ plane closed path contains only poles, then the
direction of the encirclement in the G(s)H(s) plane will be opposite to the
direction of the enclosed closed path in the ‘s’ plane.

▪ If the enclosed ‘s’ plane closed path contains only zeros, then the
direction of the encirclement in the G(s)H(s) plane will be in the same
direction as that of the enclosed closed path in the ‘s’ plane.
▪ Let us now apply the principle of argument to the entire right half of the
‘s’ plane by selecting it as a closed path. This selected path is called the
Nyquist contour
➢ Locate the poles and zeros of open loop transfer function G(s)H(s) in ‘s’ plane.
➢ Draw the polar plot by varying ω from zero to infinity. If pole or zero present at s
= 0, then varying ω from 0+ to infinity for drawing polar plot.
➢ Draw the mirror image of above polar plot for values of ω ranging from −∞ to
zero (0− if any pole or zero present at s=0).
➢ The number of infinite radius half circles will be equal to the number of poles or
zeros at origin. The infinite radius half circle will start at the point where the
mirror image of the polar plot ends. And this infinite radius half circle will end at
the point where the polar plot starts.
➢ After drawing the NY plot, find the stability of the closed loop CS using the
Nyquist stability criterion. If the critical point (-1+j0) lies outside the
encirclement, then the closed loop control system is absolutely stable.
From the Nyquist plots, we can identify whether the CS is stable,
marginally stable or unstable based on the values of these parameters.

• Gain cross over frequency and phase cross over frequency

• Gain margin and phase margin
Phase Cross over Frequency:
The frequency at which the Nyquist plot intersects the negative real axis
(phase angle is 1800) is known as the phase cross over frequency. It is
denoted by ωpc.
Gain Cross over Frequency
The frequency at which the Nyquist plot is having the magnitude of one
is known as the gain cross over frequency.
It is denoted by ωgc.

The stability of the cs based on the relation between phase cross over
frequency ωpc and gain cross over frequency ωgc.

If the phase cross over frequency ωpc is greater than the gain cross over
frequency (ωpc >ωgc), then the control system is stable.

If ωpc=ωgc, then the cs is marginally stable.

If ωpc < ωgc, then the control system is unstable.

Gain Margin
The gain margin GM is equal to the reciprocal of the
magnitude of the Nyquist plot at the phase cross over
frequency.
GM=1/ Mpc
Where, Mpc is the magnitude in normal scale at the phase
cross over frequency.

Phase Margin
The phase margin PM is equal to the sum of 1800 and the
phase angle at the gain cross over frequency.
PM=1800 0+ϕgc
Where, ϕgc is the phase angle at the gain cross over
frequency.
The stability of the cs based on the relation between the gain margin and the
phase margin

If GM >1 and PM is positive, then the control system is stable.

If the GM =1 and PM =00 then the control system is marginally stable.

If GM <1and PM is negative, then the control system is unstable.

Contour and Plot

S plane Contour G plane contour

In polar plot we very the frequency from 0 to infinity but in Nyquist plot
we need to very frequency from infinity to minus infinity
Draw polar plot: x axis real term and y axis imaginary term (real axis take
magnitude )
 =∞

• The frequency response may be regarded as a complete description of the

sinusoidal steady-state behavior of a circuit as a function of frequency.

• The sinusoidal steady-state frequency responses of circuits are of significance in

many applications, especially in communications and CS
•
• We also consider series and parallel resonant circuits and encounter important
concepts such as resonance, quality factor, cutoff frequency, and bandwidth.

The transfer function H(ω) (also called the network function) is a useful analytical
tool for finding the frequency response of a circuit.
In fact, the frequency response of a circuit is the plot of the circuit’s transfer
function H(ω) versus ω, with ω varying from ω= 0 to ω
A transfer function is the frequency-dependent ratio of a forced function to a forcing
function (or of an output to an input).
The idea of a transfer function was implicit when we used the concepts of impedance
and admittance to relate voltage and current.
In general, a linear network can be represented by the block diagram

The transfer function H(ω) of a circuit is the frequency-dependent ratio of a phasor output Y(ω)
(an element voltage or current) to a phasor input X(ω) (source voltage or current).

Y(ω)
H(ω) =
X(ω)
Assuming zero initial conditions.
Since the input and output can be either voltage or current at any
place in the circuit, there are four possible transfer functions:
Example :
For the RC circuit in Fig. 14.2(a), obtain the transfer function Vo/Vs and its frequency
response. Let vs = Vm cos ωt.
Example2 (practice example)
1/(1+sT) Or find Cut of freq= 1/T
Example 3 (practice example)

Find out TF , prepare table

for different values of
frequency ?????
Exercise 1 on polar plot
Prepare table for polar plot and draw polar plot
Exercise2 on polar plot
Prepare table for polar plot and draw polar plot
 =∞

• The frequency response may be regarded as a complete description of the

sinusoidal steady-state behavior of a circuit as a function of frequency.

• The sinusoidal steady-state frequency responses of circuits are of significance in

many applications, especially in communications and CS
•
• We also consider series and parallel resonant circuits and encounter important
concepts such as resonance, quality factor, cutoff frequency, and bandwidth.

The transfer function H(ω) (also called the network function) is a useful analytical
tool for finding the frequency response of a circuit.
In fact, the frequency response of a circuit is the plot of the circuit’s transfer
function H(ω) versus ω, with ω varying from ω= 0 to ω
A transfer function is the frequency-dependent ratio of a forced function to a forcing
function (or of an output to an input).
The idea of a transfer function was implicit when we used the concepts of impedance
and admittance to relate voltage and current.
In general, a linear network can be represented by the block diagram

The transfer function H(ω) of a circuit is the frequency-dependent ratio of a phasor output Y(ω)
(an element voltage or current) to a phasor input X(ω) (source voltage or current).

Y(ω)
H(ω) =
X(ω)
Assuming zero initial conditions.
Since the input and output can be either voltage or current at any
place in the circuit, there are four possible transfer functions:
Example :
For the RC circuit in Fig. 14.2(a), obtain the transfer function Vo/Vs and its frequency
response. Let vs = Vm cos ωt.
Example 2 (practice example)

Find out TF , prepare table

for different values of
frequency ?????