1 marks

Module 1
1. What is data Preprocessing? (Ans: This refers to the transformations applied to the
identified data before feeding the same into the algorithm.)
2. _______ predicts future trends & behaviors, allowing business managers to
make proactive, knowledge-driven decisions. (Ans: Datamining)
3. Record cannot be updated in ____________ (Ans: Data Warehouse)
4. Define Data scrubbing (Ans: a process to upgrade the quality of data before
it is moved into a data warehouse)
5. Star schema follows which type of relationship ? (Ans: One-to-Many)
6. The algorithm which uses the concept of a train running over data to find
associations of items in data mining is known as _____________ (Ans: FP-
Tree growth algorithm)
7. Mention the data mining algorithm which is used by Google Search to rank
web pages in their search engine results. (Ans: PageRank Algorithm)

8. Identify the statistical measure to quantify the direction and strength of the
relationship between two continuous variables? (Ans: The Pearson correlation
coefficient )
9. What does a correlation coefficient value of 0 indicate about the relationship
between two variables X and Y? (Ans: There is no linear relationship between
the two variables X and Y.)
10. Define the primary goal of Sequential Pattern Mining in data analysis? (Ans:
To identify the patterns in data where the events occurred in a sequence.)
11. Identify the complicated method between Sequential Pattern Mining and
Association Rule Mining. Mention why. (Ans: Sequential Pattern Mining.
Because it deals with sequences of items where the order and timing of
events matter, adding an additional layer of complexity beyond the simple co-
occurrence of items in transactions.)
12. Discuss "gap constraint" in Sequential Pattern Mining? (Ans: It specifies the
allowed number of items or time intervals between elements in a sequential
pattern, controlling how far apart elements can be in the sequence to still
count towards the pattern.)
13. ____________________ define the multidimensional model of the data
warehouse. (Ans: Data Cube)

14. How many approaches are there in data warehousing to integrate

heterogeneous databases? (Ans: There are two different approaches to
integrating heterogeneous databases - a) query driver approach b) update
driven approach.)
15. Why is "data partitioning" needed in scalable data mining? (Ans: Data
partitioning refers to the process of dividing a large dataset into smaller,
 manageable pieces (partitions) that can be processed independently and in
parallel. This is important for scalable data mining as it enhances
computational efficiency, allows for distributed processing across multiple
machines, and helps in handling very large datasets that cannot fit into the
memory of a single machine.)
Module 2
1. Classification rules are extracted from _____________ (Ans: decision tree)
2. Dimensionality reduction reduces the data set size by removing
____________ (Ans: irrelevant attribute)
3. Clustering is related to ___________ (Ans: Unsupervised learning)
4. Decision tree building process involves calculation of _______ (Ans:
Information gain)
5. Supervised learning deals with ____________ (Ans: Labeled data)
6. Naïve bayes algorithm is based on __________ (Ans: Probability)
7. DBSCAN(Density Based Spatial Clustering of Applications with Noise)finds
__________________ (Ans: Objects that have dense neighbourhoods.)
8. Define the term ‘Naive’ in Naive Bayes? (Ans: it is naive as it makes an
assumption that all attributes are mutually independent.)
9. Identify the main reason for pruning a decision tree. (Ans: To avoid overfitting
the training set)
10. Write two difficulties with the k-nearest neighbor algorithm. (Ans: Curse of
dimensionality, Calculate the distance of the test case from all training cases)
11. How is the optimal number of clusters typically determined in K-means
clustering? (Ans: The optimal number of clusters in K-means clustering is
typically determined by employing an elbow plot or silhouette analysis to
identify the point where adding more clusters does not result in a significant
improvement in the within-cluster variance.)
12. What is the minimum no. of variables/ features required to perform
clustering? (Ans: 1)
13. Classification rules are extracted from _____________________ (Ans:
Decision tree)
 14. Define Dendrogram in hierarchical clustering. (Ans: A tree-like diagram that
displays the arrangements of the clusters produced by hierarchical
clustering.)
15. Write down the process "Complete Linkage" method follows to determine the
distance between two clusters, and which type of cluster shapes it can
identify efficiently compared to the "Average Linkage" method? (Ans: The
Complete Linkage method determines the distance between two clusters
based on the maximum distance between any pair of elements (one from
each cluster). It is most effective at identifying well-separated and compact
clusters, as it tends to avoid chaining that can occur with other methods. In
contrast, the Average Linkage method calculates the distance between
clusters as the average distance between all pairs of elements in the two
clusters. This method is generally more robust to noise and outliers compared
to Complete Linkage and is better at identifying clusters that have a roughly
spherical shape but might vary in size.)

Module 3
1. Discuss the purpose of time series forecasting. (Ans: To analyze historical
data patterns to predict future values or trends in the data series.)

Module 4
1. What is the primary focus of data stream mining?

Module 5
1.What is web mining and how does it differ from traditional data mining?

Answer: Web mining is the process of discovering useful patterns and

information from the World Wide Web. It differs from traditional data mining in
that it focuses specifically on web-related data, including web content,
structure, and usage patterns.
2.What are the three main categories of web mining?

Answer: The three main categories of web mining are web content mining,
web structure mining, and web usage mining. Web content mining deals with
extracting information from web pages, web structure mining analyzes the link
structure of the web, and web usage mining focuses on analyzing user
interaction data.
3. What is mining web link structure, and why is it important?
Answer: Mining web link structure involves analyzing the relationships
between web pages through hyperlinks. It is important because it helps
understand the organization and hierarchy of information on the web,
improves search engine ranking algorithms, and assists in detecting spam and
fraudulent websites.
4.What techniques are used in mining web link structure?

Answer: Techniques used in mining web link structure include link analysis
algorithms such as PageRank and HITS (Hypertext Induced Topic Selection),
graph-based algorithms, and network analysis methods to analyze the
topology of the web graph.
5.How does mining multimedia data differ from mining textual data on the
web?

Answer: Mining multimedia data involves extracting information from non-

textual content such as images, audio, and video, whereas mining textual data
focuses on extracting information from text-based content. Techniques for
mining multimedia data often involve image processing, audio analysis, and
video processing, in addition to text mining techniques.
6.What are the challenges in mining multimedia data on the web?

Answer: Challenges in mining multimedia data include the high dimensionality

and complexity of multimedia content, the need for specialized algorithms for
different types of media, issues with copyright and intellectual property rights,
and the large storage and processing requirements for multimedia data.
7.How can distributed web mining be beneficial?

Answer: Distributed web mining involves distributing the mining tasks across
multiple nodes or machines in a network. It can be beneficial for handling
large volumes of web data, improving scalability and efficiency, and facilitating
collaborative mining efforts among multiple organizations or researchers.
8.What are some techniques used in distributed web mining?

Answer: Techniques used in distributed web mining include parallel

processing, distributed computing frameworks such as MapReduce and
Apache Spark, data partitioning and replication strategies, and communication
protocols for coordinating mining tasks among distributed nodes.
9.What are the privacy and security implications of web mining?
Answer: Web mining raises concerns about user privacy and data security, as
it involves collecting and analyzing potentially sensitive information from web
users. Measures such as anonymization, data encryption, and compliance
with privacy regulations like GDPR are important for addressing these
concerns.
10.How does web mining contribute to business intelligence and decision-
making?

Answer: Web mining provides valuable insights into customer behavior,

market trends, competitor analysis, and user preferences, which can inform
business intelligence and decision-making processes. It helps businesses
optimize marketing strategies, improve product offerings, enhance customer
satisfaction, and identify new business opportunities.

Module 6
1. What is graph mining, and how does it differ from traditional data
mining?

Answer: Graph mining is the process of discovering interesting patterns

and knowledge from graph-structured data. It differs from traditional
data mining in that it focuses specifically on analyzing relationships and
structures represented as graphs, rather than tabular or sequential data.
2.What are the main types of graphs commonly analyzed in graph
mining?

Answer: The main types of graphs analyzed in graph mining include

directed graphs (digraphs), undirected graphs, weighted graphs,
bipartite graphs, and multi-graphs. Each type of graph represents
different types of relationships and structures.
3.What are some common techniques used in graph mining?

Answer: Common techniques used in graph mining include subgraph

mining, graph clustering, graph pattern matching, graph traversal
algorithms (e.g., BFS, DFS), centrality measures (e.g., degree
centrality, betweenness centrality), and community detection algorithms.
4.What is social network analysis (SNA), and how does it relate to
graph mining?

Answer: Social network analysis (SNA) is the process of analyzing

social networks to understand the relationships and interactions
between individuals or entities. It is closely related to graph mining
because social networks can be represented as graphs, where nodes
represent individuals or entities, and edges represent relationships or
interactions between them.
5.What are some key metrics used in social network analysis?

Answer: Key metrics used in social network analysis include centrality

measures (e.g., degree centrality, closeness centrality, betweenness
centrality), clustering coefficient, network density, assortativity, and
modularity.
6.How can graph mining and social network analysis be applied in real-
world scenarios?

Answer: Graph mining and social network analysis have various

applications in real-world scenarios, including social media analysis,
recommendation systems, fraud detection, biological network analysis,
transportation network optimization, and analyzing communication
networks.
7.What are some challenges in graph mining and social network
analysis?

Answer: Challenges in graph mining and social network analysis include

handling large-scale graphs, scalability issues with complex algorithms,
dealing with noisy and incomplete data, ensuring privacy and security of
sensitive network data, and interpreting and visualizing complex
network structures.
8.How can graph mining and social network analysis contribute to
understanding online communities?

Answer: Graph mining and social network analysis can help understand
online communities by identifying influential users, detecting community
structures, analyzing information flow within communities, predicting
user behavior and preferences, and detecting anomalies or suspicious
activities.
9.What are some popular tools and software libraries for graph mining
and social network analysis?

Answer: Popular tools and software libraries for graph mining and social
network analysis include NetworkX (Python library), Gephi, igraph (R
 package), Cytoscape, SNAP (Stanford Network Analysis Platform), and
GraphX (Apache Spark library).

10.How can graph mining and social network analysis be used to

identify key influencers in a network?

Answer: Graph mining and social network analysis can identify key
influencers in a network by analyzing centrality measures such as
degree centrality (number of connections), betweenness centrality
(importance of a node in connecting other nodes), and eigenvector
centrality (importance of a node based on its connections to other
important nodes). These metrics help identify nodes that play crucial
roles in information diffusion and network dynamics.

5 marks

Module 1
1. Define data warehouse? Discuss the basic characteristics of a data
warehouse. 1+4
2. Differentiate operational database systems and a data warehouse.
3. Differentiate between data warehouse and data mart.
4. Define data cube. Write down the conversion procedure of tables and
spreadsheets to data cubes?
1+4
5. Distinguish between OLTP system and OLAP system.
6. Discuss the various phases of knowledge discovery from the database?
7. Explain predictive and descriptive data mining.
8. Define association rules in the context of data mining? Describe the terms
support and confidence with the help of suitable examples.
9. Write down some advantages and disadvantages of FP-Tree algorithm
10. Discuss the constraints in Constraint based Association rule mining?

Module 2
1. Describe the decision tree classifier algorithm and how it works to make
predictions
2. Write short note on Confusion Matrix
3. Define conditional Probability. Discuss Bayes theorem.
4. Define Precision,Recall and F1 Score
 5. Name two ASM(Attribute Selection Measures) in the decision tree. Discuss
one of them.
6. Define Gini impurity. Compare between Entropy and Gini impurity

Module 3
1. Explain the concept of similarity search in time series analysis

Module 4
1. What is sequential pattern mining in data streams?

Module 5
1. what are the basic steps to mine web page lay out structure ?

Ans :Mining web page layout structure involves extracting information

about the arrangement and organization of elements within a web page.
Here are the basic steps to mine web page layout structure:

a.Web Page Retrieval: Retrieve the HTML source code of the web page
of interest. This can be done using web scraping techniques or by
accessing the page directly via its URL.

b.HTML Parsing: Parse the HTML source code to extract the structural
elements of the web page, such as tags, attributes, and content. Use
HTML parsing libraries like BeautifulSoup (Python) or jsoup (Java) for
this purpose.

c.Identify Layout Elements: Identify and extract the layout elements

from the parsed HTML. These elements include containers, grids,
columns, headers, footers, sidebars, and other structural components
that contribute to the overall layout of the page.

d.Analyze CSS Styles: Analyze the CSS styles associated with each
layout element to understand their visual properties, such as position,
size, margin, padding, and display properties. Extract relevant CSS
properties using CSS parsing libraries or regular expressions.

e.Detect Hierarchical Relationships: Determine the hierarchical

relationships between layout elements, such as parent-child
relationships and sibling relationships. This information helps
 understand the nesting and grouping of elements within the page
layout.

f.Extract Positioning Information: Extract positioning information for

each layout element, including absolute or relative positioning, float
properties, and positioning within the document flow. This information
helps understand the spatial arrangement of elements on the page.

g.Capture Responsive Design: Capture responsive design patterns by

analyzing media queries, viewport settings, and CSS breakpoints. This
helps understand how the layout adapts to different screen sizes and
device orientations.

h.Visualize Layout Structure: Visualize the extracted layout structure

using graphical representations or tree structures. This provides a visual
overview of the hierarchical relationships and spatial arrangement of
elements within the page layout.

i.Evaluate Design Patterns: Analyze the layout structure to identify

recurring design patterns, such as grid layouts, card-based designs, or
navigation menus. Understanding common design patterns helps in
designing and implementing web page templates and UI components.

j.Apply Machine Learning Techniques (Optional): Optionally, apply

machine learning techniques to automate the process of identifying
layout elements and analyzing their properties. Techniques such as
clustering, classification, or deep learning can be used to train models
on labeled data and predict layout structures for new web pages.

2. What is distributed web mining ? How it is performed ?

Distributed web mining refers to the process of performing web mining
tasks across multiple nodes or machines in a distributed computing
environment. This approach is adopted to handle large volumes of web
data efficiently and to improve scalability. Here are the basic steps
involved in performing distributed web mining:

a.Data Partitioning: The first step is to partition the web data into smaller
subsets or chunks that can be distributed across multiple nodes in the
network. This can be done based on various criteria such as URL
ranges, domain names, or geographical regions.
b.Node Selection: Determine the nodes or machines in the distributed
network that will participate in the mining process. These nodes can be
physical machines or virtual machines connected over a network.

c.Task Distribution: Distribute the mining tasks among the selected

nodes based on the partitioned data. Each node is assigned a specific
subset of data to process and analyze. Tasks can include web crawling,
data extraction, feature extraction, or analysis tasks depending on the
objectives of the mining process.

d.Parallel Processing: Execute the mining tasks in parallel across the

distributed nodes to leverage the computing power of multiple machines
simultaneously. Each node independently processes its assigned data
subset without relying on centralized coordination.

e.Data Exchange and Aggregation: Exchange intermediate results and

aggregated data between the distributed nodes as needed. This may
involve transferring extracted features, patterns, or summaries of mined
data between nodes to combine and integrate results.

f.Consolidation and Integration: Consolidate the results obtained from

individual nodes to generate a comprehensive analysis of the entire
dataset. This involves integrating and merging the mined patterns,
insights, or models obtained from different nodes into a unified
representation.

g.Quality Assurance and Validation: Validate the accuracy and quality of

the distributed mining results through cross-validation, error checking,
or comparison with ground truth data if available. Ensure consistency
and reliability in the analysis across all distributed nodes.

h.Result Aggregation and Reporting: Aggregate the validated results

from all distributed nodes to produce final mining outcomes or reports.
This may involve summarizing key findings, visualizing patterns, or
generating actionable insights from the mined data.

i.Monitoring and Maintenance: Monitor the distributed mining process

continuously to detect any failures, errors, or performance bottlenecks.
 Take appropriate corrective actions such as reallocating tasks, scaling
resources, or restarting failed nodes to ensure smooth execution.

j.Scalability and Flexibility: Ensure that the distributed web mining

system is designed to scale efficiently with increasing data volumes and
computational requirements. The system should be flexible enough to
accommodate changes in data sources, mining tasks, or network
configurations over time.

Module 6
1. What is class imbalance problem ?How it is handled ?
Class imbalance problem refers to the situation in which the distribution
of classes in a dataset is skewed, with one class significantly
outnumbering the other(s). This imbalance can cause challenges for
predictive modeling and classification algorithms, particularly those that
assume a balanced class distribution.

Definition: Class imbalance occurs when one class (the minority class)
is significantly underrepresented compared to other classes (the
majority class or classes) in the dataset.

Impact on Learning Algorithms: Traditional machine learning algorithms

are often designed to maximize overall accuracy, which can lead them
to favor the majority class and perform poorly on the minority class. As
a result, models may have high accuracy overall but low predictive
performance for the minority class.

Performance Metrics: Accuracy is not an appropriate performance

metric for imbalanced datasets because it can be misleading. Instead,
evaluation metrics such as precision, recall, F1-score, and area under
the ROC curve (AUC-ROC) are more informative for assessing model
performance on imbalanced data.

2.What is the concept of centrality in social network analysis and its

significance in graph mining?

Ans : Centrality in social network analysis refers to the measure of

importance or influence of a node within a network. It quantifies the
relative significance of nodes based on their structural position and
 connectivity patterns. Centrality metrics help identify key nodes that play
crucial roles in information flow, communication dynamics, and network
cohesion.

There are various centrality measures used in social network analysis,

including degree centrality, betweenness centrality, closeness centrality,
and eigenvector centrality. Degree centrality measures the number of
connections a node has, representing its popularity or prominence in
the network. Betweenness centrality quantifies the extent to which a
node acts as a bridge or intermediary between other nodes in the
network, controlling the flow of information. Closeness centrality
measures how quickly a node can reach other nodes in the network,
indicating its proximity and accessibility. Eigenvector centrality
considers not only a node's direct connections but also the importance
of its connections' connections, reflecting its influence within the broader
network.

In graph mining, centrality measures are essential for analyzing the

structural properties of networks and identifying key nodes or patterns.
They help uncover critical nodes that serve as hubs of communication,
brokers of information, or influencers within the network. By examining
centrality distributions and patterns, graph mining techniques can reveal
underlying network structures, identify central communities, detect
anomalies, and predict network dynamics. Overall, centrality analysis
plays a vital role in understanding the organization, behavior, and
significance of nodes within social networks and other complex
systems, making it a fundamental concept in both social network
analysis and graph mining.

15 marks

Module 1
1. Compare 2-tier, 3-tier, 4-tier data warehouse architecture with proper
diagram. Discuss the tangible and intangible benefits of data warehouse.
10+5
2. Define schema. Discuss various schemas used in data warehouse with
proper diagram. List the advantages and disadvantages for all schemas.
2+7+6
3. Discuss the typical OLAP operations with an example. Write in brief on
various kinds of OLAP servers/models.
9+6
4. Explain the architecture of a data mining system. Discuss the types of
knowledge discovered during data mining. Define outlier mining.
7+6+2
5. Write down the steps of Apriori Algorithm. For the following Given Transaction
Data-Set, Generate Rules using Apriori Algorithm. Consider the Values as
SUPPORT= 50% and CONFIDENCE = 75%.
Transaction ID Items Purchased
1 Bread, cheese, Egg, Juice
2 Bread, cheese, Juice
3 Bread, Milk, Yogurt
4 Bread, Juice, Milk
5 Cheese, Juice, Milk

Ans: Rule 1: Bread-> Juice

Rule 2: Juice -> Bread
Rule 3: Cheese -> Juice
Rule 4: Juice -> Cheese
6. Discuss the Drawbacks of Apriori Algorithm? Explain the FP Growth Concept
in Detail? Discuss the application of Association Rule Mining.
5+6+4

7. Discuss the steps of Sequential PAttern Discovery using Equivalence classes

(SPADE).
A retail store is interested in understanding the shopping patterns of its
customers to optimize product placement and promotional strategies. The
store has collected a dataset of transactions over a 10-day period. Each
transaction is recorded with a unique transaction ID (TID) and the items
purchased during that transaction. The store wants to use the SPADE
algorithm to mine this dataset for frequent sequences of item purchases.
The dataset consists of the following transactions:

TID Items

1 A, B

2 C

3 A, C, D
 4 B, C

5 A, D

6 B, D

7 A, B, C

8 A, C, D

9 C

10 B, C, D

Apply SPADE to identify frequent sequences with a minimum support of 3

Ans: Only ACD meets the minimum support of 3.

● Single items: A, B, C, D
● 2-item sequences: AB, AC, AD, BC, BD, CD
● 3-item sequence: ACD

6+9

Module 2
1. Discuss K means Clustering algorithm.
Consider the 5 data points shown below:
p1:(1,2,3) p2:(0,1,2) p3:(3,0,5) p4:(4,1,3) p5:(5,0,1)
Apply the Kmeans clustering algorithm,to group those data points into 2
clusters. Consider the initial centroids are C1:(1,0,0) & C2:(0,1,1).

Ans: C1: {p3, p4, p5}, C2: {p1, p2}

2. Discuss Naïve Bayes Classifier Algorithm.Why is it called Naïve Bayes ?

Using these probabilities estimate the probability values for the new instance
(Color=Green,legs =2,Height=Tall,and Smelly=No).
 No Color Legs Height Smelly Species

1 White 3 Short Yes M

2 Green 2 Tall No M

3 Green 3 Short Yes M

4 White 3 Short Yes M

5 Green 2 Short No H

6 White 2 Tall No H

7 White 2 Tall No H

8 White 2 Short Yes H

Ans: Species H

3. Discuss KNN algorithm. Solve the problem using KNN algorithm Compute the
class label for test instance t1= (3, 7) using KNN (k=3). How do you find the K
value in k nearest neighbour?

Training X1 X2 output
Instances

I1 7 7 0

I2 7 4 0

I3 3 4 1

I4 1 4 1
Ans: For K= 1 output is 1

K=2 output is 1

K=3 output is 0

Maximum times 1 occurs, so output for t1(3,7) => 1

4. Estimate entropy of this collection of training examples with respect to the target
function classification. Compute the information gain at a1 & a2 relative to these
training examples. Draw a decision tree for the given dataset.

Instance Classification a1 a2

1 + T T

2 + T T

3 - T F

4 + F F

5 - F T

6 - F T

Compare Entropy & Gini impurity. What is entropy? Write mathematical formula for
Entropy. 8+2+2+3

Ans:
Whole set S
Attribute: a1, Values (T, F)
Entropy (S) =1.0
Entropy(T)=0.9183
Entropy(F)=0.9183
Information Gain (S,a1)= 0.0817

Attribute: a2, Values (T,F)

Entropy (S)=1.0
Entropy(T)=1.0
Entropy(F)=1.0
Information Gain (S, a2)= 0.0

a1 is having maximum information gain so a1 will be root node in the decision tree.
Follow the rule accordingly to draw complete decision tree.

5. State and explain Agglomerative Hierarchical clustering algorithm. Cluster the one
dimensional dataset X=[3, 7, 10, 17, 18, 20] into 3 clusters using average linkage
agglomerative hierarchical clustering. State differences between partitional and
hierarchical clustering. State the limitation of k-means algorithm.
4+6+3+2

Ans: Resultant clusters {3}, {7,10}, (17,18, 20)

6. State Hunt’s algorithm for decision tree based classifier. What are the minimum
and maximum values of GINI index for splitting an attribute? What will be the value
of GINI index for the following multiway split of ‘CarType’ attribute?

Consider the two way split of attribute ‘CarType’. The distribution of samples
in two classes `C1’ and `C2’ are following:

Which splitting is best and why?

Ans: Gini index for multi-way split: 0.393

Information Gain by 1st one 0.08, Information Gain by 2nd one 0.061, Since
0.08>0.061, 1st one is best as it provides maximum information gain.

4+2+3+6

7. Explain the DBSCAN Clustering Algorithm and Mention its Advantages

Over K-means. Cluster the one dimensional dataset X=[2, 3, 17, 10, 19, 28,
22, 90] into 4 clusters using single linkage agglomerative hierarchical
clustering.

8+7
 Ans: Resultant Clusters: {2,3}, {17,19,22,28}, {10}, {90}.

Module 3
1. Explain the concept of seasonality in time series data and its
significance in time series mining. Give two common methods used for
analyzing time series data with brief explanations. Explain the anomaly
detection in time series data typically work
8+5+2

Module 4
1. Explain the concept of data stream mining, highlighting its challenges,
techniques, and applications.
2. Explain the concept of graph mining and its significance in data
analysis. Discuss the challenges associated with graph mining and the
techniques employed to address them. Additionally, provide examples
of applications where graph mining is utilized and highlight its impact.
5+5+5

3. Explain the concept of sequential pattern mining and its significance in

data analysis. Discuss the challenges associated with sequential
pattern mining and the techniques employed to address them.
Additionally, provide examples of applications where sequential pattern
mining is utilized and highlight its impact.
5+5+5

Module 5
1. a.What is distributed web mining ? How is it performed ?
b.White down the basic steps for mining web link structure.(3+5+7)
Ans: Mining web link structure involves analyzing the relationships between
web pages through hyperlinks. This process is essential for understanding the
organization, connectivity, and topology of the World Wide Web. Here are the
basic steps involved in mining web link structure:

1.Web Crawling: The first step is to crawl the web to collect a large dataset of
web pages. Web crawlers, also known as spiders or bots, systematically
traverse the web by following hyperlinks from one page to another. They
collect metadata about each page, including its URL, title, content, and
outbound links.
Link Extraction: Extract the hyperlinks embedded within each web page's HTML
content. This involves parsing the HTML source code to identify anchor tags
(<a>) and extracting the href attribute, which contains the URL of the linked
 page. Each hyperlink represents a connection or relationship between the
current page and the linked page.
2.Build Graph Representation: Represent the web link structure as a graph, where
nodes represent web pages and edges represent hyperlinks between pages.
This graph is known as the web graph or hyperlink graph. Each node
corresponds to a unique URL, and edges indicate the existence of hyperlinks
between pages.
3.Analyze Graph Properties: Analyze the properties of the web graph to
understand its structure and characteristics. Common graph metrics include
node degree (number of incoming and outgoing links), node centrality
(importance of a page within the graph), graph density (proportion of actual
links to potential links), and graph clustering (identification of densely
connected subgraphs).
4.Identify Important Pages: Identify important or influential pages within the web
graph using centrality measures such as PageRank or HITS (Hypertext
Induced Topic Selection). PageRank assigns a numerical score to each page
based on the number and quality of inbound links, while HITS distinguishes
between authority pages (pages with many incoming links) and hub pages
(pages with many outgoing links).
5.Detect Communities or Clusters: Detect communities or clusters of related
pages within the web graph using graph clustering algorithms such as
modularity optimization or community detection algorithms. These algorithms
identify groups of pages that are densely interconnected and share similar
link patterns, indicating thematic coherence or topical similarity.
6.Visualize Graph Structure: Visualize the structure of the web graph using graph
visualization techniques. Graph visualization tools such as Gephi, Cytoscape,
or NetworkX can generate visual representations of the web link structure,
allowing for intuitive exploration and analysis of the graph's topology and
connectivity.
7.Monitor Changes Over Time: Continuously monitor and update the web link
structure to capture changes and evolution in the web graph over time. Web
pages may be added, removed, or modified, leading to updates in the
hyperlink relationships and graph structure. Regularly re-crawling and re-
analyzing the web graph helps maintain an accurate representation of the web
link structure.

Module 6
1. a.What is the concept of centrality in social network analysis and its
significance in graph mining?
b.What are the key parameters that influenced the distributed
warehouse environment?(7+8)
Recent trends in distributed warehousing have been influenced by advancements in
technology, changing business needs, and evolving consumer expectations. Here are
some notable trends in distributed warehousing:
1.Cloud-Based Solutions: There is a growing adoption of cloud-based distributed
warehousing solutions. Cloud platforms offer scalability, flexibility, and cost-
effectiveness, allowing businesses to easily scale their warehouse
infrastructure based on demand. Providers like Amazon Web Services (AWS),
Google Cloud Platform (GCP), and Microsoft Azure offer cloud-based data
warehousing services such as Amazon Redshift, Google BigQuery, and Azure
Synapse Analytics.
2.Edge Computing Integration: With the proliferation of Internet of Things (IoT)
devices and the need for real-time data processing, there's an increasing trend
towards integrating edge computing with distributed warehousing. Edge
computing brings data processing closer to the data source, reducing latency
and enabling faster decision-making. Distributed warehouses are being
deployed at the edge to handle data processing and analytics in distributed
environments.
3.Hybrid and Multi-Cloud Deployments: Many organizations are adopting hybrid
and multi-cloud strategies for distributed warehousing. They leverage a
combination of on-premises infrastructure, private cloud, and public cloud
services to optimize performance, cost, and data governance. This approach
allows businesses to choose the best-fit environment for different workloads
while maintaining flexibility and avoiding vendor lock-in.
4.Containerization and Orchestration: Containerization technologies such as
Docker and Kubernetes are increasingly used for deploying distributed
warehousing solutions. Containers provide lightweight, portable, and isolated
runtime environments, making it easier to package and deploy warehouse
components across distributed infrastructure. Container orchestration
platforms automate the deployment, scaling, and management of
containerized warehouse applications, ensuring reliability and scalability.
5.Data Mesh Architecture: The concept of data mesh has emerged as a new
architectural approach for distributed data management, including
warehousing. In a data mesh architecture, data is treated as a product, and
cross-functional data teams are responsible for managing and owning
domain-specific data products. This decentralized approach allows for
greater agility, scalability, and autonomy in data management across
distributed environments.
6.Data Democratization and Self-Service Analytics: There's a growing emphasis
on data democratization and self-service analytics in distributed warehousing.
Modern warehouses provide easy access to data for business users and
analysts, empowering them to explore and analyze data independently
without relying on IT support. Self-service analytics tools and platforms
enable users to query, visualize, and derive insights from distributed data
sources in real-time.
Security and Compliance Enhancements: With the increasing volume and
complexity of data in distributed environments, security and compliance have
become top priorities for organizations. Distributed warehousing solutions are
incorporating advanced security features such as encryption, access control,
and audit trails to protect sensitive data across distributed infrastructure.
Compliance frameworks and regulations such as GDPR, CCPA, and HIPAA are
driving the adoption of robust security measures in distributed warehousing.