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MEBS6004 Built Environment

http://ibse.hk/MEBS6004/

Thermal environment and heat


transmission
Ir Dr. Sam C. M. Hui
Department of Mechanical Engineering
The University of Hong Kong
E-mail: cmhui@hku.hk
Aug 2024
Contents

• Basic concepts
• Thermal behaviour of buildings
• Passive building design
• Solar control
• Dynamic simulation
Basic concepts

• Physics of heat
• Heat and temperature (°C or K)
• Specific heat (J/kg.K) & latent heat (kJ/kg)
• Heat flow rate, Q (J/s or W)
• Heat flux density (W/m3)
• Heat flow
• Density (kg/m3), conductivity (W/m.K)
• Heat loss: the U-value [Q = U A ∆T]
• Convection coefficient hc, reflectance/emittance
A candle transferring heat into its environment by radiation, convection,
evaporation and conduction

(Source: Shukuya M., 2019. Bio-Climatology for the Built Environment, Chapman and Hall/CRC, Milton.)
Basic concepts

• Thermal environment refers to the things that


can affect heat transfer at that point
• Mechanisms of heat transfer:
• Conduction
• Convection (sensible)
• Radiation
• Phase change (latent)

(Source: https://www.designingbuildings.co.uk/wiki/Thermal_environment)
Four forms of heat transfer

CONVECTION

(Source: Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, www.fao.org)


Basic concepts

• Heat transfer mechanism


• Conduction
• Convection
• Radiation
• Thermal properties of building materials
• Overall thermal transmittance (U-value)
• Thermal conductivity
• Thermal capacity (specific heat)
Q = U A (Δt)
Typical properties of selected materials

Video: Thermal Properties of Building Materials (5:52) https://youtu.be/ch0d5Hb-_qA

(Source: Thomas R., 2006. Environmental Design: An introduction for architects and engineers, Third edition, Taylor & Francis.)
Basic concepts

• Emittance (or emissive power)


• It is the total amount of thermal energy emitted per unit
area per unit time for all possible wavelengths
• Emissivity of a body at a given temperature
• It is the ratio of the total emissive power of a body to the
total emissive power of a perfectly black body at that
temperature
• Solar absorptance
• It is the proportion of the total incident solar radiation that
is absorbed by the material (the remainder is reflected)
Emittance versus solar absorptance of some building materials

(Source: Shukuya M., 2019. Bio-Climatology for the Built Environment, Chapman and Hall/CRC, Milton.)
Basic concepts

• Thermal transmission in buildings


• External walls, windows, roof, doors and floors
• Insulation (thermal) to reduce the heat transfer
• Ventilation (infiltration & exfiltration)
• Thermal properties of building materials &
construction components
• Determining U values for real building elements
• https://www.cibsejournal.com/cpd/modules/2011-06/
Thermal load, heat gains/losses & heat storage

Thermal Heat Gains/Losses


Load

Heat storage

(Source: ASHRAE Handbook Fundamentals 2005)


Basic concepts

• Calculating heat gains (or losses)


• Heat gain through external walls
• Heat gain through roof
• Solar heat gain through window glass
• Conduction heat through window glass
• Internal heat gains
• Ventilation and/or infiltration heat gains
• Latent heat gains (moisture transfer/generation)
Basic concepts

• Heat transfer basic relationships (for air at sea


level) (SI units)
• Sensible heat transfer rate:
• qsensible = 1.23 (Flow rate, L/s) (Δt)
• Latent heat transfer rate:
• qlatent = 3010 (Flow rate, L/s) (Δw)
• Total heat transfer rate:
• qtotal = 1.2 (Flow rate, L/s) (Δh)
• qtotal = qsensible + qlatent
Components of building cooling load

Internal
External loads
loads

+ Ventilation load & system heat gains


Heat losses for heating load calculation

(Source: http://www.arca53.dsl.pipex.com/index_files/tt3.htm)
Basic concepts

• Aspects that can affect the heat transfer:


• Air temperature
• Radiant temperature (long wave infrared radiation
(surface temperatures) & short wave infrared
radiation (solar radiation))
• Air velocity
• Humidity
• The presence of surface water
• The temperature of contacting objects
Basic concepts

• The experience people have of the thermal


environment that surrounds them will be
affected by personal factors such as:
• Clothing
• Metabolic heat
• Wellbeing & sickness
• Personal experience of thermal comfort
• Thermal satisfaction is experienced via a number of
conscious & unconscious interactions among
physiological, physical & psychological factors
Thermal behaviour of buildings

• Thermal behaviour of buildings


• Heat inputs and outputs:
• Qi – internal heat gain
• Qc – conduction heat gain or loss
• Qs – solar heat gain
• Qv – ventilation heat gain or loss
• Qe – evaporative heat loss
• Thermal balance: Qi + Qc + Qs + Qv + Qe = ∆S
• If the sum ∆S > 0, temp. inside the building is increasing,
or if it is less than zero, the building is cooling down
Heat transmission in buildings

(Source: https://www.linkedin.com/pulse/building-thermal-comfort-analysis-ecologikol/)
Heat transfer at human body

(Source: https://archi-monarch.com/climate-and-thermal-comfort/)
Main energy/heat fluxes affecting the building energy balance

(Source: http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/en13174498)
Building
energy balance

(Source: Pinterić M., 2021. Building Physics: From physical principles to international standards, Second Edition, Springer, Cham, Switzerland.)
Thermal behaviour of buildings

• Steady state heat flow


• Air temperature: ventilation & building envelope
• Solar radiation: opaque elements & windows
• Dynamic response of buildings
• Magnitude of heat flow & its timing
• Affected by thermal capacity (e.g. massive
construction)
• Periodic heat flow & time lag
• Thermal response simulation (software programs)
Summary of steady state heat flow expressions

(Source: Szokolay S. V., 2008. Introduction to Architectural Science: the Basis of Sustainable Design, Second edition.)
Heat flow through a real wall, compared with a wall of zero mass

(Source: Szokolay S. V., 2008. Introduction to Architectural Science: the Basis of Sustainable Design, Second edition.)
Thermal behaviour of buildings

• Thermal mass
• A material’s capacity to absorb, store and release
heat, measured by thermal admittance [W/(m2.K)]
• Specific heat capacity, density, thermal conductivity
• To assess heat flows into & out of thermal storage

(See also: Module 48: Simple thermal analysis for buildings https://www.cibsejournal.com/cpd/modules/2013-01/)
How thermal mass works

Summer
cooling

Winter
heating

(Source: https://www.greenspec.co.uk/building-design/thermal-mass/)
Thermal behaviour of buildings

• Within the built environment, the thermal


environment can be influenced by:
• 1. Passive building design (e.g. shading, windows,
insulation, thermal mass, natural ventilation and so
on)
• 2. Active building systems (e.g. heating, cooling
and air conditioning)
• 3. Personal behaviour (e.g. removing clothing,
reducing activity and so on)
Design strategies
for energy
efficiency in
buildings

(Source: Energy Efficiency in Buildings: CIBSE Guide F)


Passive building design

• Passive design uses layout, fabric and form to


reduce or remove mechanical cooling, heating,
ventilation & lighting demand
• Passive cooling/heating + natural ventilation
• Examples: optimising spatial planning &
orientation to control solar gains & maximise
daylighting, manipulating the building form &
fabric to facilitate natural ventilation strategies and
making effective use of thermal mass to help
reduce peak internal temperatures
(Source: https://www.designingbuildings.co.uk/wiki/Passive_building_design)
Passive building design measures and their objective

(Source: https://www.researchgate.net/publication/326626129_Environmental_Design_Principles_for_the_Building_Envelope_and_More_Passive_and_Active_Measures)
Passive heat dissipation strategies according to the heat sinks

(Source: https://www.researchgate.net/publication/326626129_Environmental_Design_Principles_for_the_Building_Envelope_and_More_Passive_and_Active_Measures)
Bioclimatic design strategies for buildings in hot climate: to minimise
heat gains into the building and promote heat loss

(Source: https://energypedia.info/images/c/c7/Building_Energy_Efficiency_Guideline_for_Nigeria_2016.pdf)
Passive/Bioclimatic building design strategies for hot climates
Strategy Hot & dry Hot & humid
Compact geometry √ X
Exterior shading √ √
Daylighting √ √
Window low solar heat gain coefficient √ √
Cross/stack ventilation (if naturally ventilated) √ √
Building permeability (if naturally ventilated) X √
Roof insulation √ √
Wall insulation (exterior) √ X
High thermal mass √ X
Low thermal mass X √
Evaporative cooling √ X

(Source: https://energypedia.info/images/c/c7/Building_Energy_Efficiency_Guideline_for_Nigeria_2016.pdf)
Passive building design

• Passive design considerations:


• Location, landscape, orientation
• Massing, shading
• Material selection
• Thermal mass, insulation
• Internal layout
• The positioning of openings to allow the
penetration of solar radiation, visible light and for
ventilation
Different aspects of passive design approaches

(Source: https://www.archsd.gov.hk/archsd/html/report2021/en/sustainable-building.html)
Passive building design

• Passive cooling
• A building design approach that focuses on heat
gain control and heat dissipation in a building in
order to improve the indoor thermal comfort with
low or nil energy consumption
• This approach works either by preventing heat
from entering the interior (heat gain prevention) or
by removing heat from the building (natural
cooling)
Examples of passive cooling designs

Thermal chimney Natural ventilation

(See also: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Passive_cooling and http://passivesolar.sustainablesources.com/)


Passive building design

• Passive cooling (cont’d)


• Natural cooling utilizes on-site energy, available
from the natural environment, combined with the
architectural design of building components (e.g.
building envelope), rather than mechanical
systems to dissipate heat
• It depends not only on the architectural design but how
it uses the local site natural resources as heat sinks (i.e.
everything that absorbs or dissipates heat). Examples of
on-site heat sinks are the upper atmosphere (night sky),
the outdoor air (wind), and the earth/soil
Passive house design to achieve low energy requirements
for the building energy balance
Passive building design

• Passive cooling (cont’d)


• Preventative techniques
• Microclimate and site design
• Solar control
• Building form and layout
• Thermal insulation
• Behavioral and occupancy patterns
• Internal gain control
• Modulation and heat dissipation techniques
• Thermal mass + Natural cooling
Passive building design

• Passive cooling (cont’d)


• Ventilation
• Cross ventilation
• Stack ventilation
• Night flush ventilation
• Radiative cooling (direct/indirect)
• Evaporative cooling
• Earth coupling (direct/indirect)

(See also: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Passive_cooling)


Daylighting design and control
Solar control

• First determine when solar radiation would be


a welcome input (solar heating for the
underheated period) or when it should be
excluded (the overheated period)
• Shading design 遮陽設計
• 1. Vertical devices (e.g. vertical louvres or fins)
• 2. Horizontal devices (e.g. projecting eaves)
• 3. Egg-crate devices
Example: Effects of external shading on energy consumption
Examples of window shading methods

(Source: https://mitsidi.com/new-cibse-guide-building-tropical-environments/)
Spectral transmittance of different glass types

(Source: SLL, 2014. Daylighting: A Guide for Designers, Lighting Guide 10, The Society of Light and Lighting (SLL), London.)
Design parameters for solar-control systems

(Source: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.solener.2016.12.044)
Solar control

• Glare/Thermal control strategies:


• Automated exterior shading
• Fixed exterior architectural shading
• Exterior fabric awnings
• High performance glazing
• Operable windows
• Automated interior shading / double skin systems
• Manual interior shading
Different shading solutions & their effects

(Source: https://www.velux.com/what-we-do/research-and-knowledge/deic-basic-book/daylight/parameters-influencing-daylighting-performance)
Horizontal & vertical shading devices

(Source: https://planlux.net/sunlight-shading-redirecting-devices/)
Light shelves for horizontal shading & redirecting

(Source: https://planlux.net/sunlight-shading-redirecting-devices/)
Projecting light shelves provide additional shading for the lower window;
sloping the shelves to distribute light

(Source: https://planlux.net/sunlight-shading-redirecting-devices/)
Level light shelf with an inward sloping wedge pushing high angle
sunlight more deeply into space

(Source: https://planlux.net/sunlight-shading-redirecting-devices/)
Sunlighting strategies (should be integrated with architecture to use the
sunlight indirectly)

(Source: https://planlux.net/sources-of-natural-light-sunlight-strategies/)
Sidelit building with sloped ceiling at perimeter

(Source: Advanced Lighting Guidelines 2003)


Lighting level contours for punched windows & continuous strip
windows

(Source: Advanced Lighting Guidelines 2003)


Cut-off angles for light shelf & louvre system

(Source: Advanced Lighting Guidelines 2003)


Scheme of low-e coating placement in cold and hot climates

(Source: https://www.researchgate.net/publication/326626129_Environmental_Design_Principles_for_the_Building_Envelope_and_More_Passive_and_Active_Measures)
Solar gains for a non-transparent building element (left), a transparent or
single glazed building element (middle) and a double glazed building
element (right)

(Source: Pinterić M., 2021. Building Physics: From physical principles to international standards, Second Edition, Springer, Cham, Switzerland.)
Dynamic simulation

• Dynamic simulation methods


• Usually hour-by-hour, for 8,760 hours (24 x 365)
• Thermal & energy calculation sequence:
• Space or building load [LOAD]
• Secondary equipment load (airside) [SYSTEMS]
• Primary equipment energy requirement (e.g. chiller)
[PLANT]
• Computer software
• Building energy simulation programs, e.g. Energy-10,
DOE-2, TRACE 700, Carrier HAP
Dynamic whole building energy analysis

(Source: https://gbs.autodesk.com/GBS/)
Building energy simulation process

HVAC air systems HVAC water systems


Energy storage

Thermal Zone Plant


Systems (water-
(air-side) side &
refrig.)

Energy input Energy input by HVAC Energy input


by appliance air/water systems by HVAC plant
Dynamic simulation

• Building energy simulation


• Analysis of energy performance of building using
computer modelling and simulation techniques
• Many issues can be studied, such as:
• Thermal performance (e.g. building fabric, glazing)
• Comfort & indoor environment
• Ventilation & infiltration
• Daylighting & overshadowing
• Energy consumption/performance of building systems
Weather
data

Building Simulation tool Simulation


description (computer program) outputs
- physical data - energy consumption (MWh)
- design parameters - energy demands (kW)
- environmental conditions
ENERGY-10

DOE-2
Solar-5 ESP-r

Building Energy
Simulation Software TRNSYS

E-20-II & HAP


EE4
TRACE 700
Cooling load profiles determined from simulation

Total cooling load

(Source: D.G. Stephenson, 1968)


Examples of simulation results for evaluating annual building energy use

ANNUAL ENERGY USE


100 96.5
Reference Case

80 Low-Energy Case
kWh / m²

60
47.3

40 35.1

27.4
22.7
20 15.1

6.7 6.9
4.1
1.5
0
Heating Cooling Lights Other Total
Examples of simulation results for ranking energy efficiency strategies

Duct Leaka ge 115.04


Gla zing 72.49
Insulation 57.33
Ene rgy Efficient Lights 56.56
HVAC Controls 48.43
Air Lea kage Control 45.92
Shading 45.24
Daylighting 38.84
High Efficiency HVAC 37.82
Economizer Cycle -4.02
Therma l Mass -6.23
Passive Solar Heating -57.14

-100 -50 0 50 100 150


Net Pre sent Value , 1000 $
Examples of simulation results for energy & indoor temperature analysis
Sample - Lower-Energy Case

40

50

Temperature, ?
20
Energy, kWh

0
0

-50 -20
Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec
Average Hourly HVAC Energy Use by Month

Heating Cooling Inside T Outside T


Further Reading

• Module 29: Determining U values for real building


elements
https://www.cibsejournal.com/cpd/modules/2011-06/
• Passive building design - Design Building Wiki
https://www.designingbuildings.co.uk/wiki/Passive_b
uilding_design
• Module 48: Simple thermal analysis for buildings
https://www.cibsejournal.com/cpd/modules/2013-01/

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