Module 6

Materials and Hardware

For

EASA Part-66

BT-A1-0600-LN
BT-B1.1-0600-LN
Rev.01 – 31 March 2016
BT-B2-0600-LN
Revision and Amendment Status
These course notes have been produced in accordance with AMC 147.A.120, Part 66 and
AMC/GM Rev May 2012.

Amendment Service is not provided.

REVISION REVISION REVISION NOTE REVISED

NO DATE BY

00 01.01.2015 This document is produced from TTS and reviewed on 30 July 2015 Z. Atar
according to Part 66 Appendix I. S. Aygün

01 31.03.2016 This document is produced from TTS and reviewed on 15 March 2016 E. Yener
according to Part 66 Appendix I.

Revision and Amendment Status Rev.01 – 31 March 2016

BT-A1-0600-LN
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 MODULE CONTENT AND APPLICABILITY

Level
Sub Rev.
06 MATERIALS AND HARDWARE Rev. Date Page(*)
Module Nbr.
A1 B1.1 B2

6.1 Aircraft Materials – Ferrous 01 31.03.2016 1 2 1 5

6.2 Aircraft Materials – Non-Ferrous 01 31.03.2016 1 2 1 49
Aircraft Materials – Composite and
6.3 01 31.03.2016 1 2 2 99
Non-Metallic
6.4 Corrosion 01 31.03.2016 2 3 2 251
6.5 Fasteners 01 31.03.2016 2 2 2 331
6.6 Pipes and Unions 01 31.03.2016 2 2 2 629
6.7 Springs 00 31.03.2016 N/A 2 1 683
6.8 Bearings 01 31.03.2016 1 2 2 715
6.9 Transmissions 01 31.03.2016 1 2 2 751
6.10 Control Cables 01 31.03.2016 1 2 1 807
6.11 Electrical Cables and Connectors 01 31.03.2016 1 2 2 871

N/A: Not Applicable

(*): This number indicates the page number of the digital PDF document.

Rev.01 – 31 March 2016

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European Aviation Safety Agency (EASA)

Module 6
Licence Category A, B1 and B2

Materials and Hardware

6.1 Ferrous Metals

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 Copyright Notice
© Copyright. All worldwide rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced,
stored in a retrieval system or transmitted in any form by any other means whatsoever: i.e.
photocopy, electronic, mechanical recording or otherwise without the prior written
permission of Turkish Technic Inc.

Knowledge Levels — Category A, B1, B2, B3 and C Aircraft

Maintenance Licence
Basic knowledge for categories A, B1, B2 and B3 are indicated by the allocation of knowledge levels
indicators (1, 2 or 3) against each applicable subject. Category C applicants must meet either the category B1
or the category B2 basic knowledge levels.
The knowledge level indicators are defined as follows:

LEVEL 1
 A familiarisation with the principal elements of the subject.
Objectives: The applicant should be familiar with the basic elements of the subject.
 The applicant should be able to give a simple description of the whole subject, using common words
and examples.
 The applicant should be able to use typical terms.

LEVEL 2
 A general knowledge of the theoretical and practical aspects of the subject.
 An ability to apply that knowledge.
Objectives: The applicant should be able to understand the theoretical fundamentals of the subject.
 The applicant should be able to give a general description of the subject using, as appropriate, typical
examples.
 The applicant should be able to use mathematical formulae in conjunction with physical laws
describing the subject.
 The applicant should be able to read and understand sketches, drawings and schematics describing
the subject.
 The applicant should be able to apply his knowledge in a practical manner using detailed procedures.

LEVEL 3
 A detailed knowledge of the theoretical and practical aspects of the subject.
 A capacity to combine and apply the separate elements of knowledge in a logical and comprehensive
manner.
Objectives: The applicant should know the theory of the subject and interrelationships with other subjects.
 The applicant should be able to give a detailed description of the subject using theoretical
fundamentals and specific examples.
 The applicant should understand and be able to use mathematical formulae related to the subject.
 The applicant should be able to read, understand and prepare sketches, simple drawings and
schematics describing the subject.
 The applicant should be able to apply his knowledge in a practical manner using manufacturer's
instructions.
 The applicant should be able to interpret results from various sources and measurements and apply
corrective action where appropriate.

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 Table of Contents

6.1 Ferrous Metals __________________________________________________________ 9

(a) _______________________________________________________________________ 9
Properties and Terminology ________________________________________________ 9
Ferrous Metals __________________________________________________________ 13
Wrought Iron___________________________________________________________ 13
Modern Iron Production __________________________________________________ 13
Pig Iron _______________________________________________________________ 14
Cast Iron ______________________________________________________________ 16
Microstructure __________________________________________________________ 17
Steel __________________________________________________________________ 19
Open Hearth Process ____________________________________________________ 21
Basic Oxygen Steelmaking________________________________________________ 22
The Composition of Steel _________________________________________________ 24
Plain Carbon Steel ______________________________________________________ 25
Metal Condition_________________________________________________________ 26
Alloy Steel ____________________________________________________________ 26
Identification of Steels ___________________________________________________ 31
Uses of Steel __________________________________________________________ 32
Heat Treatment __________________________________________________________ 33
Critical Points __________________________________________________________ 33
Annealing and Normalising________________________________________________ 36
Hardening and Tempering ________________________________________________ 37
Surface Hardening ______________________________________________________ 39
(b) Testing of Ferrous Materials ______________________________________________ 43

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 Module 6.1 Enabling Objectives and Certification Statement
Certification Statement
These Study Notes comply with the syllabus of EASA Regulation (EU) No. 1321/2014
Annex III (Part-66) Appendix I, and the associated Knowledge Levels as specified below:

Licence
Part 66
Objective Category
Reference
A B1 B2 B3
Ferrous Metals 6.1
Characteristics, properties and identification of (a) 1 2 1 2
common alloy steels used in aircraft;

Heat treatment and application of alloy steels.

Testing of ferrous materials for hardness, tensile (b) - 1 1 1
strength, fatigue strength and impact resistance.

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 6.1 Ferrous Metals
(a)

Properties and Terminology

Before studying the different types of metal and alloy it is necessary to define the
terminology that describes their properties. The properties which are important in
engineering terms are;

Tensile Strength
Tensile Strength or Tenacity describes the ability of a material to resist breaking under a
tensile (stretching) force. Ultimate Tensile Strength (UTS) is a measure of the maximum
pulling stress which a material can endure before breaking. UTS is rated as a given load
across a unit area.

Compressive Strength
This is a measure of a materials ability to withstand compressive or squeezing loads
without splitting or cracking.

Shear Strength
Shear Strength is the ability to resist off-set (scissor action) loads.

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 Toughness
Toughness is the ability of a material to resist fracture under impact load. It is the opposite
of brittleness and should not be confused with strength.

Elasticity
Elasticity is the ability of a material to return to its original shape after deformation. The
extension or compression of a spring is a good example.

Plasticity
Plasticity is the opposite to elasticity and is the ability of a material to retain any shape
imposed by a force when that force is removed. A good example of this is the stamping of
images on medals and coins.

Ductility
Ductility is the capacity of a material for plastic deformation under tensile loading without
fracture. A ductile material may be worked into shape without loss of strength and may be
drawn into wire form. If subjected to a shock load, the material will yield and become
deformed.

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 Malleability
Malleability is the capacity of a material for plastic deformation and forming under
compressive load without cracking. It should NOT be confused with ductility.

Note: These qualities are similar when selecting material for forming into sheet or strip, but
not when wire drawing, e.g. lead is malleable and can be beaten or rolled into sheet, but it
is not ductile enough for making wire. Malleable materials are those used for forging,
stamping or pressing.

Hardness
The ability of a material to withstand scratching, abrasion, indentation or permanent
distortion and wear. Hardness may be increased by cold working the metals and, in the
case of many alloys, by heat treatment.

Brittleness
Brittleness is the tendency of a material to fracture when subjected to a shock loading or
blow. There is no permanent deformation before fracture to act as a warning of failure.

Rigidity
Rigidity or stiffness is the ability of a material to withstand a load without deflection. It
should not be confused with strength and rigid materials are often brittle.

Hot Shortness
Hot shortness is an undesirable property of certain metals and alloys
whereby they are brittle in some elevated temperature range.

Cold Shortness
When a metal is brittle in the cold state.

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 Physical Properties
Other important physical properties include;

 Fusibility, the ability of a material to be easily liquefied by heat for welding purposes,
 Thermal Conductivity, a measure of the ability of a material to conduct a certain amount of
heat within a given time, Copper is a good example,
 Electrical Conductivity, a measure of the efficiency of a material to conduct an electrical
current,
 Electrical Resistance, a measure of the ability of a material to impede the flow of an
electrical current through it.

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 Ferrous Metals
Metals which contain mostly iron are known as Ferrous Metals from the Latin “ferrum”
meaning iron. Pure iron is too soft and reactive to be used on its own, but when alloyed with
other elements it is one of the most important metals to the engineer.

Iron and the technology to produce it first came into use over three thousand years ago in
Asia Minor and slowly spread throughout the world, replacing the earlier stone, copper and
bronze ages. By five hundred BC the Greeks were making steel (perhaps accidentally) by
working iron in a charcoal furnace.

Iron ores such as magnetite (Fe3O4 - 72% iron) and haematite (Fe2O3 - 70% iron) are
quarried or mined from the earth’s crust and converted by a series of processes into iron.

Wrought Iron
Wrought (worked) iron is one of the oldest forms of purified iron. Early wrought iron was
made in the fire from ore and charcoal. The heat was sufficient for the charcoal to reduce
the iron oxide to iron, but not to melt it or allow it to absorb carbon. As a result the silicate
slags were not refined away as is done now, but entrained in the material to produce a
fibrous structure. For this reason, old wrought artefacts have lasted for hundreds of years.
Iron may corrode, but not its coating of silicate slags.

In the Aston process for mass production of wrought iron, pig iron is refined by modern
methods and then poured into molten iron silicate slag. The resulting semisolid mass is
passed between rollers that squeeze out most of the slag. The wrought iron has 5%
siliceous (glassy) slags which take the form of linear fibres giving the metal the
characteristic grain running through it. It is tough, malleable, ductile, corrosion resistant, and
melts only at high temperatures.

It is used to make rivets, bolts, pipes, chains, and anchors, and is also used for ornamental
ironwork but due to its high production cost and comparatively low strength, wrought iron is
now only used for specialist applications.

Modern Iron Production

Today Pig Iron is produced by smelting iron ore in a blast furnace similar to that illustrated.
The 100 foot tall steel body of the furnace is supported in a framework and lined with
refractory material.

The charge material consists of iron ore which is first washed and then added to the blast
furnace together with high quality coke - low in sulphur content, and limestone which melts

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 and combines with impurities and forms a slag. During charging, the double bell
arrangement forms an 'airlock' and prevents gases escaping. The furnace may be filled to
the stock line and the charge material takes about eight hours to reach the bottom.

The blast furnace gases are cleaned of particles and burned as fuel in the hot stove, a
cyclic heat exchanger, used to heat the compressed air entering the blast main, to about
1000°C at 50-60psi. This reduces by half the amount of coke required.

Pig Iron
The blast air enters the furnace through the tuyeres and takes four to eight seconds to
travel up through the charge material, undergoing rapid chemical reactions to produce blast
furnace gas. The main reaction is that the oxygen in the air causes the coke to burn
fiercely, generating heat which reduces the ore to metal and slag.

Iron, which melts out at 1538°C, is the heaviest product and drips to the bottom of the
furnace. The lighter slag floats on top of the iron. When the iron reaches the level of the
slag tapping hole, the slag is run off. The iron is then tapped out from the bottom of the
furnace.

The molten iron may be cast into small moulds known as pigs. If the blast furnace is
situated close to a steel works, the molten iron is conveyed direct to the steel making
furnaces in torpedo cars.

With continuous re-charging a furnace can produce up to 13 000 tonnes of pig iron a day
and may run for many years before it needs overhauling and relining.

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 Module 6.1 Ferrous Metals 1.15
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 Cast Iron
Pig iron from a blast furnace contains about 4% carbon and small amounts of manganese,
silicon, phosphorus, sulphur and other impurities. It is not refined enough for making
castings. In a foundry the pig iron is re-melted together with coke, broken pieces of scrap
iron and some limestone (again to absorb impurities) in a small blast furnace called a
cupola. Different types of limestone can be blended to absorb different elements and
achieve the desired composition of the iron. Similarly the grade of scrap iron added can be
used to determine the final composition.

Of the constituents;
Carbon is always present, but takes several forms; combined with the iron to form
compounds such as ferrite and cementite or 'free' as graphite. These forms and the
proportions of each control the useful properties of the iron.

Phosphorus embrittles the iron by forming iron phosphide and is kept to a minimum,
although it does improve the fluidity of molten iron for intricate castings.

Sulphur is a natural product of iron ore and forms iron sulphide which seriously embrittles
cast iron, affecting its workability and weldability, for this reason it is kept to a minimum.

Manganese is important for two reasons. Firstly, it readily combines with sulphur to form
manganese sulphide, reducing the damaging effects of the sulphur. Secondly, in controlled
extra amounts it hardens the iron.

Silicon affects the formation of the different types of carbon and can be used to soften the
iron. The amounts of silicon and manganese must be balanced to achieve the desired
properties.

In the cupola the molten iron, having a melting point of around 1200°C, flows to the bottom
of the furnace and is tapped directly into ladles or moulds. Cast iron is an important material
for the following reasons;

• It is a cheap metal, since it can be produced by simple adjustments to the composition of

ordinary pig iron.
• Rigidity and strength under compression are good, but not good in tension.
• It is easy to machine.
• It casts easily due to its fluidity when molten.
• Its composition can be altered to make it stronger and tougher if required.

Cast iron has a carbon content of between 2 and 6 % and is used extensively to make
machine parts, engine cylinder blocks, stoves, pipes, steam radiators, and many other
products.

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 Microstructure
The constituents of ferrous metals are mainly crystalline solid solution compounds of
carbon in iron, such as ferrite which contains no more than 0.006% carbon and has
softness and ductility similar to pure iron, and cementite (iron carbide - Fe3C) which
contains 6.67% carbon and is hard and brittle. The arrangement of these crystals is referred
to as the Microstructure of the metal and can be viewed under a powerful microscope. The
addition of other elements and/or heat will alter the microstructure.

The microstructure of wrought iron is primarily ferrite crystals with inclusions of slag
composed mainly of iron silicate.

Cast iron can contain ferrite, cementite and free carbon in the form of graphite flakes which
are brittle and weak. Ferrite and cementite tend to form a laminated structure called pearlite
which combines the properties of both.

Gray cast iron, or gray iron, is produced when the iron in the mould is cooled slowly. It has
all three forms of carbon and is relatively soft and weak in tension due to the effects of the
graphite flakes distributed through the pearlite structure, which form during the slow cooling
process. However the graphite does give the iron self-lubricating and vibration damping
properties and it is easy to machine.

White cast iron, or white iron, which is harder and more brittle, is made by cooling the
molten iron rapidly. It is composed of pearlite and a larger proportion of cementite, as
graphite cannot form during the rapid cooling.

A malleable cast iron can be made by annealing white iron castings in a special furnace.
Some of the carbon separates from the cementite; it is much more finely divided than in
gray iron.

A ductile iron may be prepared by adding magnesium to the molten pig iron; when the iron
is cast the carbon forms tiny spherical nodules around the magnesium. Ductile iron is
strong, shock resistant, and easily machined.

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1.18 Module 6.1 Ferrous Metals
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 Steel
Steel is often described as an alloy of iron and carbon, although all commercially available
ferrous metals contain a proportion of carbon, in fact cast iron contains more carbon than
high carbon steel! The difference is in the form that the carbon takes, steel never contains
free carbon (graphite).

Reliable steel manufacture was first perfected by the Celts, in about AD 200. They cut
wrought iron into small strips and stacked the strips in a wrought iron container with burnt
bone and carbon and then heated the iron in a charcoal-fired furnace for 10-12 hours at
high heat. In the process, carbon was absorbed into the surface of the metal and impurities
removed. They then forge welded the red hot pieces together and produced blades.

At around the same time steel was produced in Pakistan, probably by melting iron ore and
carbon in a ceramic crucible and pouring it into ingots which were then exported widely
through the middle east.

The mass production of steel was pioneered by Sir Henry Bessemer in1855. Molten pig iron
was poured into his 'Bessemer Converter', a pivoted, egg shaped container with a charging
hole at the small end. This was tilted upright and air was then blown in through tuyeres at
the bottom of the chamber and bubbled through the molten iron. The oxygen in the air
combined with impurities in the iron, some burning violently (producing heat to keep the
metal molten) others oxidising to form slag at the top. The reaction produced flames,
sparks, fumes and smoke at the opening and was both spectacular and dangerous . When
completed, other element could be added to produce the composition required. The
converter was then tilted to pour out the finished steel into ladles for casting, leaving the
slag to be disposed of.

This process could produce up to 20 tonnes of cheap, high quality steel in under one hour
and was vital to the industrial revolution.

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1.20 Module 6.1 Ferrous Metals
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 Open Hearth Process
In the open hearth process, developed by the Siemens brothers in the 1860s, the heat
required to melt the pig iron and scrap is obtained by burning a mixture of gas or oil and air
over the metal, as shown below. The fuel and air are pre-heated to a high temperature in
regenerators.

Lime is added to the charge, in order to form a basic slag, and so remove the phosphorous
which is present in most pig irons. The slag floats on the surface of the molten steel and is
drawn off. Carbon is then added in the form of anthracite which dissolves in the molten
steel. Finally the molten steel is tapped and transferred to a large ladle which in turn pours
the steel into moulds to produce ingots each of several tonnes mass.

The open hearth process is no longer used in Europe but is still found elsewhere.

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 Basic Oxygen Steelmaking
A typical Basic Oxygen Furnace is a modern version of the Bessemer Converter and
consists of a steel cased converter lined with dolomite holding up to 400 tonnes of metal.
The charge consists of scrap steel, lime and molten pig iron. Oxygen is then blown at the
surface of the molten charge from a water cooled ‘lance’. This is lowered through the mouth
of the converter to within 0.5 metres of the surface of the metal. The impurities in the metal
are oxidised during the blow which lasts about fifteen minutes. During this time the
temperature is carefully controlled and the molten metal analysed. When the temperature
and metal analysis are satisfactory, the hood is lifted, the converter tilted and the steel
poured from below the slag into the ladle. The steel is then conveyed to the continuous
casting plant and cast into ingots. Finally the converter is tilted to pour the slag into a slag
ladle.

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 Electric Arc Steel Making
An electric arc furnace is illustrated as below. The heat required to melt the charge is
produced by electric arcs struck between carbon electrodes and the steel. The impurities
are oxidised from the charge by melting it under a covering of slag which absorbs the
oxidised impurities and may then be run off by tilting the furnace. The charge consists of
scrap, iron ore, blast furnace pig iron and limestone.

When the impurities are oxidised, they combine with oxygen and form a oxides which floats
on top of the molten steel, together with the slag.

The advantage of the electric furnace is that there is far less of the gas, fumes and
impurities which are present in fuel fed furnaces and which may allow impurities into the
molten metal. Electric furnaces are used to make high quality steels.

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 The Composition of Steel

Plain Carbon Steel

Plain carbon steels are alloys of iron and up to 1.7% carbon although 1.5% is seldom
exceeded. Low carbon or ‘mild’ steel contains up to 0.3% carbon, Medium carbon steel
0.3% to 0.8% carbon and High Carbon Steel 0.8% to 1.7% carbon. Above 1.7% carbon, the
excess is in the form of free (uncombined) carbon or graphite, which has very low strength
(e.g. cast iron).

Most ordinary steels also contain up to 1.0% manganese, left over during the steel making
process. As with cast iron, manganese dissolves in steel, slightly increasing its strength and
hardness, and helps reduce the sulphur content of the steel. Both sulphur and phosphorous
are harmful impurities causing brittleness in steels. Most specifications allow no more than
0.06% of either of these elements. High quality steels would contain no more than 0.04% of
each element.

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 Plain Carbon Steel
In a low carbon steel, these constituents, when viewed through a microscope, appear as a
laminated structure (pearlite), surrounded by free ferrite. With increasing carbon content,
the proportion of pearlite to ferrite increases until, at 0.83% carbon content, the steel is
entirely pearlite. Above 0.83% carbon content, a microscopic examination shows pearlite
surrounded by free cementite. Ferrite is soft, ductile and not very strong. Pearlite is strong
and tough, but soft enough to be worked. Cementite is very hard and brittle. As the carbon
content is increased up to 0.83% the steel gets tougher and stronger. When the carbon
content exceeds 0.83%, because of the increasing cementite content the steel becomes
very hard and progressively more brittle.

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 Metal Condition
Apart from its composition, the properties of steel are affected by the condition of its
crystalline grains. When work is performed on the metal at normal temperatures, such as
bending, squeezing and stretching ('cold working'), the grains become distorted and
stressed, and the metal becomes stiff and brittle. In this state it is said to be 'work
hardened'.

Similarly, hot working, such as forging, hot rolling and extrusion at elevated temperatures,
can lead to excessive grain growth, which occurs well below the melting point and which
again weakens the metal.

Both of these problems can be overcome by recrystallising the metal in a heat treatment
process which will be described later.

Alloy Steel
Alloy steels are combinations of iron and carbon with some other element or elements
added in varied proportions. Such additional elements give the steel specific properties,
unobtainable to the same degree in plain carbon steel. To develop the desired properties,
more varied heat treatment is required. This may require the use of special equipment and
skills. Alloy steels are used for the following purposes:

• When it is desired that the steel should have great strength, resistance to wear, springiness
or resistance to corrosion.
• To obtain mechanical properties by less drastic heat treatment than would be required in a
plain carbon steel.
• To enable the effect of heat treatment to penetrate uniformly throughout a large mass of
steel.

The most common of these alloying metals are:

Nickel - with varying percentages of nickel, the following effects are produced

• Prevents grain growth - used in case hardening steels.

• Increases strength and toughness.
• Improves resistance to corrosion.
• Lowers the critical temperatures so that hardening requires a less severe quench.
• With 25% nickel added, the steel is austenitic at room temperature and thus non-magnetic.
• With 35% nickel added, the steel will have a coefficient of expansion of nearly zero.
• A high percentage of nickel gives higher magnetic permeability than obtained with soft iron.
• Used in the production of Bolts, Keys, Clevises and Pins

Chromium

• Increases hardness and strength.

• Increases rate of grain growth, so nickel, which has the opposite effect, is often added with
chromium to control the grain size.
• Increases corrosion resistance. Used to make ball and roller bearings.

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 Nickel/Chrome Steels

• Low nickel/chrome steels (3% Nickel/ 1% Chromium) are used for piston engine crankshafts,
connecting rods and similar applications
• High nickel/chrome steels (18% Chromium/8% Nickel) are the stainless steels.

Manganese

• Increases strength, toughness, shock and wear resistance.

• High Manganese steels (about 12% manganese) are very soft when produced but any cold
work by rubbing, cutting etc. causes the surface to become very hard and wear resistant.
• Used for rock crusher parts.

Vanadium - percentage required is very low

• Increases tensile strength and elastic limit.

• Increases shock resistance and fatigue resistance. Used for valve springs, dies.

Cobalt

• Used in the production of cutting tool materials.

• Used in the production of permanent magnets.

Molybdenum - percentage required is very low

• Increases resistance to creep at high temperatures.

• Increases tensile strength and ductility.
• Prevents brittleness experienced by some nickel/chrome steels when they are heated.

Tungsten

• Improves heat and wear resistance.

• Used in the production of many cutting tool materials.

Alloy steel is used in undercarriages, engine mountings, joint plates (at wing roots etc.),
door latches, bolts and fasteners etc. where high strength and corrosion resistance is
required. Steel is also used to make many engine parts.

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 The various nickel steels used in aircraft are produced by combining nickel with carbon
steel. Steels containing from 3 to 3.75 percent nickel are commonly used. Nickel increases
the hardness, tensile strength, and elastic limit of steel without appreciably decreasing the
ductility. It also intensifies the hardening effect of heat treatment. SAE 2330 steel is used
extensively for aircraft parts, such as bolts, terminals, keys, clevises, and pins.

Chromium steel has high hardness, strength, and corrosion-resistant properties, and is
particularly adaptable for heat-treated forgings that require greater toughness and strength
than can be obtained in plain carbon steel. Chromium steel can be used for such articles as
the balls and rollers of antifriction bearings.

Chrome-nickel 'Stainless Steel' or 'Corrosion Resistant Steel' (often referred to as SS or

CRES) are the most corrosion-resistant alloy steels. The anticorrosive degree of this steel
is determined by the surface condition of the metal as well as by the composition,
temperature, and concentration of the corrosive agent. The principal alloy of stainless steel
is chromium. The corrosion-resistant steel most often used in aircraft construction is known
as 18-8 steel because it is 18 %chromium and 8 % nickel. One distinctive feature of 18-8
steel is that its strength can be increased by cold working. Stainless steel can be rolled,
drawn, bent, or formed to any shape.

Because these steels expand about 50 percent more than mild steel and conduct heat only
about 40 percent as rapidly, they are more difficult to weld. Stainless steel can be used for
almost any part of an aircraft. Some of its common applications are in the fabrication of
structural and machine parts, springs, castings, tie rods, and control cables.

Chrome-vanadium steels are made of approximately 18 percent vanadium and about 1

percent chromium. When heat treated, they have strength, toughness, and resistance to
wear and fatigue. A special grade of this steel in sheet form can be cold formed into
intricate shapes. It can be folded and flattened without signs of breaking or failure. SAE
6150 is used for making springs, while chrome-vanadium with high carbon content, SAE
6195, is used for ball roller bearings.

Molybdenum in small percentages is used in combination with chromium form chrome-

molybdenum steel, which has various uses in aircraft. Molybdenum is a strong alloying

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 element that raises the ultimate strength of steel without affecting ductility or workability.
Molybdenum steels are tough and wear resistant, and they harden throughout when heat
treated. They are especially adaptable for welding and, for this reason, are used principally
for welded structural parts and assemblies. This type steel has practically replaced carbon
steel in the fabrication of fuselage tubing, engine mounts, landing gears, and other
structural parts. For example, a heat-treated SAE X4130 tube is approximately four times
as strong as an SAW 1025 tube of the same weight and size.

A series of chrome-molybdenum steels most used in aircraft construction contains 0.25 to

0.55 percent carbon, 0.15 to 0.25 percent molybdenum, 0.50 to 1.10 percent chromium.
These steels, when suitably heat treated, are deep hardening, easily machined, readily
welded by either gas or electric methods, and are especially adapted to high-temperature
service.

Although it is relatively easy to produce very high strength steel, such steels are difficult to
manufacture into finished components. Maraging steel overcomes these problems.

Carbon is necessary for the hardening of conventional high tensile steels. However, it
causes brittleness and distortion which is difficult to rectify. It also makes welding difficult.
Maraging steels contain little or no carbon and are hardened by adding nickel, cobalt or
molybdenum. A typical maraging steel would contain 17-19% nickel, 8-9% cobalt, and 3-5%
molybdenum and 0.6-0.9% titanium. The carbon content would be 0.03% and there would
be in addition very small amounts of manganese, silicon, sulphur, phosphorous, aluminium,
boron, calcium and zirconium.

The main advantages of maraging steels as compared with low alloy steels are:

• tougher
• simpler heat treatments are possible
• much less distortion during heat treatments
• very much simpler to weld
• easier to machine
• better resistance to stress corrosion and hydrogen embrittlement

They are, however, very expensive.

Maraging steels have been used in aircraft undercarriages and various structural forgings.

A286 alloy is an iron-based 'superalloy' useful for applications requiring high strength and
corrosion resistance up to 704°C and for lower stress applications at higher temperatures. It
is a heat and corrosion resistant austenitic iron-base material which can be age hardened
to a high strength level. The alloy is also used for low temperature applications requiring a
ductile, non-magnetic high strength material at temperatures ranging from above room
temperature down to at least -196°C. It is comprised of 57% iron, 25% nickel, 14.5%
chromium, 2% titanium, 0.3% vanadium plus traces of other elements and 0.04% carbon.

Inconel is a family of nickel-chromium-iron alloys closely resembling stainless steel in

appearance but is a nickel alloy not a steel (60% nickel, 29% chromium, 6% iron). Because
these two metals look very much alike, a distinguishing test is often necessary. One method

Module 6.1 Ferrous Metals 1.29

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© Copyright 2016 Rev.01 – 31 March 2016
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 of identification is to use a solution of 10 grams of cupric chloride in 100 cubic centimetres
of hydrochloric acid. With a medicine dropper, place 1 drop of the solution on a sample of
each metal to be tested and allow it to remain for 2 minutes. At the end of this period, slowly
add 3 or 4 drops of water to the solution on the metal samples, 1 drop at a time, then wash
the samples in clear water and dry them. If the metal is stainless steel, the copper in the
cupric chloride solution will be deposited on the metal leaving a copper-coloured spot. If the
sample is inconel, a new-looking spot will be present.

1.30 Module 6.1 Ferrous Metals

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 Identification of Steels
In the USA, the Society of Automotive Engineers (S AE) has classified steel alloys with a
four digit numerical index system:

• The first digit identifies the principle alloying element in the steel.
• The second digit, the percentage of this alloying element.
• The last two digits, the percentage in hundredths of a percent of the carbon in the steel.

Where there is more than 0.99% carbon, a fifth digit is added. The fifth digit is also applied
to distinguish between some of the corrosion resistant alloys.

Module 6.1 Ferrous Metals 1.31

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© Copyright 2016 Rev.01 – 31 March 2016
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 Uses of Steel
Alloy steel has a more limited application in aircraft than aluminium alloys due to its weight,
which gives it a lower strength to weight ratio. It is, however, more dense and thus has a
greater strength to volume ratio. It also has greater heat resistance. It comprises about 15%
of the structural weight of a modern jet transport. Steel is used where high tensile strength,
stiffness and resistance to wear is required. It is used for example in undercarriages, engine
mountings, door latches, flap tracks and for bolts and other fasteners.

The proportion of steel in an engine is about 45% by weight. Alloyed steels are used for
numerous parts such as shafts, pinions, gears and casings.

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 Heat Treatment
In a low carbon steel, the constituents, when viewed through a microscope, appear as a
laminated structure (pearlite), surrounded by free ferrite. With increasing carbon content,
the proportion of pearlite to ferrite increases until, with a 0.83% carbon content, the steel is
entirely pearlite. Above 0.83% carbon content, a microscopic examination shows pearlite
surrounded by free cementite.

Ferrite, sometimes called the alpha (α) phase of steel, is soft, ductile and not very strong.
Cementite, referred to as the iron-carbide phase, is very hard and brittle.

Critical Points
When a piece of steel containing about 0.3% carbon is heated at a uniform rate, the
temperature of the steel will, at first, rise steadily. When the temperature reaches 723°C (a
dull red colour) it will remain there for a time then rise again at a uniform rate. If the heating
is continued there is a second pause in the rise in temperature. After this, if the heating is
continued, the temperature will continue to rise at approximately the initial rate until it melts
at around 1600°C.

During these periods of arrest, the metal absorbs heat, but instead of raising the
temperature, the heat brings about a structural change in the steel. The temperatures at
which these periods occur are called ‘critical’ or ‘arrest’ points.

If the steel is heated to 900°C (a bright reddish yellow colour) then removed from the
furnace and observed in a darkened room, it will be seen that as it cools it will lose its
brilliance. At the points where it received its checks in heating the metal is seen to glow
more brightly and it will seem that the cooling has stopped. In fact the steel will be seen to
take on an extra glow as though it was reheated. After this the rate of cooling will be normal
until the metal is cold.

The temperature at which the changes start (the lower critical point) is the same for all
steels and is about 723°C. At this temperature, the pearlite disappears as the layers of
ferrite and cementite of which it is composed, dissolve and form a solid solution known as
austenite and free ferrite. Austenite, which is non-magnetic, is known as the gamma (γ)
phase of steel. At the upper critical point (which varies depending on carbon content) the
solution becomes pure austenite.

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 In high carbon steels, at the lower critical point the solution becomes a mixture of austenite
and cementite, again with pure austenite above the upper critical point. When steel is
allowed to cool slowly these changes occur in the reverse order.
At 0.83% carbon the ferrite and cementite are in such proportion that the structure is solid
pearlite. When heated to 723°C all the pearlite becomes austenite (i.e. upper and lower
critical points have converged).

This is said to be the eutectoid point of steel and pearlite is the eutectoid of steel. The term
'Eutectic' comes from the Greek tektos - to melt, and indicates that the mixture acts like a
pure substance and melts at a single temperature. Eutectoid has a similar meaning but
refers to the solid solution.

1.34 Module 6.1 Ferrous Metals

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 Heat treatment is a series of operations involving the heating and cooling of metals in the
solid state. Its purpose is to change the mechanical properties of the metal so that it will be
harder, stronger or more resistant to impact. It can also make a metal softer and more
ductile when it has become work hardened and release internal stresses after cold working.
No single heat treatment can produce all these characteristics. Some properties may be
improved at the expense of others e.g. when being hardened a metal may become brittle.

The most common forms of heat treatment for ferrous metal are annealing, normalising,
hardening, tempering and surface hardening.

The temperature to which the metal is heated and the rate of cooling is most important. The
results obtained depend on the structure of the metal and on the way the structure changes
when the metal is heated and cooled. Most alloys respond to heat treatment since their
structures change with heating and cooling.

During heat treatments, steel should be heated slowly and uniformly. Close control of
temperature is essential. Electric and salt bath furnaces are often used. The steel must
remain in the furnace until it is heated throughout and thus soaking time varies.

Cooling after heating can be carried out in the furnace, in air or by quenching in liquid
depending on the process. Oil is normally used for quenching alloy steels.

Many alloy steels respond to the same heat treatment processes as plain carbon steels
although the alloying elements may alter the temperature required for the process.

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 Annealing and Normalising

Annealing
When steel is cold worked, hammered, bent, rolled etc., its crystal structure is distorted.
Stresses and strains are set up and the metal may become brittle and weakened. Also
when steel is kept for considerable time well above the upper critical point (during casting
and forging) an increase in the grain size takes place. This process is used to render the
steel soft, ductile and stress free, so that further cold working or machining can take place.

Low carbon steel can be stress relief annealed at 630-700°C - below its lower critical point -
by slowly heating it, then slowly cooling it, usually still in the furnace after the source of heat
has been removed. This recrystallises it's grains. Steels with a higher carbon content may
require quench hardening first to reduce the grain size.

Large castings, forgings and heavily worked items often require full annealing. Steels with a
carbon content below the eutectoid point are heated to about 50° above their upper critical
point, while those with a higher carbon content are heated to about 50° above their lower
critical point.

This higher temperature transforms some or all of the metal into austenite. The slow cooling
allows the normal structural changes to take place and the steel returns to its stable pearlite
and ferrite or pearlite and cementite condition.

Normalising
Work or heat hardening can result in a loss toughness as well as internal stress.
Normalising is similar to full annealing and restores the crystalline structure to a normal
condition, relieving stresses and strains.

Normalising is carried out by heating all steels slowly to about 50°C above its upper critical
point and then allowing it to cool freely in the air. This more rapid rate of cooling, when
compared with the annealing process, gives the steel a finer grain structure and greater
toughness.

Once normalised, the metal is suitable for only very limited cold working but is in a good
condition for final machining processes.

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 Hardening and Tempering

Hardening

When a carbon steel is heated to a temperature in its full annealing range then cooled by
rapid quenching, the normal structural change does not occur. Instead, the austenite is
changed into martensite. Martensite has a fine needle like crystal structure and is the
hardest structure that can be produced in plain carbon steel. Because the crystals are a
supersaturated solid solution of carbon and iron this hardening effect only occurs in medium
and high carbon steels, below 0.4% there is insufficient carbon for martensite to form. Thus
the degree of hardness of a steel depends upon its carbon content and its rate of cooling.

The cooling rate is critical as it affects the final properties of the steel; too slow and some
pearlite will form reducing the hardness of the metal; too fast and the metal will crack or
distort. Steel may be quenched in air, oil or water. Water gives the most rapid cooling. Oil
gives a slower quench which reduces the hardness of the part but makes it tougher and
reduces the risk of cracking. Air is the least severe and is used for small sections.

Tempering
Steel is tempered to reduce the brittleness which is caused by hardening. It is, however,
very important that sufficient hardness is retained by the steel. The steel is reheated to a
fairly low temperature, then quenched in water. The temperature depends on the purpose
of the tool or article. Tempering temperatures below 200°C can only relieve hardening
stresses, but above 220°C the hard, brittle martensite starts to change into a fine form of
pearlite. The higher the tempering temperature, the less is the hardness but the greater is
the toughness.

The temperature required may be judged from the temper colours of the fine oxide film
which appears on the bright surface of steel as it is heated slowly. Each colour indicates a
temperature. A short table of articles and suitable temper temperatures is given here.
Where a large amount of tempering is carried out, ovens, or baths of molten salts having
accurate temperature control, give better results. The colour method is used for single tools
but is a rough guide only.

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1.38 Module 6.1 Ferrous Metals
Turkish Technic Inc.
Rev.01 – 31 March 2016 Training Purpose Only © Copyright 2016
 Surface Hardening

Very often a component must have a hard, wear resisting surface that is supported by a
tough, shock resisting core. This combination of different properties can be obtained in a
single piece of steel by surface hardening. Methods of surface hardening are as follows:

Case Hardening
In this process the component is usually made from a low carbon steel which will not
respond to direct hardening treatment. The component is carburised to increase the carbon
content of the surface to about 0.83%. This part is then heat treated to refine the grain of
the core which is still low carbon steel and harden the case which is now high carbon steel.
The carburising process is carried out at a temperature of about 900°C to 950°C. The depth
of the case will depend on the time held at this temperature.

The Box Process (Pack Carburising)

The parts are thoroughly cleaned and packed in a steel box along with a material rich in
carbon. The lid is sealed to prevent gas escaping during carburising and to prevent gases
from the furnace entering. The box is placed in the furnace and heated to a temperature of
900°C. This temperature is maintained for sufficient time to give the required thickness of
case. Carburising at this temperature for four hours gives a case approximately one
millimetre thick. This permits final machining of the part. The parts are allowed to cool down
slowly in the box in order to anneal the newly formed case.

Heat Treatment
The grain of the core (which will have grown during the carburising process) is refined or
normalised by heating to its annealing temperature of about 850°C then quenching in water
or oil.

The case is refined and hardened by heating the part to its hardening temperature of about
750°C, then quenching in water or oil.

The article can then be tempered at about 200°C to remove the quenching stresses.

Surfaces of the part not requiring case hardening can be protected by electro-plating these
areas with copper.

Cyanide Hardening
The part is placed in molten salts consisting mainly of sodium cyanide at a temperature of
approximately 900°C, which provides both the necessary heat and the material for
carburising. This process is used where a hardened layer of 0.1 to 0.25 mm may be
sufficient.

Articles carburised by this method are then subjected to the same refining and hardening
heat treatment as case hardened parts.

Note: Sodium Cyanide is highly poisonous and strict safety precautions must be observed
in workshops where it is used.

Module 6.1 Ferrous Metals 1.39

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© Copyright 2016 Rev.01 – 31 March 2016
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 Gas Carburising
In this process the components are heated at about 900ºC for three hours or more in an
atmosphere containing methane and propane which deposit carbon at the surface of the
component. These gases are usually mixed with nitrogen, hydrogen and carbon monoxide.

Again, articles carburised by this method are then subjected to the same refining and
hardening heat treatment as case hardened parts.

Flame Hardening
In this process localised areas of the surface of a medium and high carbon steel part may
be hardened by heating and quenching. The surface is heated to above its hardening
temperature by means of a travelling oxy-acetylene torch and is immediately quenched,
before the core temperature rises, by a jet of water from a supply built into the torch
assembly.

Slideways and tracks on machine beds are hardened in this way. Gears and spindles can
be rotated, the whole surface being treated simultaneously.

Low alloy steels containing up to 4.0% nickel and 1.0% chromium are also suitable for this
process.

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Rev.01 – 31 March 2016 Training Purpose Only © Copyright 2016
 Induction Hardening
This process is similar in principle to flame hardening except that the component is held
stationary while the whole circumference is heated simultaneously by means of an
induction coil. The coil carries a high frequency current, which produces eddy currents in
the surface of the component, raising its temperature.

As soon as the surface of the component has reached the necessary temperature, the
current is switched off and the surface is quenched by jets of water. Again the component
must contain at least 0.4% carbon. Using this process it is possible to harden selected
areas of symmetrical components.

Module 6.1 Ferrous Metals 1.41

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 Nitriding
This is a process in which certain alloy steels assume an intensely hard surface when
heated in an atmosphere rich in ammonia gas.

These steels, generally known as nitriding steels, contain aluminium and chromium. The
process consists of heating the parts in a box at a temperature of 500°C, and passing a
steady stream of dry ammonia gas through the box for a period of from 10 to 90 hours.
During this time the steel absorbs nitrogen from the ammonia gas. The hardened layer
produced is from 0.15mm to 0.8mm thick.

The fairly low temperature of the process means there is no need to quench the parts, and
thus there is less chance of the parts being distorted.

Nitriding is used to harden the bearing surfaces of piston engine crankshafts. It is also used
to harden the cylinders of piston engines. Any areas of the surface which are not required
to be hardened are protected by coating with tin or by nickel plating.

1.42 Module 6.1 Ferrous Metals

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Rev.01 – 31 March 2016 Training Purpose Only © Copyright 2016
 (b) Testing of Ferrous Materials
No content at Licence Category A.

Module 6.1 Ferrous Metals 1.43

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 Intentionally Blank

1.44 Module 6.1 Ferrous Metals

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European Aviation Safety Agency (EASA)

Module 6
Licence Category A, B1 and B2

Materials and Hardware

6.2 Non-Ferrous Metals

 Intentionally Blank

2.2 Module 6.2 Non-ferrous Metals

Turkish Technic Inc.
Rev.01 – 31 March 2016
Training Purpose Only © Copyright 2016
 Copyright Notice
© Copyright. All worldwide rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced,
stored in a retrieval system or transmitted in any form by any other means whatsoever: i.e.
photocopy, electronic, mechanical recording or otherwise without the prior written
permission of Turkish Technic Inc.

Knowledge Levels — Category A, B1, B2, B3 and C Aircraft

Maintenance Licence
Basic knowledge for categories A, B1, B2 and B3 are indicated by the allocation of knowledge levels
indicators (1, 2 or 3) against each applicable subject. Category C applicants must meet either the category B1
or the category B2 basic knowledge levels.
The knowledge level indicators are defined as follows:

LEVEL 1
 A familiarisation with the principal elements of the subject.
Objectives: The applicant should be familiar with the basic elements of the subject.
 The applicant should be able to give a simple description of the whole subject, using common words
and examples.
 The applicant should be able to use typical terms.

LEVEL 2
 A general knowledge of the theoretical and practical aspects of the subject.
 An ability to apply that knowledge.
Objectives: The applicant should be able to understand the theoretical fundamentals of the subject.
 The applicant should be able to give a general description of the subject using, as appropriate, typical
examples.
 The applicant should be able to use mathematical formulae in conjunction with physical laws
describing the subject.
 The applicant should be able to read and understand sketches, drawings and schematics describing
the subject.
 The applicant should be able to apply his knowledge in a practical manner using detailed procedures.

LEVEL 3
 A detailed knowledge of the theoretical and practical aspects of the subject.
 A capacity to combine and apply the separate elements of knowledge in a logical and comprehensive
manner.
Objectives: The applicant should know the theory of the subject and interrelationships with other subjects.
 The applicant should be able to give a detailed description of the subject using theoretical
fundamentals and specific examples.
 The applicant should understand and be able to use mathematical formulae related to the subject.
 The applicant should be able to read, understand and prepare sketches, simple drawings and
schematics describing the subject.
 The applicant should be able to apply his knowledge in a practical manner using manufacturer's
instructions.
 The applicant should be able to interpret results from various sources and measurements and apply
corrective action where appropriate.

Module 6.2 Non-ferrous Metals 2.3

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© Copyright 2016 Training Purpose Only Rev.01 - 31 March 2016
 Intentionally Blank

2.4 Module 6.2 Non-ferrous Metals

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Rev.01 – 31 March 2016
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 Table of Contents

6.2 Non-ferrous Metals ______________________________________________________ 9

(a) _______________________________________________________________________ 9
Aluminium _____________________________________________________________ 11
Production ____________________________________________________________ 11
Mechanical Properties ___________________________________________________ 13
Aluminium Alloys _______________________________________________________ 14
Metal Condition_________________________________________________________ 16
Corrosion Protection _____________________________________________________ 18
Heat Treatment Processes ________________________________________________ 19
Heat Treatment Indication ________________________________________________ 24
Specifications __________________________________________________________ 26
Identification Markings ___________________________________________________ 28
Cast Aluminium ________________________________________________________ 29
Magnesium and Magnesium Alloys _________________________________________ 31
Titanium _______________________________________________________________ 33
Nickel and its Alloys _____________________________________________________ 35
Electrical Resistance Alloys For Use at High Temperatures ______________________ 35
Low Expansion Alloys____________________________________________________ 35
High Temperature Corrosion Resistant Alloys _________________________________ 35
Monel Metal ___________________________________________________________ 36
Copper and its Alloys ____________________________________________________ 37
Tungum ______________________________________________________________ 37
Brass ________________________________________________________________ 37
Bronze _______________________________________________________________ 37
Lead and its Alloys ______________________________________________________ 39
White Bearing Metals ____________________________________________________ 39
Miscellaneous Metals ____________________________________________________ 41
Depleted Uranium_______________________________________________________ 41
Tungsten _____________________________________________________________ 41
Cadmium _____________________________________________________________ 41
Chromium _____________________________________________________________ 41
Metal Fatigue ___________________________________________________________ 43
General_______________________________________________________________ 43
Fatigue Life and Safety Margin _____________________________________________ 44
Shot Peening __________________________________________________________ 46
Rotopeening ___________________________________________________________ 47
Cold Working __________________________________________________________ 48
(b) Testing of Non-Ferrous Materials __________________________________________ 49

Module 6.2 Non-ferrous Metals 2.5

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2.6 Module 6.2 Non-ferrous Metals

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 Module 6.2 Enabling Objectives and Certification Statement
Certification Statement
These Study Notes comply with the syllabus of EASA Regulation (EU) No. 1321/2014
Annex III (Part-66) Appendix I, and the associated Knowledge Levels as specified below:

Part 66 Licence Category

Objective
Reference A B1 B2 B3
Non Ferrous Metals 6.2

Characteristics, properties and identification of (a) 1 2 1 2

common non-ferrous materials used in aircraft;

Heat treatment and application of non-ferrous

materials;
Testing of non-ferrous material for hardness, (b) - 1 1 1
tensile strength, fatigue strength and impact
resistance.

Module 6.2 Non-ferrous Metals 2.7

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 Intentionally Blank

2.8 Module 6.2 Non-ferrous Metals

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 6.2 Non-ferrous Metals
(a)
The term “non-ferrous” refers to all metals which have elements other than iron as their
base or principal constituent. This group includes pure metals such as aluminium, titanium,
copper and magnesium, as well as alloyed metals like brass, bronze, monel and babbit.
Alloys of aluminium and magnesium are referred to as Light Alloys.

Aluminium is the most important metal in aircraft engineering. Most modern aircraft are
constructed from aluminium alloys of one form or another.

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2.10 Module 6.2 Non-ferrous Metals

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 Aluminium

Production
Aluminium is derived from the red ore Bauxite, which is widely distributed within the earth’s
crust. However, large deposits of sufficiently high purity for commercial exploitation are
located in comparatively few places.

Bauxite is refined into aluminium oxide trihydrate (alumina) and then electrolytically reduced
into metallic aluminium. Two to three tonnes of bauxite are required to produce one tonne
of alumina and two tonnes of alumina are required to produce one tonne of aluminium
metal.

The aluminium industry relies on the Bayer process to produce alumina from bauxite. The
bauxite is washed, ground and dissolved in caustic soda (sodium hydroxide) at high
pressure and temperature. The resulting liquor contains a solution of sodium aluminate and
un-dissolved bauxite residues containing iron, silicon, and titanium. These residues sink
gradually to the bottom of the tank and are removed. They are known colloquially as “red
mud”.

The clear sodium aluminate solution is pumped into a huge tank called a precipitator. Fine
particles of alumina are added to seed the precipitation of pure alumina particles as the
liquor cools. The particles sink to the bottom of the tank, are removed, and are then passed
through a rotary kiln at 1100°C to drive off the chemically combined water. The result is a
white powder, pure alumina. The caustic soda is returned to the start of the process and
used again.

Module 6.2 Non-ferrous Metals 2.11

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 The aluminium reducing or 'smelting' process used is the Hall-Héroult Process, invented in
1886. The alumina powder is dissolved in an electrolytic bath of molten cryolite (sodium
aluminium fluoride) within a large carbon or graphite lined steel container known as a “pot”.
An electric current is passed through the electrolyte at low voltage, but very high current,
typically 150,000 amperes. The current flows between carbon anodes (positive), made of
petroleum coke and pitch, and a cathode (negative), formed lining of the pot, and heats the
solution. Oxygen is given off at the anodes, which burn as a result, and need to be replaced
quite often.

Molten aluminium particles, being positively charged, are attracted to the lining of the
furnace and collect at the bottom of the pot to be siphoned off periodically, taken to a
holding furnace, often but not always blended to an alloy specification, cleaned and then
generally cast.

Because of the nature of the process, abundant electrical power must be available. Thus
production plants are situated close to the sources of electricity such as hydroelectric or
nuclear power stations, and not normally near the bauxite mines.

Aluminium is formed at about 900°C, but once formed has a melting point of only 660°C. In
some smelters this spare heat is used to melt recycled metal.

Recycled aluminium requires only 5 per cent of the energy required to make “new”
aluminium. Blending recycled metal with new metal allows considerable energy savings, as
well as the efficient use of process heat. There is no difference between primary and
recycled aluminium in terms of quality or properties.

Most smelters produce aluminium of 99.7% purity, which is acceptable for most
applications. However, super purity aluminium (99.99%) is used for some special
applications, typically those where high ductility or conductivity is required. The marginal
difference in the purities of smelter grade aluminium and super purity aluminium results in
significant changes in the properties of the metal.

2.12 Module 6.2 Non-ferrous Metals

Turkish Technic Inc.
Rev.01 – 31 March 2016
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 Mechanical Properties
Pure aluminium is a silvery-white metal which is soft and ductile. It has a melting point of
660°C and a specific gravity of about 2.7, i.e. nearly one third that of steel or copper. It is
resistant to atmospheric corrosion owing to the presence of an oxide film which forms
naturally on its surface. Aluminium is also resistant to dilute acids, but alkalis attack and
destroy the oxide film, causing corrosion. The metal is a good conductor of electricity and
its electrical conductivity is about 65% that of copper. It also conducts heat well and is
widely used in heat exchangers, aircraft, food production and chemical plant.

It is non-magnetic and non-sparking, making it suitable for use as a shielding metal for
certain electrical equipment.

The pure metal has a tensile strength in the annealed condition of about 13 000 pounds per
square inch (lb/sq in), often expressed as 13 ksi., one-third that of steel.

Cold-working, such as rolling, will increase the strength of the metal and its alloys,
sometimes almost doubling their original values.

The pure metal is not strong enough to be used economically as a structural material, but,
in alloyed form (suitably heat treated), the tensile strength may be increased to nearly 100
ksi.

Because of its properties, aluminium and its alloys can be formed into a finished product in
many ways. These generally fall into two classes; Wrought or worked and Cast or moulded.

Wrought aluminium can be bent or folded, stamped, hammered, drawn, rolled, machined,
forged, extruded, brazed or welded into a wide variety of objects.

Aluminium can be Cast by any known foundry process to practically any shape at a
comparatively low temperature.

Module 6.2 Non-ferrous Metals 2.13

Turkish Technic Inc.
© Copyright 2016 Training Purpose Only Rev.01 - 31 March 2016
 Aluminium Alloys
As mentioned, the properties of aluminium can be drastically improved by alloying it with
other elements. Although older national specifications exist, aluminium and its alloys are
now normally classified into eight groups, identified by a four digit series number devised by
the Aluminium Association Inc. and accepted as an international standard.

The first digit indicates the principle alloying element. For example any alloy in the 2000
series such as 2117 or 2024 has copper as its main alloying element. 7075 has zinc as its
main alloy.

The second digit identifies the alloy modification. 0 indicates that the alloy is original. 1
indicates that the alloy has been modified once etc. The 3rd and 4th digits identify the
specific aluminium alloy.

In the case of 2024, the alloy consists of about 4.5% copper, 1.5% magnesium, 0.6%
manganese, with traces of other specific elements permitted, and the remainder aluminium.

2.14 Module 6.2 Non-ferrous Metals

Turkish Technic Inc.
Rev.01 – 31 March 2016
Training Purpose Only © Copyright 2016
 Various aluminium alloys are used for aircraft fabrication:

1000 series. Aluminium of 99 percent or higher purity has practically no application in the
aerospace industry. These alloys are characterised by excellent corrosion resistance, high
thermal and electrical conductivity, low mechanical properties, and excellent workability.
Moderate increases in strength can be obtained by strain hardening. Soft 1100 rivets are
used in non-structural applications.

2000 series. Copper is the principal alloying element in this group. These alloys require
solution heat-treatment to obtain optimum properties; in the heat-treated condition
mechanical properties are similar to, and sometimes exceed, those of mild steel. In some
instances artificial aging is employed to further increase the mechanical properties. This
treatment materially increases yield strength. These alloys in the form of sheet are usually
clad with a high-purity alloy. Alloy 2024 is perhaps the best known and most widely used
aircraft alloy. Most aircraft rivets are of alloy 2117.

3000 series. Manganese is the major alloying element of alloys in this group, which are
generally non-heat treatable. One of these is 3003, which has limited use as a general-
purpose alloy for moderate-strength applications requiring good workability, such as
cowlings and non-structural parts. Alloy 3003 is easy to weld.

4000 series. This alloy series is seldom used in the aerospace industry.

5000 series. Magnesium is one of the most effective and widely used alloying elements for
aluminium. When it is used as the major alloying element, or with manganese, the result is
a moderate to high strength non-heat treatable alloy. Alloys in this series possess good
welding characteristics and good resistance to corrosion in various atmospheres. It is
widely used for the fabrication of tanks and fluid lines.

6000 series. Alloys in this group contain silicon and magnesium in approximate proportions
to form magnesium silicide, thus making them heat treatable. The major alloy in this series
is 6061, one of the most versatile of the heat-treatable alloys. Though less strong than most

Module 6.2 Non-ferrous Metals 2.15

Turkish Technic Inc.
© Copyright 2016 Training Purpose Only Rev.01 - 31 March 2016
 of the 2000 or 7000 alloys, the magnesium-silicon (or magnesium-silicide) alloys possess
good formability and corrosion resistance, with medium strength.

7000 series. Zinc is the major alloying element in this group, and when coupled with a
smaller percentage of magnesium results in heat treatable alloys of very high strength.
Usually other elements, such as copper and chromium, are also added in small quantities.
The outstanding member of this group is 7075, which is among the highest strength alloys
available and is used in airframe structures for highly stressed parts.

8000 series. Of this group the Aluminium-Lithium alloys are the most important for the
aviation industry. Having a low density, lithium reduces the weight of the alloy while offering
strength comparable to the 7000 series and competes with carbon composite material. It's
development problems and high cost have so far prevented it's wide spread use in
commercial aviation.

Other terms which may be encountered include;

Duralumin (or Dural) which was the original aluminium/copper alloy patented in 1908 and
formed the basis of the 2000 series alloys.

Hiduminium - A family of British high performance aluminium/copper/ nickel alloys. Used

for rivets, skins, castings and forgings.

Metal Condition

Work Hardening
Like all metals, at a microscopic level, aluminium is crystalline in structure. When the metal
is worked (cut, bent, stretched or otherwise deformed) the crystals or grains slide over each
other at the ‘slip planes’ formed by the crystal boundaries. The crystals will also bend or
distort, but as they do, stresses form in them and the structure will become more resistant
to movement and therefore harder. This process is known as ‘Work' or 'Strain Hardening’. If
further work is done the stress becomes too great, the crystals fail and the metal will
fracture and break.

Alloying elements, normally metals, may be mixed with the aluminium base and either bond
with, or are dissolved in, the aluminium in its molten state. Adding these other metals to
form an alloy modifies the properties of the crystals and the boundaries between them.
Heating and cooling the metal will change the distribution of the components in the alloy
and the sizes of the crystals formed, both of which affect its mechanical properties.

Age Hardening
Alloys which have been heated may not return to their normal cold level of hardness
straight away. It can take several hours, days or weeks, depending on the alloy and
treatment applied, for the metal to 'Age Harden' to its original state. This allows work to be
done to the metal before its full strength is naturally restored.

2.16 Module 6.2 Non-ferrous Metals

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Rev.01 – 31 March 2016
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 Temper
Temper is the term used to describe the condition of the metal with regard to its workability.
This includes the hardness, malleability and ductility of the metal.

Module 6.2 Non-ferrous Metals 2.17

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© Copyright 2016 Training Purpose Only Rev.01 - 31 March 2016
 Corrosion Protection
Introducing other elements into aluminium to form alloys reduces its corrosion resistant
characteristics, in some cases by quite a large margin. Altering the crystal structure by
heating and working also affects these properties.

Various chemical and electro-chemical processes and coatings are used to protect the
finished product, and these will be covered at a later date, however, sheet aluminium alloy
is often protected at manufacture by 'Cladding' it with a layer of almost pure aluminium on
each side.

The cladding is cold rolled onto the alloy and forms 5% of the total thickness on each side
of sheet material (up to 0.249 inch) and 2.5% of the thickness of thicker plate (over 0.250
inch) material, e.g. flat sheet 0.150 inch thick would have 0.0075 inch clad on either side.
This material is produced under trade names such as Alclad and Pureclad.

The surface of the cladding oxidises to form a durable protective coating, however scores
or deep scratches which penetrate this coating may expose the alloy core, so great care is
required when handling and working this material. It also offers cathodic protection to the
core alloy.

2.18 Module 6.2 Non-ferrous Metals

Turkish Technic Inc.
Rev.01 – 31 March 2016
Training Purpose Only © Copyright 2016
 Heat Treatment Processes
Apart from work and age hardening, the temper of aluminium alloy may be modified by heat
treatment processes, each of which may be applied to some, but not all alloys.

The heat is normally applied in an air or muffle furnace, or a salt bath. The air furnace
circulates hot air around the work piece and is normally electrically heated as gas would
introduce moisture. They are particularly suitable for small parts and a small furnace may
be accommodated in almost any workshop.

A salt bath is a heated tank containing mineral salts, typically 90% nitrate of soda and 10%
sodium nitrate, although others may be used. These are solid at room temperature and melt
when heat is applied. Electricity is normally used to apply gradual heat and prevent
spattering an spitting as the salts melt. Before emersion the work piece should be
thoroughly dried and water kept away from the bath. Some salt mixtures are also
flammable.

The salt bath provides rapid and uniform heating for large objects which may be placed in a
basket for emersion. Small objects should be suspended on a wire or placed in a perforated
container. Work pieces should not touch the sides of the tank as the salt solution must be
able to circulate around them.

Accurate temperature control is vital to these processes as a variation of as little as 5°C

may affect the successful outcome. Similarly soak time is important, especially for large
heavy items. Cooling rates and the time between heating and quenching, known as Lag-
time (typically 7 seconds) must be adhered to or the materials strength and corrosion
resistance properties may be adversely affected.

Items removed from a salt bath must be thoroughly cleaned to remove all residues.

Clad sheet material must not be heat treated more than three times as migration of the
alloying elements into the cladding will reduce both the strength of the core alloy and the
corrosion resistance of the sheet.

Module 6.2 Non-ferrous Metals 2.19

Turkish Technic Inc.
© Copyright 2016 Training Purpose Only Rev.01 - 31 March 2016
 Annealing
If metal which has become work hardened is heated, the internal crystalline stresses begin
to dissipate and rearrangement of the deformed structure starts. As the temperature rises,
the distorted original grains disappear and new grains grow to form a stress-free system.
This ‘recrystallisation’ brings the metal to its softest state. This process is known as
annealing and leaves the cooled metal in a softened state so that further work can be done.

These effects depend on time as well as temperature. So that the change may be
completed quickly, it is usual to heat the metal in air at a much higher temperature (340ºC
to 450ºC) than the minimum necessary for recrystallisation. Apart from convenience, this is
done to avoid the merging of crystals to form larger ones, which is encouraged by, among
other factors, a long heating time. ‘Grain growth’, as it is called, impairs mechanical
properties. Alloys that are especially prone to gain growth are sometimes annealed more
rapidly in molten salts at about 500ºC.

The heating and soaking times specified for the alloy must be carefully observed to prevent
grain growth and all manipulation should be completed within 24 hours of annealing as age
hardening will begin to take place.

Several anneals may be needed before the metal reaches its final shape. A variation is
‘partial-’, ‘back-’, or ‘temperannealing’, where fully-hard material of some compositions may
be allowed to soften only to the intermediate degree of hardness, or temper, required.

2.20 Module 6.2 Non-ferrous Metals

Turkish Technic Inc.
Rev.01 – 31 March 2016
Training Purpose Only © Copyright 2016
 Solution Treatment
Within the aluminium crystal structure some alloying elements such as copper are capable
of being in a 'solid solution', a matrix of aluminium atoms with copper atoms dissolved in it.

An aluminium alloy containing 4% copper at room temperature (21ºC) will have 0.5% of the
copper in solid solution with the aluminium. The remaining 3.5% of copper is chemically
combined with the aluminium to form the intermetallic compound Cu Al2.

The ability of copper to dissolve in aluminium increases with temperature so that, as the
alloy is heated, the Cu Al2 is dissolved and the 4% copper is in solid solution with the
aluminium at about 500ºC.

If the alloy is slowly cooled, the Cu Al2 will gradually reappear as fairly large particles, visible
under the microscope. This coming out of solution is termed 'precipitation'. At room
temperature only 0.5% of the copper remains dissolved.

If, however, the alloy is quenched from 500°C, the copper is 'frozen' in the solid solution
and no Cu Al2 is seen in the structure. In this state the alloy is relatively soft and malleable.
This is known as Solution Heat Treatment (SHT) or simply Solution Treatment.

After a period of about two hours the copper will begin to precipitate out of solution and the
tensile strength and hardness begin to increase until, after about 5 days, these properties
are at a maximum. This is known as “Age Hardening” .

While the chemistry is complicated, the reason for these changes can be explained in a
fairly simple way. The components of the alloy are crystals of metal which must slide over
each other when the metal is bent or worked. After the quenching treatment, all the 4%
copper is trapped inside the crystals at room temperature. There is no obstruction to the
crystals sliding or slipping so the material is soft and malleable.

This structure is chemically unstable and so small particles of CuAl2 (too small to be seen
under an optical microscope) begin to precipitate at the crystal boundaries. These small
particles continue to come out of solution until, after five days, only 0.5% copper is in solid
solution. The remaining 3.5% of copper has combined with aluminium to form very small
particles of Cu Al2, dispersed throughout the structure. These particles will obstruct sliding
at the slip planes, making the material strong and hard again.

Solution treatment distributes the Cu Al2 more evenly than annealing so the age hardened
material is stronger and, when appropriate, annealed parts are often solution treated to
attain higher strength.

This process has been explained using copper/aluminium alloy as an example. The
process is similar when carried out with other modern aluminium alloys .

Module 6.2 Non-ferrous Metals 2.21

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© Copyright 2016 Training Purpose Only Rev.01 - 31 March 2016
 As with annealing, the heating, soaking and quenching must be carefully controlled as they
are time and temperature sensitive. Quenching may be required to be done in hot or boiling
water to reduce quenching stress. All manipulation should be performed within 2 hours and
if there is to be a delay between solution treatment and Precipitation Treatment the
surfaces should be protected against corrosion.

Refrigeration is sometimes used to delay precipitation from the supersaturated state. In

rivets, for example, the soft formable condition that prevails for an hour or so after solution
treatment may be maintained for about twenty hours, if need be, by storing at a low
temperature. These are often referred to as 'Ice Box' rivets.

Precipitation Treatment
In some alloys, the spontaneous ageing process is complete after a few days at room
temperature. A greater degree of precipitation and hardening than occurs naturally can, in
certain alloys, be induced by heating to about 170ºC for ten hours or so (time and
temperature depending on composition). This is called ‘Precipitation Treatment’ or ‘Artificial
Ageing’.

During this hardening and strengthening operation, precipitation of the soluble constituents
from the supersaturated solid solution takes place. As precipitation progresses, the strength

2.22 Module 6.2 Non-ferrous Metals

Turkish Technic Inc.
Rev.01 – 31 March 2016
Training Purpose Only © Copyright 2016
 of the material increases, often by a series of peaks, until a maximum is reached. Further
ageing (over ageing) causes the strength to steadily decline until a somewhat stable, often
brittle, condition is obtained. As with natural age hardening, the submicroscopic particles
that are precipitated provide the keys or locks within the grain structure and between the
grains to resist internal slippage and distortion when a load of any type is applied.

Precipitation Treatment controls the size and distribution of the precipitates and in this
manner, the strength and hardness of the alloy is increased beyond that achieved by
natural age hardening.

The ageing practices used depend upon many properties other than strength. As a rule, the
artificially aged alloys are slightly over aged to increase their resistance to corrosion. This is
especially true with the artificially aged 7000 series alloys that are susceptible to
intergranular corrosion when aged to peak strength.

Heat Treatment Precautions

Keep the number of heat treatments to a minimum. Clad materials must not be heat treated
more than three times because long periods at high temperature causes the copper atoms
to move into the aluminium coating, decreasing its corrosion resistance and strength.

Do not rivet aluminium alloy sheet until at least 24 hours has passed from the time of
solution heat treatment. Failure to wait for this period can cause local distortion at the rivet
positions. Allow five days to pass before putting the part into service

Do not allow the metal to be overheated, or heat it for too long a time. A large grain size,
causing brittleness, weakness and roughness of the surface may result and the part will
have to be scrapped.

The maximum time between removal from the heat treatment furnace and quenching or
Lag Time must be not more than 7 seconds.

Module 6.2 Non-ferrous Metals 2.23

Turkish Technic Inc.
© Copyright 2016 Training Purpose Only Rev.01 - 31 March 2016
 Heat Treatment Indication
As mentioned, not all aluminium alloys can be heat treated. They are generally divided into
two groups termed:

• Non-Heat Treatable - those that can be softened but not hardened by heat
treatment.
• Heat Treatable - those that can be softened and hardened by heat treatment.

The first group rely on the work hardening effects of manganese, silicon, magnesium and
iron when cold worked and so are found in the 1000, 3000, 4000 and 5000 series.

If these Non-Heat Treatable alloys are heated to their annealing temperature, around 350 -
400°C depending on the alloy, and allowed to cool slowly they will be softened to their
annealed condition with no temper. This is indicated by adding a -O to the series number.

They are hardened to a specific temper by strain hardening, usually done by rolling the
sheet material. The cold worked temper of these alloys is indicated by the letter -H followed
by a two digit number (tempers in the -H series are not applicable to castings).

The first digit following -H indicates the strain hardening process which is dependent on the
specific alloy. 1 indicates the material is strain hardened to a partial temper, 2 indicates fully
strain hardened then partially annealed to the desired temper, while 3 indicates strain
hardened and stabilised.

The second digit, a 2, 4, 6 or 8 indicates the degree of hardness between fully hard
condition, 8, and the fully annealed -O condition.

Therefore 5052-H24 indicates 5052 material which has been strain hardened and partially
annealed to a strength midway between fully annealed and full hard i.e. 'half hard'.

The letter -F indicates the ‘as fabricated’ condition of wrought alloys. In the case of
castings, the letter ‘F’ is used to indicate the ‘as cast’ condition.

Most alloys will work harden, or become partially tempered by the forming processes of
component manufacture. In this condition they may be re-annealed to allow further work to
be done.

The Heat Treatable alloys can be softened, hardened and strengthened by the solution
treatment and precipitation processes as well as cold working.

2.24 Module 6.2 Non-ferrous Metals

Turkish Technic Inc.
Rev.01 – 31 March 2016
Training Purpose Only © Copyright 2016
 The heat treated temper of these aluminium alloys is indicated by the letter -T followed by
one or more numbers. The number following the letter T shows the type of heat treatment.
Any variations are indicated by a second number.

Module 6.2 Non-ferrous Metals 2.25

Turkish Technic Inc.
© Copyright 2016 Training Purpose Only Rev.01 - 31 March 2016
 Specifications
American aluminium alloys are given a Federal Specification such as Society of Automotive
Engineers (SAE) or American Military Specifications (AMS). This precedes the alloy series
number

e.g. AMS-QQ-A-250 2024-T3

Within the European Community most national standards will eventually be replaced by
Comité Européen de Normalisation (CEN) 'Euronorms' such as EN 2419 which will align
with the American specification.

In the UK the British Standards (BS) L series of specifications (L88, L109 etc.) for sheet
aluminium is still in use. Other specifications include the Directorate of Technical
Developments (DTD) series, the British Aerospace BAEM series for sheet, plate, bar and
tube which are still active.

Other European specifications include the French ASN series, the German DAN series and
the Dutch numeric system.

It is important that only the metal specified for a repair or modification is used, to ensure the
desired strength, fatigue resistance and weight characteristics are obtained. Where
chemical composition and physical properties are very similar it is possible to replace one
material with an equivalent. It is, however, vital to remember that material substitution may
only be made on the authority of an approved design organisation.

2.26 Module 6.2 Non-ferrous Metals

Turkish Technic Inc.
Rev.01 – 31 March 2016
Training Purpose Only © Copyright 2016
 Module 6.2 Non-ferrous Metals 2.27
Turkish Technic Inc.
© Copyright 2016 Training Purpose Only Rev.01 - 31 March 2016
 Identification Markings
Aluminium alloy sheet must be marked with letters and numbers ink stamped at one corner
by the manufacturer, but it is common practice to repeat these marks at regular interval all
over the sheet. These identification symbols should include a specification number, the
alloy number with temper designation, and the thickness of the material in thousandths of
an inch (the thickness British material is graded by Standard Wire Gauge - SWG). On some
material red markings are used to indicate the material condition and further processing
required. These marks disappear when the necessary heat treatment is completed.

Aluminium alloy sheet in common with all other materials is given a batch release number
(or Approved Stores Serial -ASS number) before being placed in the bonded store. This
batch number must not become detached from the material during storage.

When cutting material, any that is returned to storage must have the identification markings
intact. This ensures that part used material is always identifiable. The release or ASS
number must be recorded on the work documentation for traceability.

If a batch of material has been heat treated by the user it must be clearly marked as such to
ensure that required further treatment is carried out and that treatment limits are not
exceeded.

2.28 Module 6.2 Non-ferrous Metals

Turkish Technic Inc.
Rev.01 – 31 March 2016
Training Purpose Only © Copyright 2016
 Cast Aluminium
Cast aluminium alloys often contain silicon, which creates high fluidity and, thus, is good for
producing complex shapes. It also reduces the coefficient of linear expansion, so is often
included in piston castings.

They are not used extensively on airframes mainly due to their lack of strength, poor fatigue
characteristics and lack of elasticity when compared to the wrought aluminium alloys. The
lack of elasticity is particularly relevant, as the very nature of an airframe structure requires
the ability to flex considerably without cracking.

Although their use is obviously limited on airframes, cast aluminium alloys are used
extensively on engines, where there is a need to produce complex shapes such as
gearboxes, component cases and on piston engine crankcases, drive casings and cylinder
heads. No other method than casting would be viable for such items. The stresses can be
kept to a modest level on these parts by producing robust castings of adequate stiffness.

The specification of castable alloys differs from that of wrought aluminium. There are
several systems in use and international standardisation has yet to take place.

Very few non-heat-treatable cast alloys are used in aerospace applications and, for heavy-
duty engine casings and pistons, some very strong, temperature-resistant alloys exist. One
of the most common in the category is Hiduminium RR 58 (sometimes known as Y Alloy),
which is an age-hardening material containing approximately 2.5% copper, 1.5%
magnesium, 1.5% nickel, and 1% iron. A derivative of this material was also used (in
wrought form) for the skin of the supersonic Concorde aircraft, due to the high metal
temperatures encountered.

Module 6.2 Non-ferrous Metals 2.29

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 Intentionally Blank

2.30 Module 6.2 Non-ferrous Metals

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 Magnesium and Magnesium Alloys
Magnesium is difficult to obtain from its ore, and is now normally extracted from sea water
or deep well brine by electrolysis.

It is the lightest engineering metal in general use, having a relative density of 1.7 and a
weight only 66% that of aluminium. Silvery-white pure magnesium is a fairly weak metal but
alloying with small amounts of aluminium, zinc, manganese and zirconium will increase its
strength. Although weaker than aluminium alloys, their lower densities often result in
magnesium alloys having a better strength to weight ratio.

Magnesium has an affinity for oxygen and will ignite and burn with a fierce white flame if
overheated. Its high conductivity prevents large sections from overheating, but when molten
(650°C) or in the form of fine dust or swarf it burns readily. Machining processes must,
therefore, be performed very carefully. Casting is also difficult and dangerous. The metal is
melted under a flux to exclude atmospheric oxygen and, when poured, is dusted with
sulphur powder which burns on contact producing sulphur dioxide to blanket the metal until
it has cooled. Magnesium fires should be fought with dry powder extinguishant as water
and foam will intensify combustion and may cause explosions.

Without protection magnesium alloy corrodes easily, but chemical surface treatments and
coating processes give it good protection from corrosion by excluding oxygen. Use of
compatible bolts, nuts, rivets etc. is also important in combating dissimilar metal corrosion.

Most of the alloys can be annealed, solution treated precipitation hardened in a similar way
to that used for aluminium alloys.

Magnesium alloys have been used to make aircraft wheels, piston engine crankcases,
turbine engine compressor casings, gearboxes, valve bodies etc. Magnesium alloy sheet is
used in the structure of some aircraft and helicopters where weight saving is particularly
important.

American magnesium alloys are identified by a series of letters and numbers. The first letter
or letters identify the main alloying elements. The middle digits identify the percentage of
each of the identified elements. The last letter and number indicate the heat treatment of
the alloy.

Example: AZ31A - T4

AZ The main alloying elements are aluminium and zinc.

31 This is 3% aluminium and 1% zinc.
A Indicates that the alloy is original.
T4 The alloy has been solution heat treated

Module 6.2 Non-ferrous Metals 2.31

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 Intentionally Blank

2.32 Module 6.2 Non-ferrous Metals

Turkish Technic Inc.
Rev.01 – 31 March 2016
Training Purpose Only © Copyright 2016
 Titanium
Titanium is a greyish white metal having a high strength to weight ratio. It has a relative
density of 4.5, making it 60% heavier than aluminium, but twice as strong, and 45% lighter
than steel but equal in strength. Titanium also falls between Aluminium and Stainless Steel
in terms of elasticity, and elevated temperature strength.

Titanium has excellent corrosion resistance properties due to the oxide film which forms. It
is not normally susceptible to stress, fatigue, intergranular or galvanic corrosion, pitting or
localised attack. Under certain circumstances it will burn in air, so to prevent it's reaction
with oxygen or nitrogen it may be treated with chlorine gas to form a coating of titanium
dioxide.

Commercially pure titanium and some of its alloys are non-heat treatable and can be
annealed but not hardened or strengthened. These are usually hot formed or rolled and
work harden. When suitably alloyed, heat treatable forms can be produced which can be
both annealed and hardened. These are softer and more ductile for cold working until
hardened.

The normal alloying elements include aluminium, chromium, iron, manganese, molybdenum
and vanadium.

Titanium and it's alloys are classed as A (alpha), B (beta) and C (combined) depending on
their crystalline form:

• A - is weldable, tough, strong both hot and cold and resistant to

oxidisation.
• B - has excellent bend ductility, strong both hot and cold but vulnerable to
contamination.
• C - combined alpha and beta with compromised performance, strong cold
and warm but weak hot, excellent forgeability, good bendability, moderate
contamination resistance.

The melting point of titanium is 1668°C, and it has low thermal conductivity and a low
coefficient of expansion. It's high temperature properties are, however, disappointing.
Ultimate yield strength falls rapidly above 425°C, and atmospheric oxygen and nitrogen
absorption above 540°C makes the metal brittle and worthless after long exposure. It is
useful for short duration, high temperature applications where strength is not important such
as aircraft fire walls where it can withstand brief exposure at 1650°C.

Special care is required when machining titanium due to its extreme work hardening
properties. For example, centre drilling should be used prior to drilling, as centre punching
would harden the metal, causing difficulty in starting the drill.

Fine titanium swarf or powder, even when moist, is a possible fire risk. Piles of fine titanium
swarf or dust must not be allowed to accumulate around machines. A fire can be
extinguished with dry powder. Water must not be used.

Module 6.2 Non-ferrous Metals 2.33

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© Copyright 2016 Training Purpose Only Rev.01 - 31 March 2016
 Cadmium coated fasteners must not be used with titanium as, when stressed, cadmium
atoms will migrate into the titanium causing localised embrittlement and cracking.

Chlorinated hydro-carbons such as trichloroethylene cleaning fluids will cause hydrogen

embrittlement as will phosphate ester hydraulic fluids (e.g. Skydrol) at elevated
temperatures.

Titanium specification is described by a number of systems.

The American A-55 is an example of a commercially pure titanium; it has a yield strength of
55 to 80 ksi and is a general-purpose grade for moderate to severe forming. It is sometimes
used for non-structural aircraft parts and for all types of corrosion resistant applications,
such as tubing.

Type A-70 titanium is closely related to type A-55, but has a yield strength of 70 to 95 ksi. It
is used where higher strength is required, and it is specified for many moderately stressed
aircraft parts. For many corrosion applications, it is used interchangeably with type A-55.
Type A-55 and type A-70 are weldable.

One of the widely used titanium-base alloys is C-110M. It is used for primary structural
members and aircraft skin, has 110 ksi minimum yield strength, and contains 8 percent
manganese.

Type A-110AT is a titanium alloy that contains 5 percent aluminium and 2.5 percent tin. It
also has a high minimum yield strength at elevated temperatures with the excellent welding
characteristics inherent in alpha type titanium alloys.

Titanium and its alloys are used to make corrosion resistant, high strength bolts and
fasteners, compressor discs and blades for gas turbine engines, fire walls, hot air pipes,
hydraulic pipes and structural parts which require high strength or operate at high
temperatures. It is also used to skin high performance aircraft where skin friction prevents
the use of aluminium.

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 Nickel and its Alloys
Nickel is silvery white, takes on a high polish and has good resistance to corrosion. It is
hard, malleable, ductile, somewhat ferro-magnetic, and a fair conductor of heat and
electricity with a melting point of 1455°C. It belongs to the iron-cobalt group of metals and is
chiefly valuable for the alloys it forms. Three basic alloy types are of interest to the aircraft
engineer.

Electrical Resistance Alloys For Use at High Temperatures

These are usually nickel-chromium iron alloys produced under trade names such as
'Brightray' and 'Resistohm'. Their important features are:

• They do not oxidise at high temperatures.

• They have a high melting point.
• They have a high electrical resistance.

These alloys are used to make heater elements for electric furnaces, soldering irons etc.
They are also used in temperature sensing thermocouples. Temperature sensing bulbs use
nickel in its pure form.

Low Expansion Alloys

Most materials expand when they are heated and contract again as they cool. Some iron-
nickel alloys, however, have very small coefficients of thermal expansion, making them very
useful in many types of precision equipment, used where temperatures are always
changing.

An alloy known as 'Invar' which contains 64% iron and 36% nickel has a negligible
coefficient of expansion. It is used for bi-metallic strip thermostats, precision instruments
and measuring equipment and for cathode ray tube shadow masks.

High Temperature Corrosion Resistant Alloys

These are sometimes known as Superalloys.

Among the first of these were the 'Nimonic' series of alloys developed in the UK in the early
1940's for gas turbine applications. They are basically nickel-chromium alloys, stiffened and
strengthened by adding small amounts of titanium, aluminium, cobalt and molybdenum.
Development has continued and nimonic alloys are still used in the latest engines.

Another well-known family of high temperature alloys is the ‘Inconel’ group developed in the
U.S. Inconel 600 contains 76% nickel, 15% chromium and 8% iron with small amounts of
cobalt, manganese, carbon etc. Others within the family contain Zirconium, Molybdenum,
aluminium and various other elements to obtain the desired characteristics. Their
appearance and performance are similar to stainless steel at low temperatures and they
remain very tough at high temperatures and do not oxidise very much because of the
protective film of chromium oxide which forms on the surface.

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 Other alloys in this type are Incoloy, Udimar, Udimet, Nilo, Waspaloy and Hastasloy. They
are used throughout gas turbine engines where high strength at high temperatures and
resistance to oxidation and creep are required. They are also used structurally where high
strength, corrosion resistant components and fasteners are required.

Monel Metal
This is an alloy containing 68% Nickel, 29% Copper, 1.5% Iron and 1.5% Manganese. It
has good resistance to corrosion. It is malleable and used to make rivets.

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 Copper and its Alloys
Copper is a good conductor of heat and electricity and is reddish brown in colour. When
cut, it forms a greenish oxide layer (verdigris) which protects it from further corrosion. It is
very malleable and ductile and can be shaped by rolling, drawing, forging and pressing.
Copper is used to make electrical cables and parts for electrical equipment.

Copper is one of the few metals which is mechanically strong enough to be used in its
(nearly) pure form. It is also valuable both as a constituent and as a base of alloys.

Tungum
Tungum is an alloy containing 81% to 86% copper and small amounts of nickel, silicon,
aluminium and zinc. It is highly resistant to fatigue and corrosion, is strong and ductile and
was used to make hydraulic and other pipelines. However it was found to become brittle
over extended time scales and is no longer used on aircraft.

Brass
Brasses are copper based alloys containing up to 45% zinc and sometimes small amounts
of other metals such as tin, lead, aluminium, manganese and iron, these additions increase
the tensile strength and resistance to corrosion.

Some brasses are very ductile and their sheets can be pressed and drawn into deep
sections. Others are more suited to hot working and stamping. All are readily machinable.
Brass is used in the manufacture of instrument mechanisms, bellows assemblies and pitot
heads.

Bronze
Bronzes are copper based alloys containing up to 25% tin, sometimes with smaller amounts
of phosphorus, zinc or lead. Low tin bronzes are used for springs and instrument parts,
tubes and pipes as they have good elastic properties and are corrosion resistant. High tin
bronzes are often cast and are used in bearings and bushes which are subjected to heavy
loads.

There are other copper alloys that contain practically no tin and yet are still referred to as
‘bronzes’. For instance ‘Manganese Bronze’, so called because of its manganese content,
is 55% copper, 40% zinc 3.5% manganese, 1% tin (technically a Brass rather than Bronze)
while Phosphor and Silicon bronzes also contain practically no tin at all. Wrought aluminium
bronzes are almost as strong as medium-carbon steel while cast aluminium bronzes are
found in bearings and pump parts.

One of the most important of the bronzes to aviation is Beryllium Bronze. This contains 97%
copper, 2% beryllium and small amounts of nickel to increase its strength. Once it has been
heat-treated, beryllium bronze is very strong (300-400 Brinell) and is used for diaphragms,
precision bearings and high performance bushings, ball bearing cages and spring washers.

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 Note: Beryllium and its salts are toxic and should be handled with the greatest of
care. The metal, its alloys, and its salts can be handled if certain work codes
are observed, but no attempt should be made to work with beryllium before
becoming familiar with proper safeguards.

Leaded Bronze is found in the bearings of some aero engines and is composed of 80-85%
copper with equal amounts of lead, tin and zinc. The very high pressures (and speeds) tend
to squeeze the lubricant out of normal journal bearings, but with the addition of lead, this
bronze acts as a self-lubricating bush in the event of the oil film breaking down.

The Sintering process involves the compaction of powdered metal, or metals, in a mould
under pressure of up to 50 tons per square inch. The item is removed from the mould,
heated in a furnace to a temperature below the melting point and held there until the
particles become chemically bonded. The resultant part remains porous. Sintered Bronzes
are often used to make small oil retaining bearings and filters.

Solder is a general term frequently used for joining metals together. The principal types are
‘soft solder’ (which is a mainly lead-tin alloy), and ‘hard solder’ which is an alloy of copper,
silver and zinc.

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 Lead and its Alloys
Lead is bright and lustrous when freshly cut, but soon oxidises to a dull grey. It is very
heavy and has a relative density 11.3. It is soft and malleable, resistant to corrosion and
has a low melting point, 327ºC. It also has self-lubricating properties and is used in some
bushing alloys.

Lead is a major constituent of soft solder. It has been used to make flying control surface
mass balance weights. It gives protection from X-rays and is used to make containers for
radio-active isotopes, used during certain non-destructive tests on aircraft engines and
airframes.

White Bearing Metals

White bearing metals used in piston engines are either tin base or lead base. Tin base
bearing metals are known as Babbitt metals and contain between 3.5% and 15% Antimony.
e.g. 7% antimony, 90% tin and 3% copper. They are generally heavy duty bearing metals.

The lead based White Metals are intended for lower duty since they can withstand only limited
pressures. They also contain tin and antimony e.g. 13% antimony, 12% tin, 0.75% copper and lead
the remainder.

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2.40 Module 6.2 Non-ferrous Metals

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 Miscellaneous Metals
Depleted Uranium
Depleted Uranium (DU) is a by-product of the nuclear enrichment process and is 1.7 times
as dense as lead. Because of its weight it has, in the past, been used to produce balance
weights for aircraft flight control surfaces.

Uranium and its compounds are, however, highly toxic, both from a chemical and
radiological standpoint. It is important that this material is handled carefully and
maintenance manual instructions observed. Damaged coatings may be repaired if no
corrosion is evident. Corroded weights must be removed, packaged as described in the
manual and returned to the originator. Under no circumstances may DU weights be cut,
machined or mechanically cleaned. Adequate protection must be worn when handling
corroded or damaged DU.

Tungsten
Tungsten is a hard, dense, corrosion resistant metal which is used in light bulb filaments and as an
alloying element in steels. Tungsten based alloy has also largely replaced depleted uranium as the
material for balance weights. As it is less dense than DU the weights are larger.

Cadmium
Cadmium is a bluish-white metal which is used as a corrosion protective sacrificial coating
on steel parts. Because cadmium is less electrochemically active than zinc or aluminium, it
is frequently used on high-strength steel parts that might be embrittled by more active,
sacrificial corrosion reactions and that contact aluminium parts. It is commonly used on
steel fasteners and their mating parts (nuts washers etc.) and followed by chromate
passivation which gives them a golden yellow colour.

If used in high temperature environments, however, the cadmium has a tendency to cause
Liquid Metal Embrittlement where it melts and diffuses in to the underlaying grain structure,
weakening the steel. Cadmium plated parts should, therefore, never be used on engine hot
sections. It also reacts with titanium and the two should not be allowed to come into
contact.

Pure cadmium and solutions of its compounds are toxic by ingestion.

Chromium
Apart from being used in high performance steels, chromium is important as a plating
material. In aviation it is used to give a hard, smooth, protective coating rather than just a
decorative finish. Hard-chromium (as opposed to 'Bright Chrome') plating is used for
improving sliding and sealing properties, preventing wear and, in thick layers, corrosion. It is
typically used for hydraulic cylinders and rams, and undercarriage oleo legs. Thickness
varies from 10 to 1000 micron.

Chromium compounds are toxic and should be handled with proper safeguards.

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2.42 Module 6.2 Non-ferrous Metals

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 Metal Fatigue

General
Whilst not strictly a form a of corrosion, fatigue is, however, closely associated with it. Each
can accelerate the development of the other and together they pose a serious threat of
catastrophic failure.

Briefly, fatigue is the phenomena where by a component which is subjected to repeated

cyclic loading will eventually fail at a stress level far lower than its ultimate failure load. The
number of cycles required to cause this fatigue failure is dependent on the magnitude of the
load applied as shown in the SN graph.

Fatigue failure is caused by microscopic flaws or faults in the metal structure. These may
be inclusion particles, voids, cracks, intergranular corrosion, scratches, blemishes, pits or
micro-cracks. The repeated stress reversals cause these faults to enlarge, concentrating
stress on the 'good' material and reducing the load carrying capacity of the component until
eventual failure.

Because of its nature, the fatigue life of two seemingly identical components can vary
significantly, however, fatigue analysis can predict failure fairly accurately where uniform
loads are applied to parts of comparable quality.

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 On an aircraft, the fatigue loads will vary considerably depending on the nature of its
operation, the environment it operates in and it's handling on the ground and in the air.
Typical loads which may be encountered are:

 Atmospheric gusts
 Manoeuvres
 Taxiing
 Ground handling
 Landing impact
 Ground-air-ground cycles.

A schematic stress history for a wing lower surface on a typical flight is shown opposite.

Fatigue Life and Safety Margin

With growing experience, manufacturers are now better able to predict structural fatigue
and design and build airframes with better fatigue lives and safety margins.

Methods used include:

 the elimination of stress risers by careful design, e.g. position of holes etc.
 shot peening of surfaces of highly stressed components
 cold working of holes in critical areas
 use of modern fasteners
 high degrees of surface finish
 development of maintenance programmes to ensure that faults are detected and
repaired.

In the maintenance arena it is important that all inspections and repairs are carried out to
the highest standards to detect the onset of fatigue cracks and prevent their propagation.
Unusual events such as heavy or overweight landings and flight through turbulence must
be thoroughly investigated in accordance with the manufacturer’s instructions.

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Rev.01 – 31 March 2016
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 Module 6.2 Non-ferrous Metals 2.45
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 Shot Peening
As fatigue cracks will only develop in areas of tensile stress, the main method used to
prevent them is to induce a layer of compressive stress in components and areas which are
known to be susceptible.

This compressive layer is often produced by shot peening where small balls of known
diameter are blasted with predetermined force against the surfaces to be protected. The
balls used may be steel shot or glass or ceramic beads, depending on the material being
treated. Components are treated in sealed cabinets or chambers while areas in-situ on the
aircraft are treated using portable Vacu-blast type equipment similar to that used for
corrosion removal.

The exposure time is determined by first peening a spring steel test piece or 'Almen strip' in
a special holder for a set duration. This is then inspected for coverage (density of impacts)
and intensity (by measuring the deflection or curvature of the strip). The air pressure and
time are altered accordingly and a new Almen strip is used until the correct coverage
(100%) and intensity is achieved.

Each component to be treated is given an Almen number dependant on its material and
coverage requirement. The exposure time determined from the test strips is then factored
by the Almen number, coverage requirements and surface area to give the total treatment
time.

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Rev.01 – 31 March 2016
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 Rotopeening
Small inaccessible areas and components in-situ can also be treated by Rotopeening.
Several tungsten carbide balls are held captive in a flexible strip or 'flap wheel' which is
mounted in a mandrel. This in turn is held in a high speed windy drill. Testing is similar to
that for shot peening but intensity is governed by drill speed which must be kept constant.

Module 6.2 Non-ferrous Metals 2.47

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 Cold Working
Compressive stress can be induced around fastener holes by several methods. 'Cold
working' or 'cold expansion' is the most commonly used in critical areas. In this process the
hole is drilled, reamed and deburred. A mandrel mounted in a powered puller tool and a
lubricated sleeve are then inserted into the hole. With the sleeve seated the mandrel is
drawn through it, the interference causing the hole to expand and the material around it to
be compressed. The fatigue life of a cold worked hole is between 3 and 10 times better
than for a plain drilled hole.

A similar effect to cold working can be achieved by using interference fit fasteners such as
'Hi-loks'. 'Hi-Tigue' fasteners have a radiused lead-in at the thread end of the shank which
broaches the hole as the fastener is driven home. 'Taperlok' fasteners also compress the
surrounding material as the fastener is drawn into the tapered hole. The effects of these
fasteners are, however, less controllable than the cold working process.

Before attempting to perform any of these operation you should be fully conversant with the
process specification and all equipment to be used. Additional training and authorisation
may be required.

2.48 Module 6.2 Non-ferrous Metals

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Rev.01 – 31 March 2016
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 (b) Testing of Non-Ferrous Materials
No content at Licence Category A.

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2.50 Module 6.2 Non-ferrous Metals

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European Aviation Safety Agency (EASA)

Module 6
Licence Category A, B1 and B2

Materials and Hardware

6.3 Aircraft Materials – Composite and

Non-Metallic
 Intentionally Blank

Module 6.3 Aircraft Materials – Composite and Non-Metallic

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 Copyright Notice
© Copyright. All worldwide rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced,
stored in a retrieval system or transmitted in any form by any other means whatsoever: i.e.
photocopy, electronic, mechanical recording or otherwise without the prior written
permission of Turkish Technic Inc.

Knowledge Levels — Category A, B1, B2, B3 and C Aircraft

Maintenance Licence
Basic knowledge for categories A, B1, B2 and B3 are indicated by the allocation of knowledge levels
indicators (1, 2 or 3) against each applicable subject. Category C applicants must meet either the category B1
or the category B2 basic knowledge levels.
The knowledge level indicators are defined as follows:

LEVEL 1
 A familiarisation with the principal elements of the subject.
Objectives: The applicant should be familiar with the basic elements of the subject.
 The applicant should be able to give a simple description of the whole subject, using common words
and examples.
 The applicant should be able to use typical terms.

LEVEL 2
 A general knowledge of the theoretical and practical aspects of the subject.
 An ability to apply that knowledge.
Objectives: The applicant should be able to understand the theoretical fundamentals of the subject.
 The applicant should be able to give a general description of the subject using, as appropriate, typical
examples.
 The applicant should be able to use mathematical formulae in conjunction with physical laws
describing the subject.
 The applicant should be able to read and understand sketches, drawings and schematics describing
the subject.
 The applicant should be able to apply his knowledge in a practical manner using detailed procedures.

LEVEL 3
 A detailed knowledge of the theoretical and practical aspects of the subject.
 A capacity to combine and apply the separate elements of knowledge in a logical and comprehensive
manner.
Objectives: The applicant should know the theory of the subject and interrelationships with other subjects.
 The applicant should be able to give a detailed description of the subject using theoretical
fundamentals and specific examples.
 The applicant should understand and be able to use mathematical formulae related to the subject.
 The applicant should be able to read, understand and prepare sketches, simple drawings and
schematics describing the subject.
 The applicant should be able to apply his knowledge in a practical manner using manufacturer's
instructions.
 The applicant should be able to interpret results from various sources and measurements and apply
corrective action where appropriate.

Module 6.3 Aircraft Materials – Composite and Non-Metallic

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Module 6.3 Aircraft Materials – Composite and Non-Metallic

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 Table of Contents

6.3.1 Aircraft Materials - Composite and Non-metallic ____________________________ 11

Composite Materials _______________________________________________________ 11
Glass Reinforced Plastic __________________________________________________ 12
Introduction____________________________________________________________ 12
Types of Glass _________________________________________________________ 13
Nomenclature for Glass Fibre______________________________________________ 14
Styles of Woven Fabrics __________________________________________________ 17
Fabric Identification Requirements __________________________________________ 19
Storage _______________________________________________________________ 20
Aramid Fibres ___________________________________________________________ 21
Carbon Fibres___________________________________________________________ 22
Other Fibres ____________________________________________________________ 23
Polyester _____________________________________________________________ 23
Polyethylene ___________________________________________________________ 23
Quartz________________________________________________________________ 23
Boron ________________________________________________________________ 23
Ceramics _____________________________________________________________ 24
Natural _______________________________________________________________ 24
Resins _________________________________________________________________ 27
General_______________________________________________________________ 27
Thermoplastics _________________________________________________________ 27
Thermosetting Plastics ___________________________________________________ 28
Thermosetting Resins____________________________________________________ 29
Epoxy Wet Resins ______________________________________________________ 31
Resin/Fibre Ratio _______________________________________________________ 32
Prepregs ______________________________________________________________ 33
Workshop Conditions for Good Bonding _____________________________________ 34
Health and Safety _______________________________________________________ 35
Storage _______________________________________________________________ 35
Inspection and Damage Assessment ________________________________________ 43
General_______________________________________________________________ 43
Ultrasonic Inspection ____________________________________________________ 45
Radiography ___________________________________________________________ 45
Vibration Methods_______________________________________________________ 45
Thermal Imaging________________________________________________________ 45
Composite Repairs ______________________________________________________ 47
General_______________________________________________________________ 47
Wet Lay-up ____________________________________________________________ 48
Prepreg Lay-up_________________________________________________________ 50
Fibre/Metal Laminate (FML) ________________________________________________ 51

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 Other Non-metallic Materials ______________________________________________ 53
Plastics _______________________________________________________________ 53
Types of Plastics _______________________________________________________ 54
Plastic Transparencies – Perspex __________________________________________ 55
Elastomers ____________________________________________________________ 56
Ceramics _____________________________________________________________ 58
Adhesives _____________________________________________________________ 59
Jointing Compounds _____________________________________________________ 65
Sealants ______________________________________________________________ 66
6.3.2 Wooden Structures____________________________________________________ 76
General ________________________________________________________________ 76
Sitka Spruce ____________________________________________________________ 77
Timber Conversion ______________________________________________________ 78
Alternatives To Spruce ___________________________________________________ 83
Inspecting Wood For Aircraft Use __________________________________________ 86
Plywood _______________________________________________________________ 88
Fabrication _____________________________________________________________ 92
Glue ___________________________________________________________________ 98
General_______________________________________________________________ 98
Glued Joints __________________________________________________________ 100
Assembly _____________________________________________________________ 103
Protection _____________________________________________________________ 105
Inspection _____________________________________________________________ 106
Glued Structures_______________________________________________________ 106
Structural Survey ______________________________________________________ 107
Timber And Glued Joints ________________________________________________ 108
Access Holes _________________________________________________________ 108
Glue Line ____________________________________________________________ 109
Timber Condition ______________________________________________________ 110
Compression-Shake ____________________________________________________ 110
Water Penetration of Structure ____________________________________________ 111
Joint Failure ___________________________________________________________ 114
6.3.3 Fabric Covering _____________________________________________________ 116
General _______________________________________________________________ 116
Materials ______________________________________________________________ 120
Fabrics ______________________________________________________________ 120
Tapes _______________________________________________________________ 120
Thread ______________________________________________________________ 120
Stringing cord _________________________________________________________ 120
Cotton and Linen Fabrics ________________________________________________ 122
General______________________________________________________________ 122

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 Glass Fibre Fabric _____________________________________________________ 123
Polyester Fabric _______________________________________________________ 123
Aircraft Dope __________________________________________________________ 126
Covering ______________________________________________________________ 128
General______________________________________________________________ 128
Stringing _____________________________________________________________ 131
Miscellaneous Methods Of Fabric Attachment ________________________________ 133
Doping________________________________________________________________ 136
Environment __________________________________________________________ 136
Procedures ___________________________________________________________ 137
Problems ____________________________________________________________ 138
Inspection and Testing __________________________________________________ 140
Excess Tension _______________________________________________________ 140
Loose Fabric__________________________________________________________ 140
Coating Cracks ________________________________________________________ 141
Fabric Identification ____________________________________________________ 141
Coating Identification ___________________________________________________ 142
Strength Criteria for Aircraft Fabric _________________________________________ 142
Fabric Testing_________________________________________________________ 143
Fabric Replacement _____________________________________________________ 144
General______________________________________________________________ 144
Equipment ___________________________________________________________ 144
Storage ______________________________________________________________ 145
Repairs to Fabric Coverings ______________________________________________ 146
General______________________________________________________________ 146
Repair of Cuts and Tears ________________________________________________ 146
Herring-Bone Stitch ____________________________________________________ 146
Repairs with Woods Frames _____________________________________________ 147
Repair by Darning______________________________________________________ 148
Repair by Insertion _____________________________________________________ 149
Rejuvenation of the Dope Film ____________________________________________ 151

Module 6.3 Aircraft Materials – Composite and Non-Metallic

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Module 6.3 Aircraft Materials – Composite and Non-Metallic

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 Module 6.3 Enabling Objectives and Certification Statement
Certification Statement
These Study Notes comply with the syllabus of EASA Regulation (EU) No. 1321/2014
Annex III (Part-66) Appendix I, and the associated Knowledge Levels as specified below:

Part 66 Licence Category

Objective
Reference A B1 B2 B3
Aircraft Materials — Composite and Non-Metallic 6.3
Composite and non-metallic other than wood 6.3.1
and fabric
Characteristics, properties and (a) 1 2 2 2
identification of common composite and non-
metallic materials, other than wood, used in
aircraft;
Sealant and bonding agents;
The detection of defects/deterioration (b) 1 2 - 2
in composite and non-metallic material;
Repair of composite and non-metallic
material
Wooden structures 6.3.2 1 2 - 2
Construction methods of wooden airframe
structures;
Characteristics, properties and types of wood
and glue used in aeroplanes;
Preservation and maintenance of wooden
structure;
Types of defects in wood material and
wooden structures;
The detection of defects in wooden structure;
Repair of wooden structure
Fabric covering 6.3.3 1 2 - 2
Characteristics, properties and types of
fabrics used in aeroplanes;
Inspections methods for fabric;
Types of defects in fabric;
Repair of fabric covering

Module 6.3 Aircraft Materials – Composite and Non-Metallic

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 6.3.1 Aircraft Materials - Composite and Non-metallic

Composite Materials
A composite material consists of two (or more) different materials whose mechanical
properties
complement each other although they maintain their separate identities (unlike an alloy).
One material forms a matrix which bonds to the other, the reinforcement material. In simple
terms a mud brick may be considered as a composite, where the brittle (when baked) clay
is reinforced with straw to produce a structure with greater strength and resilience then
either component separately. Another example is reinforced concrete with steel rods
strengthening the concrete matrix. Wood may be considered as a natural composite with its
fibrous composition.

In aircraft engineering terms, a composite usually consists of a plastic resin matrix and
reinforcing fibres of various materials.

Among the reasons that composite materials are used on aircraft are their strength to
weight ratio and corrosion resistance. Reinforced plastics are much lighter than metals. A
metal part can be as much as 25 times heavier than an equivalent composite part. The
composite part, however, must be as strong and durable as the original.

Reinforced plastics must therefore have strength, stiffness and impact resistance.

Strength is the ability of a material to support a load without breaking. A reinforced plastic
may have to support a tensile load, a compressive load or a bending load. In each case it is
the fibres which support most of the load. Fibres have a smaller effect in the case of
compressive loads.

Stiffness is the ability of a material to support a load without bending too much. As before,
the load can be in tension, bending or in compression. Again the fibres do most of the work.

Impact resistance is the ability of a material to withstand impact without shattering. Fibre
reinforced composites are very resistant to impact because the fibres prevent cracks from
running right across the plastic, and absorb the energy of the impact.

Module 6.3 Aircraft Materials – Composite and Non-Metallic

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 Glass Reinforced Plastic

Introduction
Fibreglass was the first of the composites, originally developed in the 1940s for radomes,
the fairings which cover radar antennas and which must be transparent to radio waves.

It is, as its name implies, a fibre made of glass. About 90 miles of glass filament can be run
from a single glass sphere no larger than a common marble. This fibre not only possesses
tremendous strength for its weight, but is impervious to all but the strongest acids and
alkalis, and it will not corrode or burn. The thread-like fibres may be woven into a cloth as
any other fibre.

The fibreglass used as reinforcement for thermosetting resins in aircraft applications is

available as a cloth in many different weights and weaves, as a loose mat and as loose
strands of fibreglass. When combined, the fibre and resin form Glass Reinforced Plastic or
GRP as it is commonly referred to.

For applications which require the most strength, it is necessary to use uni-directional glass
tape. Woven glass cloth has better shaping properties and high strength. Weave styles and
orientation are important as can be seen later in this section.

For many non-aeronautical applications where low cost is more important than high
strength, a mat of rough chopped fibre strands is used instead of woven cloth. The glass
fibres are gathered and pressed together loosely. The random placement of fibres in the
mat gives a uniform strength in all directions when it is bonded with resin.

Note: Glass fibres and glass dust are irritants and can cause reddening of the skin,
itching and allergic reaction. If inhaled they can produce respiratory problems.
Barrier cream, gloves and dust masks must always be worn when appropriate.

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 Types of Glass
Various types of glass can be used, each with its own properties. Among
them are:

‘A’ Glass - Standard soda glass in common use for windows etc. It has a high alkali
content which absorbs water leading to degradation of material and corrosion.
Resin adhesion also deteriorates with water absorption

‘C’ Glass - High resistance to corrosive materials. It is normally produced and used only
as a surface matt to reduce cost.

‘D’ Glass - An improved electrical grade for modern radomes. It has a lower di-electric
constant.

‘E’ Glass - (Calcium-Alumina-Borosilicate) Low alkali content and good resin adhesion
properties. Also has good temperature properties. The most common type
used for aeronautical GRP.

‘R’ Glass - American and European version of ‘S’ glass

‘S’ Glass - (Silica-Alumina-Magnesia) It's strength claimed to be 40% in excess of ‘E’

glass. Temperature stable in excess of 700ºc. It is used in high performance
aerospace application only, due to its high cost.

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 Nomenclature for Glass Fibre

Filament - A single fibre of glass usually between 5 and 14 microns ( ) in diameter,

several times thinner than a human hair. Due to the near perfect surface, it
may have an Ultimate Tensile Strength (UTS) of around 3400MPa (E Glass)
or 4400MPa (S Glass).

Size - A lubricant used on the fibres during manufacture, it is burnt off prior to
twisting.

Finish - A compound used to coat the filaments to improve handling and bonding
characteristics. It must be compatible with the resin system used. DuPont
"Volan A" is a common finish used with glass fibres.

Strand - A number of filaments bonded together with a size.

TEX Count - The weight of a strand in grammes/kilometre, e.g. 68 TEX = 68g/1000m

Roving - Loose combination of strands with no twist.

Yarn - Single Yarn: One or more strands with applied twist of 20 - 40 turns
per metre.
Plied Yarn: Two or more single yarns with applied twist in the
opposite direction to the single yarn twist.

Cheese - A roll or spool of Roving or Yarn prior to weaving into cloth or chopping for
matting.

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 Warp - The name given to the longitudinal direction of the fibre in woven fabric, i.e.
Warp Yarns; Yarns running the length of the fabric.

Weft - The transverse direction of the fabric, or yarns running crosswise (also called
"woof" or "fill" in the US).

Bolt - A roll of cloth.

Selvedge - Woven edge reinforcement of fabric which must be trimmed off before use.
Woven tape also has edge reinforcement but this may be incorporated in a
repair.

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 Module 6.3 Aircraft Materials – Composite and Non-Metallic
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 Styles of Woven Fabrics

There are many styles of woven fabric available. The most common for general use are the
plain weave fabrics where the warp and weft threads cross alternately. Plain woven fabrics
are the least pliable, but are easy to cut and handle because they do not tend to unravel.
However, their strength is compromised due to the severe “pre-buckling” already present in
the fabric. Fibres only produce their greatest strength when they are perfectly straight. The
frequent over/ under crossing of the threads reduces the strength of plain weave types,
though they are still adequate for non-aerodynamic applications. Twill weaves and satin
fabrics are highly pliable and stronger than the plain weave styles.

In a satin weave, 1 weft yarn floats over between 3 and 7 warp threads before passing
under another warp thread. The total number of warp threads in the pattern defines the
style, i.e. 4-harness (or shaft) to 8- harness satin weave. The stagger in the repeat pattern
between rows produces different finishes. The threads run straighter much longer in this
loosely woven type, maintaining the theoretical strengths of the fibre. Obviously, pliability is
higher and these fabrics conform easily to complex shapes. Once cut, however, they tend
to unravel because each thread is not held as tightly.

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 Twill or Bias weaves offer a compromise between the satin and plain weave types, as well
as a sometimes desirable herringbone cosmetic finish.

As mentioned before, Unidirectional fabrics offer the greatest strength. In these, heavy warp
yarns are held in place by light, loosely woven weft yarns which carry no load.

This table shows a comparison of the properties of common weaves used in aerospace:

• Stability is the ability of the weave to hold together when cut,

• Drape is the ability of the cloth to follow a complex shape,
• Porosity is an indication of the amount of resin required to thoroughly wet the cloth,
• Smoothness is the surface finish of the cloth,
• Balance is a comparison between the warp and weft direction,
• Symmetry concerns the weave pattern and
• Crimp is an indication of the amount or frequency of bend in the yarns.

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 Typical styles for aeronautical use include;

Style Weave
116 Plain
120 4 Harness Satin
143 4 Harness Satin
181 8 Harness Satin
1581 8 Harness Satin
7581 8 Harness Satin
7781 8 Harness Satin

The cloth is further defined by its Part Number. The format of the number varies with
manufacturer and standard system employed, but typical examples are shown below.

Fabric Identification Requirements

The glass fabrics designation and the applied chemical finish shall be marked on both ends
of the cardboard roll on which it is supplied. It should also have attached the release note,
approval certificate and label showing manufacturing batch number, quantity and
specification reference.

Release notes and approval certificates which must be supplied with all deliveries of glass
fabric must state that the material meets the residual size content, fabric breaking strain
and general requirements of Specifications such as BS 3396.

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 Storage
For the integrity of aircraft repairs, it is essential that the glass cloth is undamaged and not
contaminated with oil, grease, dust or moisture. Glass fibre fabric should, therefore, be
stored horizontally in suitably protected rolls on cradles at an ambient temperature not
exceeding 20°C and humidity not exceeding 65% relative humidity. Fabric must not be
stored flat, folded or on end as the fibres are easily damaged.

For prolonged storage, the roll of fabric must be stored in a sealed polythene container. The
expiry date of the roll must not be exceeded, so rotation of stock is important in storage
facilities.

Whether in a store or production shop, each roll must have its part number and release
documentation attached or adjacent to ensure positive identification and proper use, and
because these details must be quoted in all repair certification paperwork.

Some glass fibre cloth is supplied pre-impregnated with resin (Prepreg) and must be stored
in a freezer at -18°C or below. This must be stored in sealed bags with a desiccant to
remove moisture, laid horizontally with a tube in the centre to prevent distortion. To prevent
the condensation of moisture on the cloth before use, the material must be allowed to reach
room temperature before the storage bag is opened. As this affects the ultimate useful life
of the cloth, a log must be kept of the removal and duration out of the freezer for each roll.

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 Aramid Fibres
Aramid fibres are made from aromatic polyamide, a type plastic similar to nylon. They were
developed in the 1960s and entered service in the 1970s. The best known is DuPont's
Kevlar although other manufacturers produce similar materials such as Twaron and
Technora.

Their properties include;

• the highest tensile strength and resistance to impact of any composite reinforcing
fibre
• stiffer than glass but only about half as stiff as carbon fibres
• about 40% lighter than glass fibres
• ten times as strong as aluminium
• up to 400% stronger than comparable glass reinforced laminates
• up to 20% stronger than comparable carbon reinforced laminates

Aramid fibre has a very high impact strength with the damage confined to a small area.
Because of this they are frequently used in areas prone to stone and runway debris
damage as well as bullet proof vest!

However, aramid fibre has a lower compression strength than carbon, it absorbs moisture
more readily than either glass or carbon and it deteriorates in strong sunlight. It is also
much more difficult to cut, drill and sand than either glass or carbon, tending to 'fuzz' and
not give clean edges.

Aramid fibres do not resist flame well and burn through more quickly than other fibres.
Resin adhesion is also lower, delamination being one of the ways in which it absorbs
impact energy.

Like the other fibres, aramid fibre is available in a number of weave patterns and weights.
The fibre is yellow in colour and carries coloured tracers every two inches along the weft
and six inches along the warp.

Aramid fibre should always be kept covered when not in use because of the effects of ultra
violet light. This is not a problem once the fibres are incorporated into the composite and
the surface is painted.

When incorporated into a resin matrix, the material is often referred to as Aramid Fibre
Reinforced Plastic (AFRP).

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 Carbon Fibres
Carbon fibres, often referred to as graphite fibres in the USA, are made from pure carbon
and are black in colour. First developed in the 1960s, they began use on production aircraft
in the 1980s.

The fibres are manufactured by the controlled heating of Polyacrilonitrile (PAN), polythene
or rayon fibres (e.g. Courtelle, Acrilan, Orlon) in a furnace filled with an inert gas. The fibres
are pre-oxidised at 200-300°C for one hour, carbonised at 1200°C then graphitised at 2000
- 3000ºC. This process removes the hydrogen, nitrogen and oxygen leaving long oriented
carbon chains.

The fibres may be surface oxidised, which improves their bonding characteristics, and
sized, which reduces the build-up of static electricity and also improves bonding.

A range of carbon fibres is available in four basic groups produced at different graphitisation
temperature and defined by Tensile Modulus;

• Standard Modulus (High Strength)

• Intermediate Modulus (High Stiffness)
• High Modulus
• Ultra High Modulus

All of them are stiffer than glass fibres, but only the high strength carbon fibres are stronger
that glass fibres in tension. The higher modulus fibres are very brittle and not suitable for
general aeronautical use.

The carbon fibres are woven into cloth to make them easier to handle, cut and align, and to
reduce damage to the fibres during lamination. Plain and satin weave patterns are
available.

To help alignment of the weave and to keep the fibres straight in the composite, Kevlar
threads may woven into the cloth every two inches along the weft and six inches along the
warp.

Carbon fibre cloth is often supplied pre-impregnated with resin (Prepreg) and, like prepreg
glass cloth, must be stored in a freezer.

When sanding carbon fibre composites during repair work for example, the fine carbon
fibres may find their way into electrical equipment and cause short circuits. When
machining and sanding carbon fibre composite, a vacuum cleaner is used to remove all the
dust being produced.

Kevlar and carbon fibres have one added advantage over glass. They both have negative
coefficients of expansion. This means that they shrink very slightly when heated so
composites can be made which do not change in size or shape when the temperature
changes.

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 When incorporated into a resin matrix, the material is often referred to as Carbon Fibre
Reinforced Plastic (CFRP).

Cloth materials are sometimes mixed to give a structure it's desired characteristics. For
example, a carbon fibre component may have one or more layers of aramid fibre to improve
its impact resistance, or a GRP sanding layer to allow a smooth finish to be achieved.

Other Fibres
There are a variety of other fibres which can be used in advanced composite structures but
their use is not widespread. These include:

Polyester
A low density, high tenacity fibre with good impact resistance but low modulus. Its lack of
stiffness usually precludes it from inclusion in a composite component, but it is useful where
low weight, high impact or abrasion resistance, and low cost are required. It is mainly used
as a surfacing material, as it can be very smooth, keeps weight down and works well with
most resin types.

Polyethylene
In random orientation, ultra-high molecular weight polyethylene molecules give very low
mechanical properties. However, if dissolved and drawn from solution into a filament by a
process called gel-spinning, the molecules become disentangled and aligned in the
direction of the filament. The molecular alignment promotes very high tensile strength to the
filament and the resulting fibre. Coupled with their low S.G. (<1.0), these fibres have the
highest specific strength of the fibres described here. However, the fibre’s tensile modulus
and ultimate strength are only slightly better than E-glass and less than that of aramid or
carbon. The fibre also demonstrates very low compressive strength in laminate form. These
factors, coupled with high price, and more importantly, the difficulty in creating a good
fibre/matrix bond means that polyethylene fibres are not often used in isolation for
composite components.

Quartz
A very high silica version of glass with much higher mechanical properties and excellent
resistance to high temperatures (>1,000°C). However, the manufacturing process and low
volume production lead to a very high price.

Boron
Carbon or metal fibres may be coated with a layer of boron to improve the overall fibre
properties. The extremely high cost of this fibre restricts it use to high temperature
aerospace applications and in specialised sporting equipment. A boron/carbon hybrid,
composed of carbon fibres interspersed among 80-100 m boron fibres, in an epoxy matrix,

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 can achieve properties greater than either fibre alone, with flexural strength and stiffness
twice that of HS carbon and 1.4 times that of boron, and shear strength exceeding that of
either fibre.

Ceramics
Ceramic fibres, usually in the form of very short ‘whiskers’ are mainly used in areas
requiring high temperature resistance. They are more frequently associated with non-
polymer matrices such as metal alloys.

Natural
At the other end of the scale it is possible to use fibrous plant materials such as jute and
sisal as reinforcements in ‘low-tech’ applications. The fibres’ low S.G. (typically 0.5-0.6)
mean that fairly high specific strengths can be achieved, however, they are rarely
encountered in aerospace applications.

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 Fibre Properties and Cost

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 Resins

General
Resins are plastic materials used for laminating and bonding all the types of materials used
in composites engineering. These resins are formulated to provide specific properties such
as heat-resistance and flame proofing, although in some cases, an additive may be used.
The type of resin used, therefore, is most important, since a particular type will have been
chosen at the design stage to provide the necessary properties in a particular component
and may not be suitable for carrying out repairs in different locations. Resin often comes in
liquid form, but is also available as a 'dry' film adhesive with a strippable protective sheet on
both sides.

The resins used to bind together the fibres in a composite structure, and structural
adhesives have many things in common. They should ideally have the following
characteristics:

 Have good wettability to the fibres or surface to be bonded (substrate) and develop
very good adhesion upon cure.
 Should not give off volatiles of any cure products during cure.
 Should have a simple cure cycle process.
 Should have ambient temperature storage.
 Should be tolerant of imperfect processing - should be robust.
 Should not shrink during cure.
 Should have excellent retention of room temperature properties when exposed to
extremes of temperature and humidity.
 Should not have any toxicity hazards in either the uncured form or during
decomposition as would occur for example in an aircraft passenger cabin fire.

No one resin system exists that provides outstanding performance in all of the above areas
- in effect, this is a wish list. However, a wide range of matrix resins and adhesives exist
that meet many of the above requirements.

The resins that are used in fibre reinforced composites can also be referred to as
‘polymers’. All polymers exhibit an important common property in that they are composed of
long chain-like molecules consisting of many simple repeating units. Man-made polymers
are generally called ‘synthetic resins’ or simply ‘resins’. Polymers can be classified under
two types, ‘thermoplastic’ and ‘thermosetting’, according to the effect of heat on their
properties.

Thermoplastics
Thermoplastics, like metals, soften with heating and eventually melt, hardening again upon
cooling. This process of crossing the softening or melting point on the temperature scale
can be repeated as often as desired without any appreciable effect on the material
properties in either state. Typical thermoplastics include nylon, polypropylene and ABS, and
these can be reinforced, although usually only with short, chopped fibres such as glass.

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 While tough, thermoplastics tend to lack rigidity and are not commonly used for
aeronautical composite resins.

Thermosetting Plastics
Thermosetting materials, or ‘thermosets’, are formed from a chemical reaction in situ, where
the resin and hardener or resin and catalyst are mixed and then undergo a non-reversible
chemical reaction to form a hard, infusible crystalline polymer. Heat can be used to
accelerate the cure process and also improves the strength of the resin, but overheating
damages the molecular bonds.

In some thermosets, volatile substances are produced as by-products (a ‘condensation’

reaction). Other thermosetting resins cure by mechanisms that do not produce any volatile
by-products and thus are much easier to process (‘addition’ reactions).

During the cure process most resins will exotherm or produce heat. This in its self will
accelerate the cure and has a greater "chain reaction" effect in larger masses of resin.
Incorrect mixing ratios can lead to runaway exothermy and fire or even explosion of certain
types of resin.

Once cured, thermosets will not become liquid again if heated, although above a certain
temperature their mechanical properties will change significantly. This temperature is
known as the Glass Transition Temperature (Tg), and varies widely according to the
particular resin system used, its degree of cure and whether it was mixed correctly. Above
the Tg, the molecular structure of the thermoset changes to a more flexible, amorphous
polymer. This change is reversible on cooling back below the Tg although the resin may not
regain its original strength. Above the Tg properties such as resin modulus (stiffness) drop
sharply, and as a result the compressive and shear strength of the composite does too.
Other properties such as water resistance and colour stability also reduce markedly above
the resin’s Tg.

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 Thermosetting Resins
As previously stated, these harden or cure by a process of chemical cross linking, whereby
resins of low -molecular weight and good solubility grow into products of very high
molecular weight and limited solubility. The cross linking is an irreversible process. Some
examples of thermosetting resins:

Polyurethane High toughness materials, sometimes hybridised with other

resins, due to relatively low laminate mechanical properties in
compression. Uses harmful isocyanates as curing agent. Little
use in modern aircraft.

Polyester Two or three part systems. Good environmental resistance.

Heat resistant up to150ºC. Used as wet resin and prepreg, it
produces toxic fumes (styrenes) during the cure process. Easily
fire retarded but produces a lot of smoke when burning. Not as
strong as epoxy. Was used extensively for aircraft but use now
diminishing. Can be dangerous if mixed incorrectly (risk of
explosion).

Epoxy Very strong, good environmental resistance. Can have high

temperature resistance (>200ºC). Used as wet resin, prepreg or
adhesive film. Will usually burn readily and produces a lot of
smoke when burning.

Phenolics Fairly brittle system but has a good fire/smoke toxicity

performance. Hence extensive use in interior passenger cabin
composite components. Good heat resistance (>200ºc).

Cyanate Esters Primarily used in the military aerospace industry. The material’s
excellent dielectric properties make it very suitable for use with
low dielectric fibres such as quartz for the manufacture of high
speed radomes. The material also has temperature stability up
to around 200°C wet.

Bismaleimides (BMI) Primarily used in aircraft composites where operation at higher

temperatures (230°C wet/ 250°C dry) is required. e.g. engine
inlets, high-speed aircraft flight surfaces.

Polyimides Used where operation at higher temperatures than

bismaleimides can stand is required (use up to 250°C wet/300°C
dry). Typical applications include missile and aero-engine
components. Extremely expensive resin, which uses toxic raw
materials in its manufacture. Polyimides also tend to be hard to
process due to their condensation reaction emitting water during
cure, and are relatively brittle when cured.

The adhesive/resin types most commonly used in commercial aerospace structures

manufacture and repair include:

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 Phenolic Resins
Phenolic resins were the first resin types used for aerospace adhesive and composite
applications and are still used extensively for metal-to-metal bonding and as matrix resins
for aircraft passenger cabin furnishing panels where the low smoke and toxic gas emissions
characteristics of Phenolic resins is advantageous. The key problems with Phenolic resins
however is that they produce water as a product of cure and need cure temperatures of
125ºc to 150ºc to achieve a cure.

Epoxy Resins
Epoxy resins are the most widely used resin types for aerospace adhesive and composite
applications. They range in type from two-part, room temperature curing pastes (e.g.
Araldite) to liquid resins and hot-cure film adhesives capable of operating up to 150ºC for
long periods of time in aero engine applications.

Epoxy based matrix resins for aerospace composites tend to fall into three categories:

350ºf (177ºC) Cure Epoxy Systems

These systems are mainly used for components that will meet elevated temperature
conditions in service and are most resistant to moisture absorption. Most major structural
items such as airframe class 1 items are based on these resins.

They need a high temperature cure to be able to develop attractive elevated temperature
mechanical properties in service structure. However, the degradation of properties after
long term exposure to humidity means that these systems are generally limited to service
temperatures of around 135ºC/275ºf.

These matrix systems are good for fabrication of solid composite laminates, but is generally
not possible to cure these prepregs directly onto honeycomb core and achieve satisfactory
core-to-skin strength from the matrix resin attachment to the honeycomb cell ends. If these
resin systems are to be used for composite sandwich panel skins, it is customary to use an
epoxy film adhesive to bond the pre-cured skins to the honeycomb core in a secondary
bonding operation.

250ºf (121ºC) Cure Epoxy Systems

These systems are used on less highly loaded structures such as fairings and access
panels and are less resistant to elevated temperatures and moisture absorption.

They are designed to operate in aerospace applications such as exterior secondary

structures for civil and military sub-sonic aircraft and helicopters. Generally, the long term
continuous operating temperatures for structures using these resins does not exceed the
93º C/200ºf level and their use tends to be limited to secondary structural items.

These modified epoxy systems can be formulated to have the characteristic of one-shot
laminating and bonding to substrate (e.g. honeycomb core) without the need for a separate
structural adhesive. The matrix system flows and fillets around the cell ends of the
honeycomb core to form a high strength adhesive bond. This honeycomb bonding
behaviour considerably simplifies the fabrication of sandwich panels using 250ºf cure matrix
resins.

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 Room Temperature Cure Epoxy Systems
These systems are used for repair of composite parts and recent developments in paste
adhesive technology provide systems with performance close to that of 250ºf (121ºC) cure
resins.

The convenience of mixing, applying and curing a two-part epoxy liquid or paste adhesive
at room temperature is very attractive in terms of repairs to composite structures. However,
until recently, these resin systems had relatively poor elevated temperature strength and
poor toughness characteristics. Recent improvements in room temperature cure epoxy
resins allow us to use these materials to a greater extent in composite structure repair.

Epoxy Wet Resins

These are usually two part systems:

• Part A is a polyepoxide resin (base resin)

• Part B is a curing agent (hardener) - this can be an acidic, amine or amide cross
linking agent to achieve the polymerisation process.

The ratio of Part A to Part B will vary according to the particular epoxy material but the
manufacturer’s instructions should always be followed. Keep kits of the two parts together
and do not mix the lids as these will tend to bond. The tolerance on ratio quantities is + 1%
pbw (parts by weight). Mixing by weight is preferred to mixing by volume. Use digital scales
(0.1% accuracy). Mixing should be for 3 minutes minimum to ensure good dispersion of
hardener into the base resin. Dyes are sometimes included to provide a colour change
which gives a visual check on mixing.

Mix in non-metallic receptacles (e.g. waxless paper cups) using flat non-metallic stirrers
(e.g. wooden or plastic spatulas). If air is introduced into the mix, it may be desirable to
vacuum, de-gas or allow to stand for a while to allow air to reach the surface. The higher
the viscosity, the fewer gas/air bubbles will ever reach the surface and escape. Care should
therefore be taken to avoid trapping air during mixing.

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 Pot Life
Usable life of resin in the Pot (mixing receptacle). The pot life may be extended by
decanting the mixed resin into smaller units because this reduces the heat generated in the
curing resin by exothermic reaction. Mixing in shallow trays can help remove the heat and
reduces the temperature reached as a result of the exotherm. Many epoxies exotherm as
the cure initiates. In extreme cases they can ignite and give off vapour and smoke. It is very
important to mix in small quantities following manufacturers recommendations.

Work Life
This is the usable life after resin has been wetted into reinforcement and before it begins to
gel.

Gel Point
On addition of the hardener a resin will begin to become more viscous until it reaches a
state when it is no longer a liquid and has lost its ability to flow. This is the ‘gel point’. The
resin will continue to harden after it has gelled, until, at some time later, it has obtained its
full hardness and properties.

Cure
Wet resins will usually cure at ambient temperatures (21-24ºC) in 16-72 hours though they
will harden in less time than this. Cure can be accelerated (and properties improved) by the
addition of heat.

For Boeing aircraft, the cure temperature should be less than 66ºC for 'room temperature'
repairs. These do not replicate the strength of the original 350° or 250°f cures used during
fabrication. Manufacturers recommendations, which are based on extensive research,
should always be followed for optimum performance.

It is very important to refer to the manufacturer’s instructions when using resins of all kinds.

Resin/Fibre Ratio
An important feature of a composite structure is the proportion of fibre to resin used, or the
resin/fibre ratio. If too much resin is used, the fibres will have little effect and the composite
will be weak. If too little is used the fibres may not be fully encapsulated and the structure
will lack rigidity.

There is an optimum resin/fibre ratio to produce the best composite. The value will vary
depending on the fibre and resin used. With polyesters the ratio is usually about two parts
of resin to one part of fibre by weight. This is because of the inferior adhesion of the
polyester resin to the fibre, and it is usual to use a slight excess of resin to make sure that
the fibres are thoroughly wetted with resin.

Epoxy resins, with their superior adhesion, bond very well to the fibres so the fibre resin
ratio can be higher to produce a lighter but strong composite. For example, when using
glass fibre and carbon fibre with epoxy resin, equal parts by weight of resin and fibre are
used. Precise resin/fibre ratios are given by the fibre and resin manufacturers.

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 Epoxies have other useful properties which make them superior to polyesters.
• Very good resistance to chemicals.
• Low shrinkage as they cure.
• Variable curing time - different combinations of resin and hardeners can be used to
give curing times varying from a few minutes to days. Pot life can also be varied by
choice of hardener.
• Variable curing temperature - some epoxides cure at room temperature, but by
choosing the right hardeners, materials can be produced which will only cure when
heated. This gives more
• time in which to work with the mixed resin.

Epoxy resins do have some disadvantages.

• They are more expensive.

• They are more difficult to use than polyester.
• They are possibly hazardous to health.

Prepregs
A prepreg (an abbreviation of pre-impregnated) is a sheet of fibre reinforcement
impregnated with the resin/hardener system. The resin is chosen so that it is fairly solid at
room temperature in its uncured state. When it is heated it initially softens, then cross-links
to form a cured solid. Glass-fibre, carbon fibre, Kevlar and aluminium mesh are available as
a prepreg.

The advantages of a prepreg are that the resin/hardener ratio and the fibre/resin ratio are
carefully controlled by the manufacturer. Each batch of prepreg is identical. The resin is
already spread evenly throughout the fibres. This is important in the manufacture of items
such as helicopter rotor blades. It allows the blades to be moulded to a controlled thickness
and weight in a repeatable process.

Because the prepreg material contains only enough resin to cure its own fibres it must be
bonded to the substrate with a separate adhesive. This is usually in the form of a thin layer
of thickened epoxy resin known as film adhesive, its thickness controlled by the
manufacturer.

To prevent premature cure, prepregs and film adhesives must be transported and stored at
a very low temperature. They will begin to cure at room temperature but will never reach
their ultimate strength and can only be used with hot curing systems.

All polymer resins deteriorate during storage. If prepregs or resins get warm, cross-linking
starts and the resins can cure before they are used. Resins must be stored in an even, cool
temperature as specified by the manufacturer. Prepregs and film adhesives are stored in a
sealed bag at -18ºC or below. A record must be kept on the package of the date and time of
each transfer of material in and out of the freezer. After warming to room temperature to
prevent the condensation of moisture on the material, the required amount is removed from

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 the package. The package is then re-sealed and returned to the freezer. The log is used to
determine the total time out of the freezer which reduces its shelf life.

Resins and prepregs must be used before their shelf life expires.

Structural Repair Manuals often specify the use of prepregs when carrying out repairs to
composite structures. However, this may cause difficulties. An operator may have a number
of different aircraft types, and it is likely that each type will use prepreg from various
manufacturers. This would require the operator to stock a wide range of prepregs in a
number of freezer units. Most of these prepreg repair materials would need to be discarded
every 6 to 12 months as their shelf life expired.

Workshop Conditions for Good Bonding

The environmental conditions required for good bonding include;

 Air temperature 18ºC to 30ºC

 Repair surface temperature 18ºC to 30ºC
 Relative humidity 65% maximum (humidity should be kept as low as possible.
Dependent on the temperature)
 Dust free atmosphere (positive pressure work area to keep out
 the dust)
 No smoking
 No exhaust or other oily fumes
 No aerosols
 No silicone release agents are permitted in any bonding shop. This includes WD40
and any other silicone de-watering fluids
 Clean white cotton gloves must be worn at all times during and after surface
preparation prior to bonding
 Handle parts by their edges (do not touch the faces to be bonded
 at any time)
 Resins should not be used if excessive humidity exists (>85%) because water will
condense on the resin and affect the cure and subsequent properties. Containers
should also be closed
 immediately after removal of the required quantity of resin or hardener. This is
especially important for the curing agent which picks up atmospheric moisture more
quickly than the resin.

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 Health and Safety
Major points are:

 Handling of resins, curing agents and solvents - clean gloves of correct type
 Skin protection - barrier creams and protective equipment
 Fume and dust extraction and ventilation
 Clean up of self and tools - Clean overalls
 Disposal of uncured resin and contaminated materials – special waste
 Flammability risk

Storage
Epoxy resins should be stored in their original containers in metal cabinets
in a dry environment. If they are used as kits, these kits should not be
mixed up. The performance of each resin can be found on the
manufacturers data sheets. Data sheets also give details of storage
and the associated temperatures.

If applicable allow kits of resin to reach ambient temperature before

opening. Resin storage categories:

 Category A -18ºc and below

 Category B 1ºc to 5ºc
 Category C Ambient

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 Composite Construction
Fibre reinforced plastic resins can be used as;

 a laminate; a simple structure built-up from layers of cloth impregnated with resin,
 a sandwich; laminated skins separated by a light weight core, or a
 monolithic structure; a structure with integral stiffeners bonded in or formed during
manufacture.

These methods can also be combined to produce a structure with the desired
characteristics.

Plain laminated structures are not commonly used in aircraft construction due to their lack
of rigidity and the need for internal support.

Sandwich construction represents by far the most common use of composite materials on
aircraft. This structure consists of two laminated skins separated by a crush resistant core.
This gives it a high degree of rigidity and impact resistance.

Core materials have, in the past, included Balsa wood, polyurethane foam and PVC foam,
but a structure composed of thin walled hexagonal cells is now the most common. This
'honeycomb' structure can be made from glass fibre, aluminium or Nomex, a resin
impregnated aramid fibre 'paper'.

Glass fibre honeycomb is rarely used due to its comparatively poor performance.
Aluminium foil honeycomb is used where high strength and heat resistance are needed but
has a relatively high weight. It is sometimes bonded to metal skins on one or both sides for
stressed panels such as flying control surfaces and engine components.

Nomex offers a very high strength to weight ratio and excellent resistance to moisture and
fire. It is easily carved into complex contours and modified cell shapes such as Ox-core and
Flexcore can be formed around two and three dimensional cures respectively (with a slight
loss of strength).

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 Honeycomb is produced from flat sheet material which is corrugated to give the desired cell
size. The sheets are bonded along the corrugation nodes and cured under pressure. When
cured it is mechanically expanded to the correct cell shape. The joint lines within the
honeycomb give the material a 'ribbon direction' which is slightly stiffer and must be noted
when replacing honeycomb during a repair.

The cell size dictates the density, weight and strength of the honeycomb material.

Flat honeycomb sandwich panels are used for aircraft floor boards, bulkheads and internal
structures. Contoured panels, often with plain laminated edges and attachment points, are
used for external fairings, access panels, cowlings and aerofoil and flying control leading
and trailing edges. They are also used for cabin linings, stowages and decor panels.

Monolithic carbon composites are being used increasingly to produce airframe structural
components. These include floor beams, stabiliser spars, ribs and skins, flight control
surfaces, cowlings and even wing box components and the rear pressure bulkhead of the
Airbus A380. Monolithic components are usually formed in a mould.

As well as integral stiffeners, much of the strength is obtained by the ply orientation of the
cloth. Woven cloth has greater rigidity in one direction, so by laying-up the cloth plies in a

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 set directions, the bend and twist properties of a component can be controlled. This is
determined during the design of the component and must be observed when any repairs
are carried out.

The advantages of monolithic structures include weight reduction compared to conventional

construction, due to the reduction in the number of parts and the absence of fasteners,
resistance to corrosion and high fatigue strength.

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 To ensure proper adhesion and optimum strength and weight, all composite fabrication and
repair must be completed in a controlled environment. The work area must be free from
dust, oil and grease with adequate air extraction and filtration for the removal of fumes
during cleaning and cure, and dust during sanding processes. Humidity and temperature
must be controlled and kept within acceptable levels.

The cure cycle must be carried out with adequate heat and pressure on the structure. It is
usually necessary to ensure the temperature is raised, or "ramped-up" at a set rate
(degrees per minute), in a set number of steps (to ensure even temperature soak
throughout the structure) and held for the correct "dwell" time and temperature. Ramp-down
is also important. These parameters may be controlled manually, or by a computer based
Hot Bonder. The Bonder will also produce printed and digital records of the cycle which
would otherwise need to be plotted by hand.

Heat may be provided by lamps or electrical mats. It is monitored by thermocouples which

are situated as close to the bond as possible at several locations around the structure to
check for average temperature and localised hot or cold spots. The thermocouples may be
connected to a bonder or a hand held thermometer. Heat lamps may be adjusted manually,
moved toward or away, to regulate the temperature. A bonder will automatically control the
temperature by regulating the current supplied to heater mats or lamps.

Pressure is normally provided by a vacuum drawn around the structure which is partially or
completely enclosed in an air tight 'bag'. Suction may be provided by a bonder or by a
separate air pump.

Autoclaves are pressurised ovens ranging in size from bench-top units to large plant with a
working chamber over 4 meters in diameter and 12 or more meters long. For aerospace
use they apply a pressure of around 15 bar and temperatures up to about 250°C. They are
generally used for manufacture and large repairs, accommodating whole control surfaces.

The component is assembled with any jigs or formers required, bagged up with a vacuum
applied to hold the parts in the correct relationship. They are loaded into the autoclave and
their thermocouples are connected to the recording device located outside the chamber.

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 When all jobs are loaded, the chamber is sealed and pressure and heat applied. Large
autoclaves may have independently controlled heat zones.

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 Inspection and Damage Assessment

General
Damage to composite components can result from a number of causes, such as rain or hail
erosion, lightning strikes or static discharges, bird strikes and impact by thrown up runway
debris, catering lorries etc.

Physical damage may be hard to detect, since the surface will often spring back to its
original shape after impact. The damage may only be visible as cracks, crazing, stains or
scuffs in the paintwork. Any such marks must be investigated to ascertain whether damage
to the composite material has occurred. The structure should also be examined for
secondary damage such as may occur at attachments and fittings, and where the shock
may have been transmitted to adjacent parts.

Any damage to the surface of a composite laminate or honeycomb core will allow moisture
to enter the structure and cause damage. Once moisture has entered, the repeated cycle of
freezing and thawing during flight operations will progressively destroy the bonded structure
from the inside, thus extending the damage over a wide area. When it is suspected that
moisture has entered the structure through a skin puncture, in investigation should be
carried out to check the extent of the moisture absorption. On glass fibre components such
as radomes, a moisture meter is recommended for detecting water ingress. Where the use
of a moisture meter is impractical, X-ray methods may be helpful in assessing moisture
quantity.

Delamination, the separation of plies from each other or from the core, may be caused by
moisture absorption or impact damage and when either is known to exist, the area
surrounding the visible damage should be checked to ensure the structural integrity of the
laminations. This can be determined by tapping the skin with a small metallic object such as

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 a coin. This should produce a live resonant tone if the bonding is sound, but if delamination
has occurred, a flat, dead response will be obtained.

Since composite components are often situated at the extremities of an aircraft, such as its
nose, tail and wing tips, they can be quite susceptible to lightning strikes and static
discharges. Where this is the case, lightning diverter strips are often fitted to a radome and
bonding strips and static discharge wicks are often fitted to other composite components.
These are then electrically bonded to the adjacent metallic structure. The electrical bonding
of these components should be checked after removal and replacement. Non-conductive
materials such as glass and aramid composite panels are often treated with a coat of
conductive paint to aid electrical bonding.

The extremities of any damage found in a composite structure should be marked, and the
maximum area and depth of the damage should be assessed in order to determine whether
a repair is required, and if so, the type of repair which should be carried out The limits of the
various standard repairs which can be carried out are defined in the relevant manual,
(Structural Repair Manual or Repair Scheme) for the aircraft concerned and may vary
considerably depending on the type of structure and its location It must be emphasised that
repairs may only be made in accordance with the manufacturer’s instructions, and that
repairs may be prohibited in certain areas. In some cases, repairs may not be permitted
within a specific distance from the edge of a panel or fastener hole, while in other instances
temporary (room temperature) repairs may be permitted, but these must usually be
replaced by a permanent repair within a specific time period.

Exotic inspection equipment may be used today, however visual inspection is still the
principal method of damage detection. Some of today’s more common methods of Non-
Destructive Inspection (NDI) are as follows:

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 Ultrasonic Inspection
With laminated sheet and monolithic construction the easiest way of assessing material
quality by ultrasonic inspection is to scan the sheet and to measure the attenuation of an
ultrasonic beam transmitted through it. This can be done by a single transmission of the
beam and the use of a pair of probes held in a calliper. It is often more convenient to use a
single probe as both transmitter and receiver, and to let the ultrasonic beam return through
the specimen by using a reflector plate or by examining the back surface echo.

Ultrasonic inspection can help indicate the presence of delaminations, voids, foreign
materials, moisture ingress and disbonds

Radiography
X-ray is widely employed for inspection of metal and carbon fibre composite components. It
provides an excellent means of detecting transverse cracks, foreign inclusions such as
metal swarf in solid composite, the position of core inserts and shims, damage to
honeycomb and moisture ingress.

Vibration Methods
Probably the oldest test for the inspection of laminated constructions is the coin tap test.
This is a subjective vibration method which depends upon the experience of the operator to
detect any damage present.

An automated version of this test, known as the Acoustic Flaw Detector (Woodpecker) is
now in use which takes away some of the subjectivity of the coin tap test when used by
trained personnel. It can be used to detect all types of composite defect and large
structures can be tested in a short period of time, which is very attractive.

Thermal Imaging
Thermal photography can be used to survey large areas of the airframe in service but will
generally only reveal gross water damage and delamination.

These methods are not only employed in assessing damage, but are also used to confirm
the integrity of a component once it has undergone a repair.

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 Composite Repairs

General
The repair of composite materials is a specialised process and should not be attempted
without adequate practical training.

Specific repair instructions and limitations are provided in the Structural Repair Manual for
each aircraft type. These must be complied with to ensure continued airworthiness. The
following is a description of a repair to one skin and the core of a sandwich construction
panel, however, the general principles are common to most repairs.

Clean the area around the damage ensuring that no water is allowed to enter the structure.
Punctures and holes may be masked or sealed to prevent the ingress of moisture.

Determine the extent of the damage and remove the material as required. Moisture must be
removed before carrying out a repair, and this is usually done by the application of heat.
This can be done by either placing the component in an oven or applying heat using lamps,
heater mats or warm air jets. In some cases vacuum bagging with absorbent material may
be used to assist the heat drying process. With honeycomb components, it may be
recommended that an outlet path should be provided for the moisture by drilling holes into
the affected cells before the heat is applied.

Remove any paint or protective coatings by sanding – paint stripper will damage cured
resin. External surface repairs may require ‘taper’ or ‘step’ sanding to meet smoothness
requirements. Care must be taken to avoid damage to the fibres in the component’s skin
beyond the taper sanding requirements.

Thoroughly clean with a vacuum to remove dust and degrease the area with Acetone,
Isopropyl Alcohol (IPA) or Methyl Ethyl Ketone (MEK).

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 Note: These materials are highly inflammable, produce explosive vapours and are
toxic. Observe all safety precautions and wear the required protective
equipment.

Determine ribbon direction of existing honeycomb core and orientation of skin plies and
mark on skin away from repair.
Determine repair materials to be used, e.g.. cloth, resin, adhesive, honeycomb, thixotropic
agent etc. and the ancillary materials e.g. breather, absorber, parting film, bagging film, seal
strip, tape etc.

Check availability, serviceability and calibration of equipment, e.g. vacuum pump,

thermometer, heat lamp, hot bonder etc.

Prepare repair materials and ancillaries. Ensure materials are in date (shelf life, fridge life
etc.). Ensure ribbon direction and ply orientation are observed. Record the release numbers
of all repair materials.

Wet Lay-up
Mix sufficient resin to bond in lower repair ply and core. Work resin into cloth between
melamine sheets, cut to size/shape, peel melamine from one side, place in hole in correct
orientation and remove other melamine.

Note: Ensure all melamine pieces are removed and accounted for.
Failure to remove will prevent proper adhesion.

Mix resin with thixotropic agent (e.g. phenolic 'micro-balloons' which expand to add volume
but not weight to the resin) and coat outer edge of core repair piece and inner edge of hole,
place in hole in correct orientation.

Lay-up ancillary materials as shown, draw vacuum and apply heat. Cure for required
duration.

Remove ancillary materials and inspect. Sand core flush with skin. Vacuum clean and
solvent wipe.

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 Mix sufficient resin to bond in skin repair plies. Work resin into cloth between melamine
sheets, cut to size/shape. Peel melamine from one side, place over core and remove other
melamine. Repeat for each ply.

Note: Ensure all melamine pieces are removed and accounted for.
Failure to remove will prevent proper adhesion.

Lay-up ancillary materials as shown, draw vacuum and apply heat. Cure for required
duration.

Remove ancillary materials and inspect. Sand lightly if required. Solvent clean and
reprotect.

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 Prepreg Lay-up
Remove one backing paper and lay film adhesive in hole. Remove other backing paper and
insert repair ply/s observing orientation. Apply film adhesive onto repair ply/s. Wrap foaming
adhesive round core plug and insert observing ribbon direction.

Note: Ensure all backing papers are removed and accounted for. Failure to remove will
prevent proper adhesion.

Lay-up ancillary materials as shown, draw vacuum and apply heat. Cure for required cycle.

Remove ancillary materials and inspect. Sand core flush with skin. Vacuum clean and
solvent wipe.

Apply layer of film adhesive over repair area. Lay repair plies in correct order and
orientation. Lay sanding ply if required.

Note: Ensure all backing papers are removed and accounted for. Failure to remove will
prevent proper adhesion.

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 Fibre/Metal Laminate (FML)
A new type of composite used in aircraft construction is the fibre/metal laminate (FML). In
the past, sheets of aluminium alloy and aramid fibre prepreg have been laminated together
and used as non-structural cargo hold lining where the impact resistant qualities of the
material are of great advantage.

Currently a glass fibre/aluminium composite known as 'Glare' is being used to form the
upper skin panels of various new aircraft designs. This material is both lighter than
conventional sheet metal, and has greater fatigue resistance and lower crack propagation.
It offers better fire resistance and is less prone to corrosion as the glass fibre layers will
prevent corrosion from spreading through the sheet.

The components of the Glare sheet are pre-formed and laid-up in a mould where they are
heated and cured under pressure. Door and window cut-outs are milled out and the sheets
are bonded onto the structure. The edges of the sheets are joined by seamless splices with
no break in the fibre reinforcements.

The strength of the panel can be controlled by the number of laminates laid-up, normally 2-
4 of glass cloth and 3-5 of aluminium, and the orientation of the fibre layers.

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 Other Non-metallic Materials

Plastics
As we have seen, there are two groups of plastics;

Thermoplastic materials - become soft when heated and can be moulded again and
again.
Thermosetting materials - become permanently hard during the moulding process and
cannot be softened again.

A third group, referred to as Cold setting materials, are really thermosetting plastics which
cure at room temperature. Some plastic resin materials used with glass fibres to repair
certain types of aircraft structure are in this group.

Plastics are made from materials obtained from animal or vegetable products and coal or
petroleum by-products.

Properties of Plastics

 they are resistant to corrosion.

 they have a fairly low relative density and light weight.
 their strength decreases rapidly as the temperature rises.
 they can be coloured if required. Some are transparent.
 many can be bonded together or fused by heat reducing the need for fasteners.
 some plastics are flexible and can absorb impact by distortions but are not
themselves damaged.
 some plastics are recyclable making them more environmentally friendly.

The strength of plastics is less than that of metals. Generally the only plastic material that
can be used for the load carrying parts of an aircraft are the fibre reinforced plastics. Other
plastics are used to make fairings and cabin furnishings.

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 Types of Plastics

Polyvinyl Chloride (PVC or Vinyl)

PVC is a thermoplastic material often used to replace rubber for making protective gloves
and aprons. It is also used to make seat covers in light aircraft. A plasticiser can be added
to PVC to soften it. PVC can be shaped by injection moulding and extrusion. It can also be
compression moulded without a plasticiser to give a tough rigid material.

Other Thermoplastics
Two modern thermoplastics approved for aerospace structural use are polyphenylene
sulphide (PPS), and polyetherimide (PEI) both of which are available under several trade
names. PPS is produced as granules and is moulded and formed with heat and pressure,
PEI is produced in both granular and resin form. Both can be modified with reinforcing
materials such as glass, aramid and carbon fibres. With inherent flame retardancy and high
hardness and rigidity, these engineering plastic are specially suitable for the manufacture of
semi-finished products, mouldings and films. Continuous service temperatures up to 240°C
are possible. Reinforcement with glass fibres lowers the thermal expansion coefficient to
values that are typical of metal. Both are also characterized by very good chemical and
oxidation resistance, minimal water absorption and low creep, even at elevated
temperatures.

Formed products can be welded together to form light weight, fatigue resistant structures
free from fasteners and the necessary processing to install them.

Proposed uses include wing fixed leading edges 'D' sections, leading edge ribs and
stabiliser components where their impact resistance is of great value.

PolyTetraFluoroEthylene
Produced under brand names such as DuPont's 'Teflon', PTFE is a fluorocarbon-based
polymer which has a very high resistance to most chemicals at temperatures from -80°C
to>200°C and very low friction (hence it's use on non-stick cookware). With low
compressibility it is widely used for dynamic seals, low friction runners, anti-fretting tapes
and blocks, but is not suited to applications where severe deformation is required. It is also
not recommended for high vacuums and excessive temperatures.

Tufnol and Micarta Laminates

Laminates are made by pressing together sheets of cotton or linen which have been
soaked in a thermosetting plastic resin.

These laminates are tough, have a high electrical resistance and can be drilled and
machined successfully. Among other things, they are used to make control system pulleys,
the materials being strong enough to resist breakage yet not hard enough to wear the cable
itself. Laminates are also used to make printed circuit boards. They are known by the trade
names ‘Tufnol’ and ‘Micarta’.

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 Plastic Transparencies – Perspex
Passenger windows, some windscreens, canopies and light covers etc., are usually
manufactured from Polymethyl-Methachrylate, which is generally referred to by its trade
names of Plexiglas, Perspex, Acrylite, Acrylplast and Lucite. It is commonly called Acrylic
glass or simply Acrylic.

Acrylic or Perspex sheet material for British aircraft glazing must comply with specification
DTD 5592 or equivalent. (Although all Directorate of Technical Development - DTD -
standards are now obsolescent and are no longer revised, they are still valid for existing
aircraft ).

For aircraft purposes, formed Perspex is supplied in two grades:

Grade One - DTD 5544, which is free from optical distortion on both flat and curved
surfaces. Used for panels where undistorted vision is essential.
Grade Two - DTD 5545, which may have slight irregularities and some optical
distortion. Used for passenger windows, lamp covers etc., and
authorised repairs.

Both grades have the following characteristics:

 they can be shaped or bent when heated in boiling water or glycerine at 120ºC.
 they can be sawn, filed, drilled and machined.
 they will contract and expand, due to climatic changes and sunlight.

Minute surface cracks in transparencies, known as ‘Crazing’, are often formed by contact
with petrol, dope, solvents and their vapours, de-icing fluids, acetone, some hydraulic fluids
and exposure to ultra-violet light. While light surface crazing has little effect on window
strength, it does reduce visibility and will eventually lead to the propagation of cracks.
Certain windows may be repaired by machining away the outer surface and will remain
serviceable providing thickness limitations are met.

Stress crazing may occur if the tensile stress on a panel exceeds a critical value and
consists of multiple hairline surface cracks usually in the same direction. Stress crazing will
cause a serious loss of strength in the panel.

'In plane' cracks which may form in Perspex sheets parallel to the surface reduce visibility
and strength in the panel.

External windows are often manufactured from stretched acrylic with improved resistance to
cracks and crazing. A polysiloxane coating also reduces the effects of crazing and is
marketed under the trade name ‘Crystalvue’.

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 Elastomers
From the Greek word 'elastos' meaning elastic, elastomers are rubber like materials which
may be natural or synthetic (polymers) and have considerable elastic properties. Because
they may also be moulded into shapes, which they retain, they qualify to be included in the
category of plastics.

Elastomers will tolerate repeated elongation and return to their original size and shape, in a
similar way to natural rubber. Some of the more common elastomers, to be found in the
aerospace industry include:

Nitrile - also known as Buna 'N'. A synthetic rubber, made (initially in Germany) by the
polymerisation of butadeine and sodium (hence BuNa), it has excellent resistance to fuels
and some oils, and is used for oil and fuel hoses, gaskets, and seals. This material also has
low 'stiction' properties, when in contact with metal, and is, therefore, particularly suited to
'moving-seal' applications. Nitrile is not recommended for:

 Phosphate ester hydraulic fluids (Skydrol etc.).

 Ketones (MEK, acetone)
 Automotive brake fluid.

Buna - 'S' relatively cheap material, also with a performance similar to natural rubber. It is
often used for tyres and tubes, but its poor resistance to fuels/oils/cleaning fluids makes it
unsuitable for seals.

Flouro-Elastomers - these have exceptional high-temperature properties and can be used

at 250ºC. They are also solvent-resistant and are mainly used for high-temperature seals. A
common name for these materials is Viton. Viton is recommended for:

 Petroleum oils. Di-ester base lubricants (MIL-L-7808, MIL-L-6085).

Silicate ester base lubricants (MLO 8200, MLO 8515, OS-45.)
Silicone fluids and greases.
 Selected phosphate ester fluids.

Flouro-Elastomers are not recommended for:

 Ketones (MEK, acetone).
 Skydrol fluids.

Neoprene - has very good tensile properties and excellent elastic recovery qualities. It is
also solvent-resistant and, therefore, has a wide range of applications as fuel and oil seals
and gaskets. Because of its special elastic recovery properties, it is also ideally suited to
diaphragms. It is not recommended for ketones, esters and oxidising acids.

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 Silicone Rubber - has very good high- and low-temperature properties (- 80ºC to + 200ºC).
It is often used for seals and is also used for the potting of electrical circuits, because of its
ability to retain its rubbery state, even at low temperatures. Some types will cure or
'vulcanise' at room temperature and are supplied as sealant/adhesives in a tube. Silicones
are not recommended for:

 Most petroleum fluids.

 Ketones (MEK, acetone).
 Water and steam.

Ethylene-propylene rubbers - (EPM and EPDM) are valuable for their excellent resistance
to heat, oxidation, ozone and weather aging due to their stable, saturated polymer
backbone structure. One of the few compounds resistant to phosphate ester hydraulic fluids
such as Skydrol.

Poly-Sulphide Rubber - although it possesses relatively poor physical properties, it has

exceptionally high resistance to fuels and oils and is widely used for lining or sealing fuel
tanks. It is also used for lightly stressed seals and hoses, which come into contact with fuels
or oils. This compound can be mixed and cured in the work place and is commonly used as
a sealant known under the trade names such as PRC and Thiokol.

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 Ceramics

Ceramics are inorganic materials whose main industrial use is as an electrical insulating
material, or in high temperature applications. They include:

Porcelain and Steatite, for applications where dust and moisture readily collect. These
materials can be moulded into special shapes before being fired and glazed rather as
crockery is. The porcelain-type insulators on high-voltage transformer and switch gear
bushings, and on high voltage transmission and distribution overhead lines, are probably
their most familiar use.

Special ceramics have been used for some times for such applications as motor vehicle
spark-plug insulators and special electrical components. Advanced ceramics are under
development for use in gas turbine engines for high temperature stators and turbine blades.

Glass is used for flight deck windows. Due to the high impact resistance and low erosion
requirements they are usually composed of laminations of soda-lime glass, toughened
glass and acrylic material with heating elements built in. The composition varies with type
and manufacturer.

Mica-glass compositions are for high temperature insulation applications.

Ceramic Fibres are used in heat resistant blankets and to weave fireproof cloth for engine
and pylon protection.

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 Adhesives
The adhesive bonding of aircraft metal structure began during the second world war and
has been used on an increasing scale in the aerospace industry ever since. Adhesives are
used for constructional tasks varying from aircraft fuselages components and flight control
surfaces, to propellers and helicopter rotor blades.

The earliest process was developed by Aero Research Ltd. and was based on a phenol-
formaldehyde resole resin coated with a polyvinyl formal powder. By February 1942,
aluminium alloy lap joints were prepared with breaking stresses of over 2000 PSI. This
synthetic structural adhesive for metals and was named ‘Redux’ standing for Research at
Duxford. It was first used on the deHavilland Sea Hornet fighter/bomber and subsequent on
both military and civil aircraft. Redux is still in use today and has been joined by a wide
range of epoxy and other synthetic resin adhesives.

Types of bond
The adhesive bond may be achieved mechanically or chemically, but in practice, most
adhesives use both methods of bonding to form a joint.

Mechanical: here the adhesive penetrates into the surface and forms a mechanical
lock, by keying into surface irregularities. It also forms re-entrants,
where the adhesive penetrates behind parts of the structure, and
becomes an integral part of the component to be joined.
Chemical: in this method of bonding, the adhesive is spread over the surfaces to
be joined and forms a chemical bond with the surface, it's molecules
diffusing into the substrate.

Stresses on a bonded joint

Adhesive joints are liable to experience four main types of stress ; Tensile, Shear, Cleavage
and Peel. Tensile forces pull the bonded joint directly apart, whilst shear forces pull the
upper and lower bonded plates in opposite directions, but in the same plane. Cleavage
happens when separation of the plates is attempted at one end of the joint only. Peel is
very similar to cleavage but the force is applied to one bonded plate only

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 Joint strength is at a maximum when the adhesive is in shear. Adhesives should not be
used if significant stresses are to be carried in tension or peel. The lap joint is generally
favoured, as the strength of the adhesive bond is proportional to the area bonded.

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 Advantages and Disadvantages
The major reasons for the widespread use of adhesives are as follows:

 No weakening of the component due to the presence of holes. Also providing a

smooth finish due to lack of fastener heads
 No local stress raisers, which are present with widely-pitched conventional fasteners
such as bolts and rivets
 Can be used to join dissimilar materials and materials of awkward shapes and of
different thickness
 Although the strength per unit area, may be inferior to a mechanical or welded joint,
adhesive bonding takes place over a greater continuous area giving comparable or
increased strength, coupled with improved stiffness
 Adhesives provide electrical insulation and prevent dissimilar-metal corrosion
between different materials
 Leak-proof joints can be achieved
 The elastic properties of some adhesives, gives flexibility to the joint and may help to
damp out vibrations
 Heat-sensitive materials can be joined

The major disadvantages associated with adhesive bonding are:

 Limited heat resistance, normally below 200ºC

 Poor electrical and thermal conductivity
 High thermal expansion
 Limited resistance to certain chemicals such as paint strippers
 Integrity difficult to check with non-destructive testing procedures

With regard to the strength of an adhesive bond, the three most important considerations
are:

 Fail Stress: fail load within the glued area

 Creep behaviour
 Durability: its long-life capability without serious deterioration.

Types of adhesive
There are many types and grades of adhesives, and the correct type for a particular
application will be specified in the relevant repair procedure. Great care must be taken to
ensure the correct adhesive type is used because the consequences could be fatal.

The two major groups of adhesives are Flexible and Structural.

Flexible adhesives are used when some flexing, or slight relative movement of the joint, is
essential and where high load-carrying properties are not paramount. In general, flexible
adhesives are based on flexible plastics or elastomers. They are used for internal
decorative trim etc. Examples include Evostik and Tretobond.

Structural adhesives are primarily aimed at applications where high loads must be carried
without excessive creep. They are relatively rigid without being excessively hard or brittle.

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 Structural adhesives are based on resins, (the most common ones being epoxy or
polyester). Examples include Scotch-Weld and Hysol products

Another group of adhesives is the two-polymer type, which has a reasonably even balance
of resin and elastomer, which results in a flexible and fairly strong adhesive.

Adhesive Forms
Adhesives can be obtained in a variety of forms, the most common being liquid, paste and
film. Others available are those such as the special foaming types, which are used to splice
honeycomb sections together. Some require heat for curing, whilst others can be cured at
room temperature. Some require the addition of a catalyst or hardener.

Adhesive Use
To achieve optimum bonding, performance and life in service from adhesives it is
absolutely crucial to follow the manufacturer’s instructions and to pay the utmost attention
to quality at every stage.

As with resins, and most other chemical compounds, controlled ventilation, protective
clothing, and anti-fire/explosion practices, are absolutely essential when working with
adhesives. Although some of the adhesives in current use are supplied in film form, many
are liquids or pastes, from which toxic/flammable vapours are emitted, prior to curing. Many
of the necessary surface preparation solvents also give off toxic/flammable vapours.

Surface preparation of the component is also crucial. Many high performance structural
applications require a complex process such as the following:

Damage removal;
Very similar to composite repair. All damaged core material must be removed from
sandwich construction panels. All moisture must be removed from the work area. All paint
must be removed from around the repair. Taper sanding is not required.

Cleaning/degreasing;
Requirements are the same as for a composite repair.

Repair part fabrication;

Prepare repair core and doubler parts from approved specified materials. Prepare film
adhesives and ancillary materials as required.

Surface preparation
Before etching, the skin and repair doubler/s must be abraded with aluminium oxide pads to
produce a water-break-free surface (i.e. when saturated with water and held vertical, a
continuous film persists for 30 seconds minimum without breaking or forming droplets).

Acid etching/anodising of existing surface;

Various acids can be used for the etch process including hydrofluoric acid and sulphuric
acid. Apertures and crevices must be sealed prior to application.

The Phosphoric Acid Non-Tank Anodising (PANTA) process is commonly used. The
prepared area is coated with phosphoric acid gel and layers of gauze and acid gel laid on

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 top. A stainless steel mesh is placed above this and coated with the gel. The work piece
and mesh are connected to a DC power source so that the skin forms the anode (+) and the
mesh is the cathode (-). A charge of 6 volts at 1-7 amps/ft2 is applied for 10-12 minutes. The
area must be cleaned with running water for 5 minutes with a maximum delay of 21/2
minutes. The area must then be dried for at least 30 minutes.

Polarised light test;

The adequacy of the anodising must be checked. This is done by observing the surface
through a polarizing filter with fluorescent or daylight at a low angle of incidence. Rotating
the filter will cause the original colour to change to a complimentary colour. If the colour
change is not observed or is patchy, the cleaning and anodising processes must be
repeated.

Epoxy priming;
Within 2 hours of anodising, the area must be reprotected with primer. Normally an epoxy
based Adhesive Bonding Primer is specified producing a coating 0.00015 - 0.0004 thick.
This should be air dried or infrared heated to 93°C (200°F). Some primers require curing at
93°C (200°F) and this should be done within the specified time period.

Repair Lay-up;
Repair assembly is similar to prepreg composite lay-up. If the primed are has become
contaminated it must be cleaned with an approved solvent. Film adhesive must be raised to
room temperature and backing papers removed as pieces are used.

Cure;
The repair must be cured under pressure at an elevated temperature. This may be applied
using a Hot Bonder, heater mats and air bag, or in an Autoclave.

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 Jointing Compounds

Riveted and bolted joints in aircraft structures are interfaced with a jointing or sealing
compound.

The purpose of the compound is to exclude moisture or any other undesirable matter from
between the materials by filling any voids and forming a thin film to prevent seepage. This
reduces the risk of galvanic corrosion and prevents fretting.

Chromate Based Jointing Compounds

These materials are sometimes known as 'yellow chromate' or 'zinc chromate' or by trade
names such as Duralac, JC5A and more recently Mastinox. They are used for the wet
assembly of metallic mating surfaces in non-pressurised areas. Available in tubes, cans
and drums, aircraft grade compounds do not dry and remain flexible throughout their
working life.

Mating surfaces should be well covered with the compound, including the interior of all bolt
and rivet holes. The compound should be applied immediately prior to assembly in order to
ensure that the film is wet on assembly. Surplus compound is squeezed out as a fillet and
should be removed with a clean cloth. Bolt shanks, underside of heads and washers should
also be coated.

JC5A is primarily composed of chromium compounds and barium chromate which are
irritant and carcinogenic (cancer causing) and the volatile carrier xylene, which is toxic. It is
hazardous by contact, ingestion and inhalation in confined spaces, and is also highly
inflammable. Gloves and goggles should be worn when applying, handling and removing
excess compound.

Note: JC5A has been found to be detrimental to some ferrous materials and has
been withdrawn from use by many organisations.

Currently Mastinox 6856K is approved for use in place of JC5A. It is used in the same way
and has better performance, particularly in dissimilar metal applications. It is still chromate
based, and therefore the presents a similar hazard to the older materials.

Non-Chromate Jointing Compounds

Due to the health and safety issues associated with chromate based jointing compounds,
the trend is towards the use of non-chromate compounds.

Cor-Ban 27L is one of a family of anti-corrosion treatments and is replacing Mastinox

6856K in many applications. It is a low-solvent waxy paste that has superior properties to
the chromate products while being safer to use.

It is applied in the same manner as the older compounds and the use of gloves is still
recommended.

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 Molybdenum Disulphide Paste
In some instances of bolted joints molybdenum disulphide paste is specified as a jointing
compound. Its purpose is to prevent fretting corrosion: its absence may seriously affect the
fatigue life of the joint.

Hylomar
Hylomar is one of several sealants used on bolted flange joints for engine and component
assembly. It seals metal to metal joints and is resistant to water, fuel, oil, most chemicals
and combustion products. It seals surfaces with imperfections and withstands vibration,
heat and expansion.

Sealants
It is of the utmost importance that the pressure cabin of an aircraft be capable of sustaining
the required differential pressure at high altitude, both for the safety of the passengers and
crew and for the operational efficiency of the aircraft. To this end it is essential that all
sources, or potential sources of air leakage from the cabin be carefully sealed in
accordance with the process specification laid down by the manufacturers. Similarly,
integral fuel tanks must be satisfactorily sealed against leakage.

Like Jointing Compounds, sealants also prevents the accumulation of moisture between the
elements of a structure and the risk of corrosion caused by this. In critical areas fasteners
are installed with wet sealant on their shanks and the internal side of each fastener is
encapsulated with sealant.

There are a number of proprietary sealants available in different grades and types and from
different manufacturers. It is important that only the particular sealant specified for a job is
used.

Before any sealant is applied it is important to ensure that the surfaces to which it is to be
applied are clean and free from swarf and burrs. The sealant can be used in some cases on
faying surfaces, and in other cases to form beads and fillets over joints. Some are ready for
use in one container, others need mixing immediately before use and may be in two or
three parts, because of these differences, it is important that, after having ascertained the
correct sealant laid down for the task from the relevant; drawing or maintenance/overhaul
manual, the process specification be checked to ensure the correct method of mixing and
application.

The sealants are identified by their trade name, manufacturers part number and
specification number. The specification number is most important, since the product may be
supplied by a number of manufacturers.

Typical of the multi part sealants used is PR 1440. This two part polysulphide compound is
comprised of a base and an accelerator and is used for sealing integral fuel tanks,
pressurised cabins, and for faying surfaces. It is resistant to aircraft fuels, lubricating oils,
and Skydrol Hydraulic Fluid.

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 PR 1440 is the ProSeal part number but the material satisfies all or part of the following
specifications; Z-16.134, MIL-S-8802 Class A (USA), BMS 5-26 Type III (Boeing), 09-001C
(Airbus), ASNA 4157 (France) DTD 900 (UK) and others which will be quoted by the
airframe or equipment manufacturer.

PR 1440 is available as Type A - 'Brush' type sealant which is fairly fluid for brush
application to faying surfaces, and as a thicker Type B - 'Non-brush' type for fillet seals and
encapsulation. It may also be available with different application times, typically 'half hour'
and 'two hour' to allow flexibility of use.

It may be supplied in a pot with a separate container of accelerator attached, or as a

'Semkit' cartridge with integral accelerator and mixing facility. If in pot form, it is important to
ensure the correct accelerator is used (usually identified as part number plus Part A and
Part B) and that all of it is added to the base and mixed thoroughly using a spatula. In the
Semkit a dash rod is supplied and is used to inject the accelerator into the base as the
plunger containing it is withdrawn. The plunger is then pushed in and out and twisted to mix
the two parts. In both cases it is important that the sealant is thoroughly mixed and of
uniform colour. Failure to add the correct amount of accelerator or to mix completely will a
prevent proper cure and reduce the effectiveness of the sealant.

Sealant supplied in a can may be applied by brush or spatula, depending on type. Semkit
cartridges can be inserted into a sealant gun for controlled application.

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 Sealant Application

Application Time
This is the time that the mixed sealant remains suitable for application.

Tack Free Time

The length of time it takes for the sealant to be no longer tacky or sticky.

Curing Time
When the accelerator is mixed into the polysulphide base, a chemical cure takes place.
When the sealants is fully hardened it is said to be ‘cured’. Time for curing depends on
temperature and relative humidity. The figures in the table are for standard conditions of
25ºC (77ºF) and 50% relative humidity.

PR 1440 Type A1/2 Type A2

Application Time 30 min. 2 hours
Tack Free Time <10 hours <36
Cure Time 30 hours 72 hours

Fast curing sealants are available for line repairs, but these do not usually achieve the full
properties of the standard sealants and may have to be replaced at the next hangar input.

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 Assembly Time
All riveting/fastening must be completed within this time.

Surface Preparation
Before application of sealant ensure that:
• All protective treatments have been completed and are fully hardened off.
• All drilling operating completed and swarf removed.
• Surface to be cleaned with oil free solvents i.e., “Genklene”.

Application
Apply an even coat of sealant to mating (faying) surfaces, ensuring sealant extends
approximately 0.25" beyond line of metal to metal joint. Thickness of sealant not to exceed
0.030".

Before expiration of assembly life all work must be finished and rivets drawn tight.

To ensure no leak path exists through sealant and that faying surface is completely sealed,
a small continuous fillet of sealant should be squeezed out on both sides of the overlap and
smoothed into the joint when riveting is completed.

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 Application cont.
All fasteners should be wet assembled (sealant on shank or in hole). Fasteners in fuel tanks
and areas prone to water contamination, such as under galleys and freight hold floors,
should be encapsulated with sealant after installation. A metal seal cap or cover is
sometimes used to protect the sealant coating and this must be fillet sealed.

Shelf Life
All sealants have a shelf or storage life and should not be used on aircraft if life has expired.
Storage life of PR 1440 Type A is at least 9 months when stored at temperatures below 25º
C in original unopened containers.

WARNING: ALL POLYSULPHIDE SEALANTS CONTAIN HAZARDOUS

CONSTITUENTS, PARTICULARLY IN THE ACCELERATOR. TOXIC
COMPONENTS CAN CAUSE NAUSEA, SKIN IRRITATION AND
UNCONSCIOUSNESS. CARCINOGENIC MATERIALS CAN CAUSE
CANCER BY SKIN CONTACT, INHALATION AND INGESTION.
UNCURED SEALANTS ARE HIGHLY INFLAMMABLE.
ENGINEERS SHOULD WEAR PROTECTIVE OVERALLS, NITRIL
GLOVES, AND GOGGLES WHEN HANDLING SEALANTS. AVOID
INHALING FUMES AND WEAR BREATHING APPARATUS IN
CONFINED SPACES. REMOVE ANY SOURCES OF COMBUSTION.
ALWAYS CONSULT MATERIAL SAFETY DATA SHEETS. SOME
SEALANTS CONTAIN ASBESTOS FIBRES. THESE MATERIALS
MUST NOT BE CUT OR SANDED WHEN CURED.

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 RTV Sealants
Another commonly used type of sealant is the Room Temperature Vulcanising (RTV)
silicone rubber. These are available in a variety of grades for use in different applications.
Some give of an acetic acid (vinegar) odour as they cure while others have a solvent
content.

Typical examples of one part RTV available in tubes are:

White General Purpose - non-reactive adhesive/sealant for general use, safe for use
with drinking water and food stuffs
White Electrical Grade - high electrical resistance but low mechanical strength, used to
repair insulation
Grey High Strength - used for sealing and repair where durability is required
Red High Temperature - used for joining and repairing rubber seals, pipe sleeves and
insulation on engines and APUs
Translucent - decorative, used for sealing galley and toilet compartment
sinks and panel joints.

Other one and two part RTV silicone adhesive/sealants are used for specialist applications
such as levelling compounds, potting compounds, heat sinks, thermal barriers, foaming
fillers, release agents etc.

Most one part RTV materials give off slightly irritating fumes and may irritate sensitive skin
(eyes, lips, tongue etc.) as they cure. Providing adequate care is taken, only gloves are
normally required when handling them.

Some one part and all two part RTV materials contain solvents and toxic constituents.
These require gloves, goggles and breathing apparatus in confined spaces. Always check
the Materials Safety Data Sheets before use.

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 Intentionally Blank

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 6.3.2 Wooden Structures

General
From the very beginning of aviation, wood has been used in aircraft construction. Early
aircraft designers and builders often used ash or hickory. They were looking for a type of
wood that was relatively lightweight yet also very strong. Just before World War I, Sitka
Spruce was discovered by aircraft builders and found to be very well suited to their needs.
The strength to weight ratio was is very favourable for aircraft use, pound for pound it has
twice the tensile strength of aluminium. Several other types of wood had similar strength to
weight ratios but were not as readily harvested or as plentiful. At the time, spruce proved to
be the best choice, not only because of the physical characteristics, but of equal importance
was the fact that spruce was readily available and easy to use as a building material. With
these advantages, spruce became very widely accepted as the primary material to be used
in building an aeroplane.

Although many designers and manufacturers switched to all metal construction in the
1930s, the advent of World War II, brought spruce back to the fore. Manufacturers used the
material in the construction of a large number of aircraft to reduce the reliance on strategic
resources such as steel and aluminium. Some aircraft were of mixed timber and metal
construction while others such as the DeHaviland Mosquito were almost entirely wooden.
The use of Sitka Spruce was carried into post-war construction in many aircraft. During this
time in aviation history spruce was cheaper than aluminium or steel. However, because of
the high demand for aircraft production during this period, forests of this popular wood were
rapidly depleted.

Today the cost of timber has risen greatly, but spruce and other types of wood remain
popular for in some fields of aircraft construction. Many small aircraft designers and kit
manufacturers within the sport aviation industry use wood as a primary structure. If wood is
not the primary structure it is almost sure to be found in some component part. Although by
volume, wood is not as strong as steel or aluminium, the construction can be designed so
that the necessary strength is achieved with corresponding savings in weight. Many
designers prefer to use wooden spars in acrobatic aircraft because the wood will withstand
the bending loads imposed during aerobatics better. Unlike metal, wood does not weaken
from fatigue. This, of course, is an advantage to the aircraft builder. Wood is used in
fabricating spars, ribs, longerons and stringers, leading edges, etc. Sheet plywood is easily
formed into shapes making it the obvious choice for wing tip bows, fuselage and wing skins
etc.

Woodworking is a skill that is easily learned by the novice who usually has a basic
knowledge of timber construction and some of the necessary tools. Safety hazards are very
evident unlike some of the other materials used in modern aircraft construction.

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 Sitka Spruce
Sitka Spruce has long been recognized as the best type of wood to use in the construction
of aircraft. It is the standard against which all other woods are judged. It is light in weight
with a corresponding greater strength and toughness than is found in other woods. It is
easily worked, uniform in texture, resistant to rotting, and has no odour. It can also be
obtained in clear, straight-grained pieces having very few defects. This is possible because
of the size of a mature spruce tree.

The name Sitka was derived from a town located not far from Juneau, Alaska and Sitka
Spruce is found mainly along the American Pacific Northwest, particularly along the
Alaskan coast. (Most of the spruce forests have been depleted along the coast of the
United States and Canada.) The trees grow best in a wet, moderate climate, typically close
together and in so doing they must grow very tall and fast in order to obtain necessary
sunlight. Because of this type of growth they usually have few, if any, branches except near
the top of the tree. This facilitates the type of growth necessary to yield knot free timber
suitable for aircraft use. A spruce tree will grow to heights of 200 feet and higher with a
base diameter of 8 feet or more. A tree of this size will have taken 400 years or more to
reach this dimension. A spruce tree will not yield usable aircraft wood until it is at least 5
feet in diameter. Even with this size tree only 5% or less of the resulting wood will be of the
quality necessary for aircraft construction.

The use of Sitka Spruce is certainly not limited to aircraft construction, the aircraft industry
uses a very small percentage of the total spruce that is milled. The majority of spruce
harvested is used for ladders, house construction, masts of sailboats, barrels, cabinets,
sounding boards for organs and pianos, and other uses. The building and restoration of
sport aircraft is a very insignificant market for the timber industry.

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 Timber Conversion
Note: This section contains a mixture of Metric and Imperial values. Whilst the timber
industry and some Aviation Authorities have embraced the metric system, other
Authorities, designers and manufacturers, notably in the USA, have retained the
Imperial system (inches and fractions or inches and decimals). Conversion between
the two systems should be made with care and in accordance with any guidelines
laid down by the Competent Authority.

The process of turning a tree into and aircraft component is often referred to as Timber
Conversion. The trees are harvested by lumberjacks and sent to a local sawmill. The mill in
turn will cut the trees into smaller pieces known as “cants”. These cants are usually 6-8
inches square and anywhere from 10 to 20 feet long. These are then shipped.

Before cutting to production sized pieces, the wood must be seasoned, a process which
reduces the moisture content to the point of equilibrium with the surrounding atmosphere.
This may be done by leaving the wood in an air-drying shed for a period of up to three
years (or sometimes more), or by kiln drying, the resultant wood being described as
‘artificially seasoned’. The timber can then be cut into planks and graded.

The Grade of the timber will depend on the results of tests for moisture content, density,
brittleness, splitting and growth rate. The figures given below are for Sitka Spruce but will
be similar for all aircraft grade timber.

The Moisture Content may be measured with a Moisture Meter, or by weight. In either
case the first six inches of the plank will be discarded as it may be drier than the rest. When
testing by weight, a sample will be cut off and weighed (W1), then dried in an oven at 100-
105°c until two successive weighings yield the same result (W2). The following formula can
then be used to determine the moisture content as a percentage;

a moisture content of 15% +/- 2% is normally acceptable.

The Density of the timber is found by weighing a sample of known volume and multiplying
the result to give a figure in pounds per cubic foot or kilograms per cubic metre. Spruce
generally varies between 20lb and 36lb per cubic foot (320kg – 577kg per cubic metre). For
Grade A spruce the density should be greater than 24lb per cubic foot at 15% moisture.

Brittleness is determined by using an Izod type impact test machine. A notched test piece
of 5.25 x 0.875 inches square is placed in the machine and the blow applied tangentially to
it. The test piece should resist a load of at least 5 foot-pounds (0.69 metre-kilograms). A
tolerance of 0.5 foot-pounds may be allowed providing any fracture shows sufficient fibre.
Alternatively a 12 x 1 inch square test piece may be tested in a weight dropping machine
and should withstand 13 foot-pounds without showing signs of tension failure on the vertical
sides.

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 A Splitting Test is used to confirm the true grain direction and run of the timber sample. A
blunt chisel is used so that the wood is split rather than cut and the split is made away from
the edge for greater accuracy. The maximum acceptable grain slope is 1:15 .

Growth Rate is indicated by the number of annual growth rings per inch in the timber and
varies to some extent. Timber exhibiting less than 6 rings per inch (25mm) should be
rejected.

The timber is generally cut into flat planks which may be Rift-sawn or Tangentially-sawn as
shown. Shrinkage occurs at a maximum in the direction tangential to the growth ring, is
moderate in the radial direction and at a minimum longitudinally. For this reason Rift-sawn
material shrinks in only one direction and does not tend to warp, while Tangentially sawn
timber is more prone to cupping, warping and distortion.

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 Quarter sawing produces a higher proportion of Rift-sawn or near Rift sawn timber than
Plain or Through sawing, but as can be seen produces smaller boards, more waste and
requires more handling during the sawing process. Therefore Rift-sawn timber is more
expensive to produce while Tangentially-sawn timber is cheaper and can be produced in
larger boards.

The cut pieces of wood are then shipped to the supplier. They are typically sent in lengths
of between 10-20 feet at a nominal width of 6 inches. The boards will be planed smooth on
the flat surfaces and rough cut on the edges. A board cut in this manner is termed a S2S
board, meaning it has been surfaced on 2 sides. The nominal 6-inch width is often a
problem for the aircraft builder because it may be slightly less or more than 6 inches.

The largest single member of a timber built airframe is usually the wing spar. When the
builder needs a finished 6-inch spar for an aircraft the supplier may have difficulty providing
that dimension. The nominal 6- inch width may only finish to slightly over 5 inches when the
edges are cut smooth. Widths over 6 inches, Lengths over 14 feet, and a thickness over 1
inch is scarce. This is because the wood must be free from defects and typically the larger
the piece of wood the more likelihood of discovering a disqualifying defect.

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 Alternatives To Spruce
As Sitka Spruce is now expensive and difficult to obtain a number of alternatives have been
identified. Some of these grown in North America are Douglas Fir, Noble Fir, Western
Hemlock, White Pine, White Cedar, and Yellow Poplar. The most readily available are
Douglas Fir, White Pine, and Western Hemlock.

As noted in the comparison chart below, Douglas Fir is a very acceptable alternative for
spruce. Its strength exceeds spruce by roughly 23%. It may be used as a substitute for
spruce in same sizes or slightly reduced sizes providing the reduction in size is
substantiated. Fir does have a tendency to split making it more difficult to work. It is also
about 26% heavier than spruce. As you are allowed to use a smaller dimension due to the
increased strength some aircraft manufacturers route out a portion of a fir spar to save
weight.

White Pine is 85-96% as strong as spruce. It is fairly soft and easy to work with. A number
of kit manufacturers are using White Pine successfully within their designs. However, it is
low in hardness and shock resisting capability, and cannot be used as a direct substitute for
spruce without an increase in size to compensate for the lower strength.

Western Hemlock has been used in the construction of aircraft for a number of years. The
strength properties slightly exceed spruce and the wood may be used as a direct substitute.
It is less uniform in texture than spruce and must be carefully selected.

Certain other timbers are also approved for aircraft use around the world. In Australia these
include Bollywood, Bunya Pine, Hoop Pine, Klinki Pine, Queensland Maple, Silver Silkwood
and Silver Quandong.

Australian regulations state that:

The timber shall be of uniform colour. It shall be free from obvious and incipient decay, blue
stain, knots, shakes, splits, seasoning checks, internal checks, compression failures,
compression wood, resin and bark pockets, pith streaks, callus tissue, insect attack, wane
or want, blemishes due to handling and other injuries, but the following imperfections are
permitted:

 Pin-knots and/or needle traces not exceeding 0.75 mm diameter and not closer than
50 mm;
 Sloping grain as determined by the splitting test: not exceeding 1 in 16;
 Spring: not exceeding 1 in 600 or 5 mm in 3 m;
 Bow: not exceeding 1 in 300 or 10 mm in 3 m;
 Twist: not exceeding 7 mm in 1 m2 of face area.

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 The moisture content of each plank shall be determined by means of an approved electrical
moisture meter. Tests shall be made at points approximately 500 mm from each end at the
mid-length. The three readings shall each be between 10 and 15 per cent, and the
individual readings shall not vary by more than 2 per cent in any plank.

In laminated assemblages the difference in average moisture content between any two
laminations shall not exceed 3 per cent.

The density of each plank shall not be less than 385 kg m3 when the moisture content,
calculated on the weight of the oven-dried wood, is 12 per cent. For each 1 per cent
increase or decrease of moisture content from 12 per cent the density value shall be
increased or decreased respectively at the rate of 1.92 kg m3.

Each plank accepted as complying with this specification shall be ink stamped with the
following particulars:

 the standard name of the timber (i.e. Klinki);

 the number of this specification (DCA 108.22).

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 Inspecting Wood For Aircraft Use

After timber has been cut it should be examined for defects. Some of the more common
defects are outlined in the following paragraphs.

Dote Disease. This is the worst of all defects and does much damage to the wood. It is an
inherent disease which only occurs at the base of the living tree. When the tree is felled it is
cut at a point ten feet or more above the ground as a precaution against the possibility of
dote. Cut pieces of timber should be examined not only on the sides but also on the ends;
dote will be recognised by the presence of brownish yellow patches, somewhat similar to
thin mineral oil spots. Dote is contagious and any infected wood should be burnt.

Decay or Rot. A defect similar to dote disease can develop after a tree has been felled if
the timber is exposed to excessive soaking and partial drying. Dry-rot fungus requires a
certain amount of moisture to establish itself but once the disease is established it thrives
on the moisture already in the wood. The decayed wood is brown in colour and appears as
though it had been charred; the timber is rendered soft and dry, and will flake off easily.

Incorrect Grain Inclination. The limit of grain inclination for spruce is 1 in 15 for grade A,
and 1 in 12 for grade B. The inclination should be checked to ensure that the above limits
are not exceeded. The most usual method of determining the inclination of the grain is by
examining the flower-face of the timber to find the resin ducts. It will readily be seen
whether they are straight or inclined. If the inclination exceeds the limits specified, the
timber should be classified in a lower grade.

Heart-Shake. This defect usually follows the course of a sap duct longitudinally, and is
usually visible on the tangential surface. The use of a small size feeler gauge will assist in
finding the depth of the shake. The defect should be cut out of the timber.

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 Ring-Shake. This defect is indicated by a parting of the annular rings. Ring-shakes are
usually caused by frost, particularly after a heavy rainfall. The defect should also be cut out
of the timber.

Knots. There are several kinds of knots which may be encountered when examining cut
timber; among these are the dead-knot, the budknot and the pin-knot. The presence of any
of these knots can have a detrimental effect. Generally they should not be more than a
quarter of an inch in diameter but no hard and fast rules can be specified; each case must
be decided on its merits. Timber with clusters of pin-knots in it should be rejected.

Pitch Holes. There are two kinds of pitch holes, one being the horizontal type which usually
appears at the base of a knot, and the other the vertical type which is sometimes referred to
as a gum pocket. Gum pockets may be either “alive” (the gum seam has not dried out) or
“dead”, and in the case of the latter, the timber should be rejected. Tests on “live” gum
pockets indicate that the timber in the region of the gum pocket usually gives a better result
than the remainder of the timber.

Blue Stain. This defect only occurs in sapwood which should not be used in aircraft parts.

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 Plywood
Aircraft grade plywood is normally made of birch wood veneers bonded together. The
harvested birch log is cut to length, dressed to a circular cross section and steamed or hot
water soaked to soften it. It is then mounted in a lathe and a stationary knife the same
length as the log is used to peel a continuous veneer of predetermined thickness as the log
rotates. In this way up to 95% of the log can be used.

The veneers are dried to about 6% moisture content then cut to size and inspected. Aircraft
grade (GL 1) plywood must be free from all technical defects and the veneers which make it
up are selected accordingly. Joints are allowed if the face veneers are matched in structure
and colour.

The veneers are laid up with grain directions normally alternating at 90°, which, in 3 ply
material, gives greater rigidity in the direction of the grain on the face veneers. A 45° offset
is sometimes used which gives greater rigidity in all directions and is slightly stronger, but
more expensive to produce. A controlled amount Phenolic resin glue is applied to each
veneer and the assembly is then placed in a hydraulic press and heated under pressure to
cure the glue.

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 The resultant plywood boards are available in panels 0.8 to 12mm thick and up to 1550 x
1550 mm in size. They are stronger than an equivalent thickness solid wooden board
because of the cross grain assembly although slightly heavier. The Phenolic resin glue,
while adding to the weight of the panel, offers a high degree of resistance to moisture and
other environmental factors.

Other types of timber have been used and sometimes birch with a mahogany face ply is
specified for skins because of its resilience and finish properties. Thicker panels with a light
weight core such as balsa wood have been made for various specialist applications.

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 With the careful application of moisture, heat and pressure, plywood can be moulded to
fairly complex shapes and is thus used for wing and fuselage skin panels. The World War 2
deHavilland Mosquito high performance bomber was built almost entirely of wood and the
fuselage was constructed in the following manner:

The light, strong, very streamlined structure was formed by sandwiching 9.5 mm (three-
eighths inch) Ecuadorian balsa wood between Canadian birch plywood skins that varied in
thickness from 4.5 mm to 6 mm (about ¼ inch). The plywood/balsa/plywood sandwich was
formed inside concrete moulds of each fuselage half. Each side also held seven birch
plywood formers (frames) reinforced with spruce blocks, plus bulkheads, floors, and other
structural members. As the glue cured, heated metal clamps held the skin layers tight to the
mould. Technicians finished the edge of each half of the fuselage with male and female
wedge joints as fitters attached wiring and other equipment to the inner walls. Final
fuselage assembly was reminiscent of a typical plastic model airplane kit as the two halves
were glued and screwed together.

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 Fabrication
All parts made for aircraft construction or repair must be fabricated in accordance with an
approved drawing. The type, size and grain direction of the timber should be clearly stated.
Any substitution of materials used must be made with the relative properties clearly
understood. All material must be carefully inspected prior to use to ensure that there has
been no deterioration during transit and storage.

Simple flat parts may be made from board, strip or sheet material and cut with a fine
toothed saw. A bench saw may be used for more substantial parts while a band saw is
useful for complex shapes but a good quality edge finish is essential. Parts may be planed
to contour but sanding solid wood should be avoided to prevent the build-up of dust.

Pieces with more complex cross sections will be machined from plank or strip wood to
provide consistency.

Curved parts like wing rib caps are made by soaking or steaming the strip material then
clamping it in a jig to set the bend. The curve set by the jig will normally be more
pronounced than the desired finished shape as the wood will always spring back slightly
when removed. This must be determined by experimentation. It may take several days for
the wood to dry and the shape to be set permanently.

Wing spars may be produced an several ways. Solid wood spars have a high degree of
strength but are limited in size by timber availability and by weight in smaller applications.
Where a stronger wood such as Douglas Fir is substituted for spruce, the timber may be
routed out on both sides to produce an “I” beam. A 'solid' spar can also be produced by
laminating several thinner pieces together with glue.

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 Box spars and built-up I beam spars can be fabricated to greater sizes, using smaller
component pieces. Box spars are often composed of solid or laminated transverse
members (Spar Booms or Caps) joined by plywood webs. Alternatively, two solid members
can be routed and bonded together to form and internally routed box spar. Built-up I beams
usually consist of a solid web with strips bonded to either side to form the spar cap.

Wooden propellers are normally fabricated by lamination. Among the types of wood that
can be used are pine, beech, spruce, walnut and mahogany. The timber must be carefully
selected due to the extreme loads applied to it in service.

The technique used will depend on the size of the propeller, number of blades required and
the facilities available. If the propeller is to be machine cut using a blade duplicator rough
blanks of adequate size may be cut, cleaned and bonded together under pressure using a
resorcinol type glue. If it is to be hand cut, each laminate may be pre-shaped to reduce the
amount of work required in obtaining the final contour.

The central boss is the datum from which the form of the propeller is developed. Once this
position has been determined all measurements must be made from this point.

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 When using a blade duplicating machine, the propeller blank will be bolted into the frame by
its boss hole, adjacent to a blade pattern. Once set to suitable data the machine's stylus is
used to trace the pattern and it simultaneously cuts the blank to shape using a router. The
blank is then turned through 180° about the boss and the second blade cut to shape
(identical to the first). Both blade blank and pattern can then be inverted and the reverse
side of the blades cut in the same manner.

When the propeller is to be hand cut, the blank is marked for leading and trailing edge
contours and predetermined cutting planes, carefully slot sawn and chiselled to shape.
Great care must be taken to ensure that each blade is accurate and identical.

If the propeller is composed of three or more blades each one must be manufactured
separately. Again, it is of vital importance that all blades are identical. They are either
bonded together or attached to a hub, depending on the design.

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 Upon completion, the assembled propeller must be sanded smooth. Any metal inserts such
as the boss and attachment hole bushes must be bonded in to the hub. It can then be
varnished, but may instead be skinned with fibre glass, carbon fibre or sometimes
aluminium for added durability.

The finished blade must then be statically and dynamically balanced before use.

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 Glue

General
While woodscrews and bolts are used for critical joints in a timber airframe the vast majority
of joints are made with glue.

Various glues have been used over the years and these include;

Casein – A powdered glue derived from milk protein, it deteriorates with moisture and
temperature variations and is susceptible to fungal attack. It is therefore obsolete for aircraft
use but is still employed elsewhere. It leaves an alkaline residue which must be carefully
removed before a joint is re-glued with a more modern alternative.

Plastic Resin Glues– Urea-Formaldehyde glues such as Aerolite were developed in the
1930s and are still widely used. The glue powder contains urea, formaldehyde and a
thickening filler and is mixed with water for use. It must be used in conjunction with an acid
catalyst/ hardener. Normally the glue is applied to one surface and the hardener to the
other, the two being immediately brought together and clamped. When mixed to a working
consistency of thick cream the glue has a pot life of 4-5 hours and when assembled with
hardener, a setting time of 1.5 - 4 hours. The joint attains maximum strength 3-5 days
depending on temperature and humidity. It has good gap bridging qualities and when cured
has good resistance to moisture, temperature extremes and fuel. There is some question of
the reliability of these glues in a tropical environment and their use has been banned for
primary structure in Australia, however they are still approved for use in the USA and
Europe.

Resorcinol Glues - Two part Resorcinol-Formaldehyde glue such as Aerodux. Comprised

of a resin and a hardener which are mixed prior to use, it has a pot life of 3-4 hours and a
setting time of 8 hours. The joint reaches full mechanical strength after approximately 1
week. The resin often contains a filler such as ground nut shell which gives some gap
bridging properties. When cured it has high resistance to temperatures and chemical attack,
and is waterproof. When sanded, the dust may cause a severe allergic reaction.

Epoxy Resin – Various high strength two part resin systems and structural adhesives are
available. With a pot life ranging from 3-4 minutes to several hours, and cure times from
under 1 hour at room temperature, Epoxy glues are very versatile. Waterproof and chemical
resistant, there is, however, some question over the long-term durability of these resins
exposed to high temperatures. Epoxy resin softens at elevated temperatures and, although
it regains its original strength when cooled, any unusual load applied in its softened state
may weaken the joint. Uncured components can cause allergic reaction.

Other glues which may be encountered include Phenol-Formaldehyde, aliphatic resin and
Polyurethane resin.

The maximum time allowed between applying the glue and joining the parts together is
called the Open Assembly Time. The maximum time between joining the parts and applying
pressure and heat is the Closed Assembly Time. Handling or Setting time is the period after

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 which the joint can be unclamped and moved. Cure time is the time taken for the full
chemical reaction to occur and maximum strength to be achieved, it may be the same as
the setting time but is often considerably longer. All these times vary with temperature and
humidity so it is important to consult the manufacturers data sheets.

It is important to use only glues approved for aircraft construction and follow the
constructors recommendations. The glue manufacturers preparation and mixing instructions
must also be closely adhered to, to obtain the optimum properties of the product. For
example the pot life of Aerolite may be extended by adding more water to the mix, but the
resultant joints in softwood will be weaker because the thinner glue soaks into the wood,
away from the glue line. The cure time of most glues can be accelerated with the
application of heat but excessive heating disrupts the chemical reaction and weakens the
bond.

When properly used the glue should be stronger than the wood it is joining. When home
building from a kit or from plans an inspector may ask for a test piece from each batch of
glue used. This will be tested to destruction to ensure the wood fails before the glue and
prove the integrity of the glue mix and joining technique.

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 Glued Joints
When manufacturing or repairing aircraft structure, the grain orientation of the wood used is
of great importance. Generally the designers plans or repair scheme will indicate the grain
direction to be used, but if it is not specified it must be remembered that the direction with
the greatest strength is along the grain. Consideration of the purpose of the joint and the
likely loads on it will indicate the grain direction to be used for optimum strength.

Most joints in a wooden aircraft structure are butt joints where two or more components
meet or cross. The strength of end grain joints is limited and will usually depend on the
surface area in contact so it is often necessary to add corner blocks, gussets or splice
plates to increase the contact area and distribute loads.

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 Longitudinal members are joined by scarf joints, where both parts are tapered and the taper
faces are bonded together. For maximum strength the material should be tapered at
between 12:1 and 15:1, a greater taper reduces the strength because the wood becomes
too thin at the ends of the joint, while a smaller taper reduces the contact area.

Repair parts can sometimes be spliced in using a scarf joint without need of doublers, thus
retaining the original contour and thickness. Primary structural members usually require
doublers on both sides of the joint, staggered as shown below to transfer the loads across
the joint.

Plywood skins are also joined by scarfing but a high degree of accuracy is required when
preparing the joint to ensure a good bond and smooth joint.

Joint preparation is of paramount importance. It should be remembered that the properties

of both the timber and the glue are affected by temperature and humidity so pieces of wood
that are to be joined should be kept in the same environment for at least 12 hours.

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 The surfaces to be joined must be planed flat and smooth to ensure intimate contact. Do
not use sandpaper on new timber as this fills the pores in the wood with minute dust
particles and reduces adhesion. It is permissible to lightly sand old, polished or hard
surfaces and plywood, but not to the extent that the flatness is altered. Any irregularities
such as chips or damaged grain will weaken the joint despite the gap bridging properties of
most glues. The joint area should be thoroughly cleaned with a vacuum cleaner
immediately prior to gluing.

The surfaces must be clean and dry, free from any grease, wax, varnish, dope or old glue.
A Wetting Test may be used to check for contamination. A drop of water is placed on the
surface and observed. If it spreads rapidly (in seconds or minutes) it is an indication that the
surface may be bonded successfully. The surface must be thoroughly dried before any glue
is applied.

Glue should be applied thinly and evenly to the surfaces to be bonded in the manner
specified by the manufacturer. The parts must then be brought together as quickly as
possible (within the Open Assembly Time) to prevent ingress of contaminants and to allow
any small adjustments in position or alignment before hardening starts (within the Closed
Assembly Time). Pressure must be applied evenly, especially where large contact areas
are involved. This excludes air pockets and produces a thin, continuous film of glue (the
Glue or Bond Line) ensuring maximum mechanical strength. Excess glue should be
removed around the joint while still wet, and heat applied as necessary.

Assembly
Small screws, nails or staples may be used to apply pressure to the parts during the setting
process but these are usually removed when the joint is fully cured. Care must be taken
that the metal fastener does not split small parts or cause excessive grain damage, the
head should be seated on the surface without crushing the fibres. Because pressure must
be even, multiple rows of nails may be needed. The nails should be 1 inch apart in rows ½
inch apart staggered so that each one is no more than ¾ inch from the next. They should
penetrate the lower member of the joint by at least 3/8 inch but must not protrude through it.
On small joints, thin plywood nailing strips may be used to spread the load.

When applying varnish to protect the finished structure you must ensure all nail holes are
properly sealed to prevent the ingress of moisture. Screw holes may need to be sealed with
a proprietary filler before varnishing.

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 Where possible screw clamps, spring clamps and hydraulic or electric presses are the
preferred method of applying pressure to the joints as they do not damage the fabric of the
timber. The pressure required varies depending on the type of timber and the glue to be
used. Softwood joined by a Resorcinol-Formaldehyde resin type glue will typically require
125-150 pounds per square inch while hardwood will need 150-200 pounds per square
inch. Always consult the glue manufacturer’s instructions.

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 Protection
After assembly of a structure or repair, the timber and joints must be thoroughly protected
to prevent the wood from drying out and becoming brittle, or rotting due to excess moisture.
This is done by the application of an approved varnish or lacquer to all surfaces of the
structure.

The varnishes normally used nowadays are two part Epoxy resins which provide excellent
protection and do not react with the solvents and dopes used for fabric coverings as
polyurethane varnishes are prone to.

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 Inspection
There is no reason why aircraft constructed in these materials should not have a
satisfactory life provided they are protected from the adverse effects of extreme
temperature and humidity and are kept in suitable hangars when not in use. It must be
remembered that the controlled moisture content in seasoned wood is essential for its
strength. Long-term storage in hot, dry conditions can be as detrimental as cold damp ones.

Glued Structures
Provided that protective varnish was applied to all exposed wood surfaces after gluing and
satisfactorily maintained during the life of an aircraft, rapid deterioration of timber and glued
joints would be unlikely. However, access to internal structure is often difficult or even
impossible and deterioration takes place for a variety of reasons.

Some of the main factors which may cause deterioration are:

 Chemical reactions of the glue itself due to ageing or moisture, to extremes of

temperature or to a combination of these factors.
 Mechanical forces due mainly to timber shrinkage.
 Development of mycological growths (i.e. fungus).
 Oil percolating from the engine installation.
 Fuel contamination due to system leaks or spillage in the tank bays.
 Blockage of water drainage holes.

Aircraft which are exposed to large cyclic changes of temperature and humidity are
especially prone to timber shrinkage which in turn may lead to glue deterioration. The
amount of movement of timber members due to these changes varies with the volume of
each member, the rate of growth of the tree from which the timber was cut and the way in
which the timber was converted. Thus, two major members in an aircraft structure, secured
to each other by glue, are unlikely to have identical characteristics and differential loads will,
therefore, be transmitted across the glue film with changes of humidity. This will impose
stresses in the glued joint which, in temperate zones, can normally be accommodated when
the aircraft is new and for some years afterwards. However, with age the glue tends to
deteriorate, even when the aircraft is maintained under ideal conditions and stresses at the
glued joint, due to changes in atmospheric conditions, may cause failure of the joint.

In most wooden aircraft the main spars are of box formation consisting of long top and
bottom transverse members (i.e. spar booms) joined by plywood webs. The spar booms
may be built up from laminations glued together and at intervals vertical wooden blocks are
positioned between the two booms to add support to the plywood sides. The main spars
carry most of the loads in flight and are, at times, subject to flexing. The glued joints should,
therefore, be free from deterioration but, unless the spar is dismantled or holes cut in the
webs, internal inspection may be virtually impossible.

Long exposure to inclement weather or strong sunlight will tend to destroy the
weatherproofing qualities of fabric coverings and of surface finishes generally. If fabric-
covered ply structures are neglected under these conditions the surface finish will crack,

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 allowing moisture to penetrate to the wooden structure and resulting in considerable
deterioration through water soakage.

Structural Survey
Before commencing a detailed examination of an aircraft structure, the aircraft should be
inspected externally for signs of gross deformation, such as warped wing structures, tail
surfaces out of alignment or evidence of obvious structural failure. In some cases of
advanced deterioration this assessment may be sufficient to pronounce the aircraft beyond
economical repair and thus avoid further work.

Whenever possible the aircraft should be housed in a dry, well ventilated hangar and all
inspection panels, covers and hatches removed before continuing with the survey. The
aircraft should be thoroughly dried out before examining glued joints or carrying out repairs.
Immediately after opening the inspection panels, etc., each component should be checked
for smell. A musty smell indicates fungal growth or dampness and, if present, necessitates
further examination to establish which areas are affected.

Where the wings, fuselage or tail unit are designed as integral stressed structures, such as
inner and outer ply skins glued and screwed to structural members (Double Skin Structure,
below left) no appreciable departure from the original contour or shape is acceptable.

Where single skin plywood structures are concerned, some slight sectional undulation or
panting between panels may be permissible provided the timber and glue is sound.
However, where such conditions exist, a careful check must be made of the attachment of
the ply to its supporting structure and moderate pressure with the hand, to push the ply
from the structure, should be used. A typical example of a distorted Single Skin Structure is
illustrated below right.

The contours and alignment of leading and trailing edges are of particular importance and a
careful check should be made for deformities. Any distortion of these light ply and spruce
structures indicates deterioration and a careful internal inspection should be made for
security of these parts to the main wing structure. If a general deterioration is found in these
components the main wing structure may also be affected.

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 Where there are access panels or inspection covers on the top surfaces of wings or
tailplane, care is necessary to ensure that water has not entered at these points where it
can remain trapped to attack the surrounding structure.

Splits in the proofed fabric covering on plywood surfaces should be investigated by

removing the defective fabric in order to ascertain whether the ply skin beneath is
serviceable. It is common for a split in the ply skin to be the cause of a similar defect in the
protective fabric covering.

Fabric having age cracks and thick with repeated dopings, may indicate that the structure
underneath has not been critically examined for a considerable time. Insertion patches in
the fabric could also indicate that structural repairs have been made at that point.

Whilst a preliminary survey of the external structure may be useful in roughly assessing the
general condition of the aircraft, it should be noted that timber and glue deterioration often
takes place inside a structure without any external indications. Where moisture can enter a
structure, it will tend to find the lowest point, where it will stagnate and promote rapid
deterioration. Other causes of glue deterioration are listed above.

Timber And Glued Joints

Assessment of the integrity of glued joints in aircraft structures presents considerable
difficulties since there is no positive non-destructive method of examination which will give a
clear indication of the condition of the glue and timber inside a joint. The position is made
more difficult by the lack of accessibility for visual inspection.

The inspection of a complete aircraft for glue or wood deterioration will necessitate checks
on remote parts of the structure which may be known, or suspected trouble spots and, in
many instances, are boxed in or otherwise inaccessible. In such instances, considerable
dismantling is required and it may be necessary to cut access holes in ply structures to
facilitate the inspection; such work must be done only in accordance with approved
drawings or the repair manual for the aircraft concerned and, after the inspection has been
completed, the structure must be made good and protected in an approved manner.

NOTE: Where access is required and no approved scheme exists, a scheme should be
obtained from the aircraft manufacturer or an Organisation appropriately approved by the
Authorities for such work.

Access Holes
In general, access holes are circular in shape and should be cut with a sharp trepanning
tool to avoid jagged edges. It is essential to avoid applying undue pressure to the tool,
especially towards the end of the cut, otherwise damage may be caused to the inner face of
the panel by stripping off the edge fibres or the ply laminations.

Where rectangular access holes are prescribed care is necessary to ensure that they are
correctly located and that corner radii are in accordance with drawing requirements.

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 The edges of all access holes must be smoothed with fine glass paper, preferably before
inspection is commenced, since contact with the rough edges may cause wood fibres to be
pulled away.

It is important that the whole of the aircraft structure, including its components, e.g.
tailplane, elevators, etc., is inspected in detail before any decision is reached regarding
general condition. It is possible for the main airframe to be in good condition but for a
marked deterioration to have occurred in, for example, a control surface.

Glue Line
When checking a glue line (i.e. the edge of the glued joint) for condition, all protective
coatings of paint should be removed by careful scraping; it is important to ensure that the
wood is not damaged during the scraping operation and scraping should cease immediately
the wood is revealed in its natural state and the glue line is clearly discernible.

The inspection of the glue line is often facilitated by the use of a magnifying glass. Where
the glue line tends to part or where the presence of glue cannot be detected or is suspect,
then, providing the wood is dry, the glue line should be probed with a thin feeler gauge and,
if any penetration is possible, the joint should be regarded as defective.

NOTE: It is important to ensure that the surrounding wood is dry, otherwise a false
impression of the glue line would be obtained due to closing of the joint by swelling. In
instances where pressure is exerted on a joint, either by the surrounding structure or by
metal attachment devices such as bolts or screws, a false impression of the glue condition
could be obtained unless the joint is relieved of this pressure before the glue line inspection
is carried out.

The choice of feeler gauge thickness will vary with the type of structure, but a rough guide
is that the thinnest possible gauge should be used. The diagrams opposite indicate the
points where checks with a feeler gauge should be made.

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 Timber Condition
Dry rot and wood decay are not usually difficult to detect. Dry rot is indicated by small
patches of crumbling wood, whilst a dark discolouration of the wood surface or grey streaks
of stain running along the grain are indicative of water penetration. Where such
discolouration cannot be removed by light scraping the part should be rejected, but local
staining of the wood by the dye from a synthetic adhesive hardener can, of course, be
disregarded.

Compression-Shake
When wood has been subjected to compression overload along the wood grains, the grains
exhibit microscopic slip planes and creases (also known as failures). If a large section of
wood is subjected to compression overload a well-defined visible wrinkle across the face of
the wood, known as a compression shake, may be present. The presence of either
microscopic compression failures or visible shakes seriously reduces the load bearing
capacity of the wood. However, experience indicates that even the visible compression

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 shakes may be difficult to detect. The evidence of a shake is usually associated with a
sudden change of a member's cross-section, which is often directly at the side of a doubler.
Shakes could be extremely subtle and hidden by paintwork or other surface features that
hinder their detection.

A compression shake may result from abnormal bending overloads often experienced
during relatively innocuous situations such as a heavy landing or a landing gear collapse.
Unlike a crack in metal, a compression shake in wood does not progress during the
aircraft’s normal utilisation. However, once the wood is subjected to a load in excess of its
reduced load bearing capacity, it may catastrophically fail without any warning.

Water Penetration of Structure

In some instances where water penetration is suspected, the removal of a few screws from
the area in question will reveal, by their degree of corrosion, the condition of the
surrounding joint (see opposite left).

 Slight corrosion of the screw due to the adhesive will occur following the original
construction, therefore, the condition of the screw should be compared with that of a
similar screw, removed from another part of the structure known to be free from
water soakage.

NOTE: Plain brass screws are normally used for reinforcing glued wooden members,
although zinc coated brass is sometimes used. Where hard woods such as mahogany or
ash are concerned, steel screws are sometimes used. Unless otherwise specified by the
aircraft constructor, it is usual to replace screws with new screws of identical length but one
size larger.

 Another means of ascertaining if water penetration has taken place is to remove the
bolts holding fittings at spar root-end joints, aileron hinge brackets, etc (opposite
right). Primary joints may have bushed holes and the bushes should also be
withdrawn. Corrosion on the surface of these bolts and bushes and timber

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 discolouration, will provide a useful indication of any water penetration which has
taken place. Bolts and bushes should be smeared with an approved protective
treatment before being refitted through wooden members.

NOTE: When refitting bolts it is important to ensure that the same number of
shrinkage washers are fitted as were fitted originally.

 Experience of a particular aircraft will indicate those portions of the structure most
prone to water penetration and moisture entrapment (e.g. at window rails or the
bottom lower structure of entry doors), but it must be borne in mind that this is not
necessarily indicative of the condition of the complete aircraft.

 Where drain holes have become blocked, water soakage will invariably be found.
Drain holes should be cleared during routine maintenance.

Water Penetration of Top Surfaces

As indicated above, the condition of the proofed-fabric covering on ply surfaces is of great
importance. If any doubt exists regarding its proofing qualities or if there are any signs of
poor adhesion, cracks, or other damage, it should be peeled back to reveal the ply skin.

 The condition of the exposed ply surface should be examined and if water
penetration has occurred, this will be shown by dark grey streaks along the grain and
a dark discolouration at ply joints or screw countersunk holes, together with patches
of discolouration. If these marks cannot be removed by light scraping or, in the case

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 of advanced deterioration, where there are small surface cracks or separation of the
ply laminations, then the ply should be rejected. Where evidence of water
penetration is found, sufficient of the surfaces should be stripped to determine its
extent.

 Providing good care is taken of the protective covering from the beginning, much
deterioration can be avoided.

Miscellaneous Defects
During the inspection of the aircraft, the structure should be examined for other defects of a
more mechanical nature. Guidance on such defects is given in the following paragraphs.

 Shrinkage. Shrinkage of timber, as well as inducing stresses in glued joints, can

cause looseness of metal fittings or bolts and, if fluctuating loads are present, can
result in damage to the wood fibres at the edges of the fittings or around the bolt
holes. Shrinkage can be detected by removing any paint or varnish as described
previously and attempting to insert a thin feeler gauge between the timber and the
fitting or bolt head.

 Elongated Bolt Holes. Where bolts secure fittings which take load carrying
members, or where the bolts are subject to landing or shear loads, the bolt holes
should be examined for elongation or surface crushing of the wood fibres. The bolts
should be removed to facilitate the examination and, in some cases, the bolt itself
may be found to be strained. Rectification of elongated bolt holes must be carried out
in accordance with the approved Repair Manual, the usual method being to open out
the holes and fit steel bushes.

 Bruising and Crushing. A check should be made for evidence of damage such as
bruises or crushing of structural members, which can be caused, for example, by
over tightening bolts. Repair schemes for such damage are governed by the extent
and depth of the defect.

 Previous Repairs. When examining a structure for signs of the defects mentioned
above, particular attention should be paid to the integrity of repairs which may have
been carried out previously.

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 Joint Failure
A glued joint may fail in service as a result of an accident or due to excessive mechanical
loads having been imposed upon it, either in tension or in shear. It is often difficult to decide
the nature of the load which caused the failure, but it should be borne in mind that glued
joints are generally designed to take shear loads.

If a joint is designed to take tension loads, it will be secured by a number of bolts or screws
(or both) fairly closely pitched in the area of tension loading. If a failure occurs in this area, it
is usually very difficult to form an opinion of the actual reasons for it, due to the
considerable break-up of the timber occurring in close proximity with the fasteners.

In all cases of glued joint failure, whatever the direction of loading, there should be a fine
layer of wood fibres adhering to the glue, whether or not the glue has come away
completely from one section of the wood member. If there is no evidence of fibre adhesion,
this may indicate glue deterioration, but if the imprint of wood grain is visible in the glue this
is generally due to ‘case hardening’ of the glue during construction of the joint and the joint
has always been below strength. If the glue exhibits a certain amount of crazing or star
shaped patterns, this indicates too rapid setting, or the pot life of the glue having been
exceeded. In these cases, the other glued joints in the aircraft should be considered
suspect.

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 Damage caused by a heavy landing may be found some distance away from the landing
gear attachment points. Secondary damage can be introduced by transmission of shock
from one end of a strut or bracing to its opposite end, causing damage well away from the
point of impact. A thorough inspection of the existing paint or varnish at suspected primary
or secondary impact points may reveal, by cracks or flaking, whether damage has actually
occurred.

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 6.3.3 Fabric Covering

General
In the very early days of aviation an aeroplane consisted of a wooden framework braced
with wires, and a fabric covering on the wings, stabilisers and control surfaces for
aerodynamic purposes. It soon became apparent that covering the fuselage not only
reduced the drag generated by the structure and improved the aircraft’s efficiency but also
offered the pilot some protection from the elements!

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 Although metal and plywood were used for engine cowls and cockpit walls, fabric continued
to be the main form of airframe covering through to the mid 1930s despite the changes in
framework material to steel tube and aluminium. By World War II stressed metal skinned
semimonocoque airframes allowed far greater performance to be achieved and the full
advantages of the gas turbine engine to be realised. However, fabric covering was still
employed in less demanding environments such as low performance aircraft and the control
surfaces of large aircraft. In fact, because of the weight advantages, fabric covered rudders,
ailerons and elevators were used on some large aircraft through to the 1950s. Since then
only light aircraft have been fabric covered.

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 Before the 1960’s the majority fabric covered aircraft used organic mediums such as Cotton
or Linen. This was treated with dope which tightened the fabric and protected it from
moisture and sunlight. Since the 60’s synthetic, or man-made, fabrics such as polyester and
glass fibre have rapidly become the norm.

The natural fabric covering materials and processes have shortcomings not associated with
synthetic fabrics. Their greater flammability, degeneration due to exposure to mildew and
fungus, difficulty in application and greater susceptibility to the ultraviolet (UV) light, all
combine to dictate a fabric replacement interval of 10 to 15 years. Because of this many
older aircraft have been re-covered using the new synthetic materials.

However, synthetic fabrics also have an inherent maintenance shortcoming. Since their
resilience can lead to replacement intervals far greater than those of natural fabrics, up to
25 years, this causes greater intervals between airframe structural inspection opportunities.
Structural deterioration can go undetected for many years causing a slow decline of the
aircraft’s structural integrity. Timely inspection of airframe structures is of equal importance
to wooden or composite airframes as it is to metal structures. Extensive examination of any
structure requires the complete removal of the fabric for adequate and comprehensive
inspection.

Regardless of the fabric used, it must be fitted tightly to the airframe to maintain the
aerodynamic contours, and securely attached to transfer air loads to the structure and
prevent fretting and distortion . The methods of tightening and attachment vary depending
on the fabric type used.

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 Materials

Fabrics
Aircraft fabrics are woven either from threads or ‘yarns’ of spun natural fibres or from
manmade monofilaments. Natural fibre fabrics like cotton and linen have a ‘nap’, a soft
surface of loose fibre ends, while monofilaments such as polyester and glass extend to the
ends of the fabric unbroken. Threads running lengthwise are termed the ‘warp’ and those
running crosswise are termed the ‘weft’ (or ‘woof’ or ‘fill’ in the United States). The number
of yarns per inch varies with different weights of fabric and is not necessarily the same in
both warp and weft. The non-fraying edge of the fabric is termed the ‘selvedge’. The woven
fabric is supplied as a roll or 'bolt'.

Tapes
Cloth tapes compatible with each of the fabric types are available in various widths for
covering leading edges, trailing edges and ribs, and for repair work. The materials are often
supplied with serrated or ‘pinked' edges and sometimes self-adhesive versions are
available. Special anti-chafe tape is generally used on those members where chafing may
occur between the structure and the fabric and also externally to protect the fabric against
damage by the stringing cord.

Thread
Compatible threads for sewing are used for both manufacture and repair. For hand sewing
thread of 7 - 16lb breaking strength is used single or double as required. For machine
sewing thread of 10 lb breaking strength is normally used.

Stringing cord
Flax or Nylon Stringing or Lacing cord of around 60 lb breaking strength is normally used.

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 Cotton and Linen Fabrics

General
Cotton fabrics are produced in a range of weaves and weights, each having different
properties. They are made from spun threads of mercerised cotton fibre (Mercerisation is a
chemical process which increases the tensile strength of the fibre and its absorption
characteristics) which are selected and woven into a cloth to meet the required
specification. Normally plain weave – one over, one under – is used.

When new, Grade A Cotton fabric has a tensile strength of 80 lbs per inch, a tearing
strength of 5 lbs and a thread count of 80-84 threads per inch. It is used on aircraft with a
wing loading of more than 9 lb/square foot or a never exceed speed (Velocity-never exceed
- Vne) above 160 mph including large, aerobatic and agricultural aeroplanes. Medium
weight Cotton has a tensile strength of 65 lbs per inch, a tearing strength of 4 lbs and a
thread count of 80-94 threads per inch. It is used on aircraft with a wing loading of less than
9 lb/square foot or Vne below 160 mph such as standard light aeroplanes. Light weight
Cotton has a tensile strength of 50 lbs per inch, a tearing strength of 3 lbs and a thread
count of up to 110 threads per inch. It is used on aircraft with a wing loading of less than 8
lb/square foot or Vne below 135 mph like microlights and gliders.

Madapolam is a bleached cotton fabric with a soft finish used for covering wooden surfaces
such as plywood skins.

Linen is made from Flax fibres, each 2 – 3 times stronger than cotton, spun into yarn and
woven in the same manner. It is darker in colour than cotton and is recognisable by its
irregular thread size and spacing. Used mainly by the British aircraft industry, it is approved
for repairs to old aircraft.

Both cotton and linen fabric are normally attached to the airframe by stringing or stitching
and tensioned using tautening cellulose nitrate (“nitrate”) or cellulose acetate butyrate
(“butyrate” or “CAB”) dope.

Being organic, both cotton and linen fabrics have a tendency to absorb moisture and are
prone to damage from fungal attack such as mildew and rot. They are a tempting food
source for insects and vermin and they also deteriorate when exposed to ultra-violet
radiation. They are flammable and combustion is accelerated by certain types of dope. It is,
therefore, vital that protective finishes such as dope and paint are kept in good condition
and the aircraft is stored in a safe and suitable environment.

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 Glass Fibre Fabric
Glass Fibre is produced as a monofilament and it's fabrics are generally stronger than
cotton or polyester. They are not susceptible to moisture, fuel, oil or ultraviolet but will
deteriorate if exposed to acid rain. Often used to cover wings, tail planes and flying control
surfaces, Glass fibre does not shrink with heat and tightens only slightly with tautening dope
and so must be tensioned when fitted.

Glass fibres do not burn, however dopes and paints used with it may support combustion.

The cloth may be pre-treated to make it compatible with butyrate dope and is sometimes
supplied coated with dope to prevent weave distortion. Nitrate dopes are not used with
glass cloth.

Polyester Fabric
Polyester fabric is a durable man made polymer which is resistant to moisture, acids,
alkalis, fuel and oils. It is susceptible to deterioration when exposed to ultraviolet radiation
and must therefore be completely covered by protective coatings in service.

The material is produced by polymerisation of selected acids and alcohols, extruded in its
molten state to form filaments. The filaments are then heat stretched to the desired denier
(or diameter) of fibre prior to weaving. The heat stretching imparts a “memory” into the fibre,
enabling it to shrink back when sufficient heat is applied, however, overheating will cancel
the memory and cause the fabric to stretch and become thinner. Excessive heat will cause
the material to melt and burn.

Polyester fabric comes in different weights and strengths. The most common fabrics are
light weight, medium weight, and heavy-duty. Light weight fabric weighs 1.7 ounces per
square yard. That equates to a total fabric weight of about 9 pounds on a typical light
aircraft. Medium weight fabric weighs 2.7 ounces per square yard bringing the total weight
of fabric only to about 14 pounds for a light aircraft. Heavy-duty fabric weighs in at 3.4
ounces per square yard bringing the weight up to about 18 pounds. Typically, the coatings
– dope and paint - will add 30-40 additional pounds to the overall weight. This is dependent
upon the process applied.

The strength of fabrics varies from a breaking strength of about 70 pounds per square inch
for light weight fabric up to about 130 pounds per square inch for heavy-duty. Selection of
fabric for an aircraft should always be in accordance with the manufacturers or designers
instructions. Typically an ultralight, glider, or an airplane with a small horsepower engine
(below 65 HP) can safely use light weight fabric. For an aerobatic aircraft, large bi-plane,
vintage warplane or agricultural crop duster, in short any high wing loading aircraft
operating under severe conditions, use heavy-duty fabric. All other aeroplanes (this
constitutes the majority) should use the medium weight fabric. If in doubt, err on the side of
caution, problems are much more likely to occur if a lighter weight fabric than the one
recommended is used.

The fabric may be attached to the structure by stringing or by use of fabric adhesive. As
Polyester shrinks with the application of moderate heat, a domestic iron can be used to

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 tighten it onto an aircraft structure. If a tautening dope is used after heat shrinking the fabric
may become over tensioned, causing damage to the structure. It is, therefore, important to
use only the dope specified by the cloth or covering system manufacturer. These may be of
the non-tautening nitrate and butyrate types, or more modern polyurethane or vinyl dopes.

Note: Poly-Fiber, Ceconite, HIPEC and Superflite use the same fabric but the dopes and
techniques used with each make them distinctive processes, covered by different
Supplemental Type Certificates (STC’s). Mixing of materials and chemicals,
including processes and application methods, voids the STC, making the repair un-
approved.

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 Aircraft Dope
Dope is primarily used to protect the fabric covering of an aircraft from damage by
environmental factors such as moisture, sunlight and pollution. It also prevents the passage
of air through the fabric and reduces friction, which improves the efficiency of the airframe.
Certain dopes have the property that they shrink when drying and tighten the fabric. Most
dopes can be used to stick fabric patches onto the covering for repairs and access holes
and, sometimes, to stick the fabric to the structure.

To obtain an even coating over large areas it is normal to spray the dope using an air
pressure spray gun. The initial coat, and dope applied to small areas and repairs may be
brushed on but care must be taken to ensure the coat is even and not to thick.

The type of dope used depends on a number of factors including the type of fabric, the type
of varnish used on wooden structure, the environment in which the aircraft will be stored
and operated, the performance requirements of the aeroplane and it’s covering, and the
availability of the materials.

The main types in use are;

 cellulose nitrate – ‘nitrate’

 cellulose acetate butyrate – ‘butyrate’ or ‘CAB’
 polyurethane
 vinyl

Dopes are principally comprised of Resins or 'Film Formers' to provide the base,
Plasticizers to ensure flexibility and prevent brittleness, Pigments to exclude light and add
colour, and Solvents to thin the solution to a working consistency. A Retarder or Anti-Blush
thinner is sometimes used, this contains slow drying solvents which prevent the
temperature drop and consequent condensation which cause blushing in a dope finish. A
fungicide may be included in the formulation or added to the first coat for additional fabric
protection.

Among the pigments used are Red (iron) Oxide, sometimes added to clear dope to improve
its durability and adhesion, and aluminium powder or paste is added to light-proof the
coating.

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 Covering

General
The structure to be covered should be inspected for foreign objects and adequacy of
protective treatments. All comers or edges and any projections such as bolts or screw
heads likely to contact the fabric must be covered with anti-chafe tape. Where serious
chafing may occur and a strong reinforcement is required, a canvas or leather patch may
be sewn to a fabric patch, then doped into position.

In order to prevent dope from reacting with any protective treatment and to prevent fabric
from adhering to wooden structure, all aerofoil members which will be in contact with the
fabric are normally covered with adhesive cellulose or aluminium tape, or painted with
dope-resistant white paint.

Where stringing is likely to be chafed by parts of the structure, protection should be

provided by wrapping such parts with cotton tape. Before the tape is applied the structure
should be treated with varnish to protect it from corrosion should the tape become wet.

An aircraft fabric may be fitted with the warp or weft running at 45° to the slipstream, or in
line with the slipstream. The former (bias) method is generally considered to be stronger
and more resistant to tearing, but the latter method is used on most light aircraft. The
method used in a particular instance should follow that of the original manufacture unless
otherwise approved.

Prefabricated Envelopes
A number of manufacturers produce fabric envelopes for re-covering various models of
aircraft. Separate envelopes are made up from patterns for the mainplanes, fuselage,
tailplane. fin and flying control surfaces and greatly simplify the task of re-covering. The
envelopes are made loose enough to facilitate slipping them over the structure and to
achieve the proper tautness after doping.

Mainplanes. The envelope is drawn over the wing tip and gradually worked down over the
mainplane, generally keeping the spanwise seam in line with the trailing edge. When the
cover is located it is secured (by stitching, cementing, or retaining strip) to the inboard end
of the mainplane, any necessary openings for cables, struts, tank caps, etc., are cut and
stringing is applied as necessary.

Fuselage. The fin and fuselage envelopes are often supplied separately and in some cases
the fuselage envelope is open, or partially open, at the bottom, to simplify fitting. The fin
envelope is usually fitted first, then the fuselage envelope is stretched forwards over the
fuselage and secured in the same way as the original fabric. The cover is usually cemented
or doped to the fuselage formers.

Control Surfaces. Control surface envelopes are usually left open at the hinge line, where
they are secured by cementing, doping or stitching.

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 “Blanket” Method of Covering
With this method a bolt of fabric is used and covers are made-up on the site. Lengths of
fabric, or a number of lengths joined side-by-side, being used to cover the aircraft structure.

Mainplanes and Tailplanes. The cover is normally made-up from lengths of fabric
machine-stitched together side-by-side. This is laid round the surface, starting and finishing
at the trailing edge and joined by hand stitching. On some aircraft with light alloy structure,
hand stitching is dispensed with, the cover edges being wrapped round the tip and trailing
edge and doped into position. The cover is then attached to the ribs by stringing.

Fuselage. A number of different methods are used to attach fabric to the fuselage. The
fabric is not normally attached in one piece, but usually consists of several pieces (e.g.
sides, top and bottom, which are doped separately onto the frame, or sewn together at their
edges. Joins or seams are covered with doped-on tape. Since the air loads on the fuselage
are not as great as on the mainplanes, it is not usual to employ stringing, although it may be
specified in some instances.

Control Surfaces. These are covered in a similar way to the mainplanes and usually
require stringing. The fabric is normally folded round the hinge line, since this is usually
straight and sewn together round the remaining contour of the surface.

Seams, Stitches and Stringing

The seams in the fabric covering should be either parallel to the fore-and-aft line of the
aircraft or on a bias, depending on the covering method used. With the exception of trailing
edge or leading edge joints (where such action cannot be avoided) seams should never be
made at right angles to the direction of airflow. Two types of machined seams are
employed, the balloon seam and the lap seam.

The Balloon Seam. The balloon seam, sometimes referred to as the ‘French Fell’, is
normally specified for all fabric joints and is illustrated below. To make the seam, the edges
of the fabric are folded back 0.625 in (16 mm) and are then fitted into each other as shown,
tacked together and then machine sewn with nine stitches per inch (four stitches per
centimetre) in two parallel lines 0.375 in (9 mm) apart and 0.125 in (3 mm) from either
edge. After completion, the seam should be examined over a strong electric light
(preferably a light-box) to ensure that the inside edges of the fabric have not been missed
during sewing.

The Lap Seam. The lap seam, illustrated below, should only be used when specified by the
manufacturer. Unless the selvedges are present, the edges of the fabric should be serrated
with ‘pinking’ shears. The edges should overlap each other by 1.25 in (31 mm) and should
be machine sewn with nine stitches per inch (four stitches per centimetre), the stitch lines
being 0.5 in (12 mm) apart and 0.375 in (9 mm) from the edges. After stitching, a 3 in (75
mm) wide serrated-edge fabric strip should be doped in position.

Hand Sewing. Apart from the herring-bone stitch and the boot stitch, which are used for
repair work and are described later, the only other stitches used are the overhand stitch
(sometimes referred to as the ‘trailing-edge’ stitch) and the lock stitch. The overhand stitch
is used for trailing edges, wing tips, wing root ends and wherever a sudden change of
section occurs.

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 Overhand Stitch. Sufficient excess fabric should be allowed for turning under before
sewing is commenced; a 0.5 in (12 mm) turn-under is usually sufficient. An even gap of
about 0.25 in (6 mm) (usually) should be allowed for pulling up the two edges to obtain the
correct fabric tension, but this figure can only be determined finally by experience of the
work in hand.

The sewing should follow the contour of the component evenly to ensure a good finish after
doping. The number of stitches should be eight per inch (three per centimetre), a lock stitch
being included approximately every 2 in (50 mm). Overhand stitching is illustrated below,
the lock stitch being shown as the last stitch before the stitching is pulled tight.

All natural fibre threads used for hand sewing and all cord used for stringing (when not pre-
waxed), should be given a liberal coating of beeswax. This protects the thread, facilitates
sewing and reduces the likelihood of damaging the fabric or enlarging the stitch holes.

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 Stringing
Nylon or Flax cord is normally used for stringing purposes and is generally applied in single
strands as shown. As an alternative, but only when approved by the manufacturer, doubled
No. 18 thread may be used during repair work.

When the fabric covering of the component has been completed, cotton tape should be
stretched centrally over each rib, top and bottom and stitched into position at the trailing
edge.

Using a stringing needle and commencing at the top surface, the stringing cord should be
passed through the tape and fabric as close to the rib as possible, out through the bottom
fabric and tape, round the lower rib boom and back up through both surfaces again. A
double knot should be used to secure the first and last stringing loops and after each 18 in
(450mm). In between, single knots may be used.

The stringing pitch is normally 3 in (75mm) but in the slipstream area or on aircraft of more
than 2000 Ib (910kg) weight, the pitch is often reduced to 1.5 in (37 mm). Variations from
these pitches will be stipulated in the relevant aircraft manuals and it may be necessary to
vary the pitch in order to avoid internal structure or control runs.

When the stringing has been completed a strip of serrated tape, 1.5 in (37 mm) wide,
should be doped over the stringing line on both surfaces, care being taken to ensure that no
air is trapped under the tape and that the tape is securely attached to the main cover.

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 NOTE: The knots depicted are typical but a different type of knot may be specified by the
manufacturer.

Boom Stringing. This type of stringing is used on deep aerofoil sections. The procedure is
similar to that described above, except that the cord is passed round the rib boom instead
of round the entire rib. Top and bottom surfaces are therefore attached separately and the
inside of each boom must be taped to prevent chafing of the stringing cord. Alternate rib
and boom stringing is sometimes used on aerofoils of medium depth, i.e. between 6 and 12
in (150 and 300 mm).

Stringing Tension. Care must be taken to ensure that all stringing is maintained at a
satisfactory tension and that it is not so tight as to cause distortion of the ribs.

Slipstream Area. For stringing purposes, the slipstream area is considered to be the
diameter of the propeller plus one rib on either side. In the case of multi-engined aircraft,
the entire gap between the slipstreams, regardless of its width, is also considered to be
slipstream area.

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 Miscellaneous Methods Of Fabric Attachment
In addition to the standard methods of fabric attachment described above, other methods
are sometimes employed. The most commonly used are outlined below.

Adhesives. On many aircraft, particularly those covered with polyester fabric, stringing is
dispensed with on the wing and tail surfaces and the fabric is attached to the structure by
means of a proprietary adhesive. This method produces a much smoother surface on the
components and saves time during construction and repair.

Attachment by Strip. Attachment of the fabric by wrapping it around a light alloy strip or
rod which is then secured in a channel or groove is sometimes used with metal structures.

Special Stringing. A variation of the Attachment by Strip method, used for attaching fabric
to metal ribs and known as ‘special stringing’.

Attachment or Fabric to Plywood. Dope is generally used for the attachment of fabric to
plywood, but before the fabric is applied, the wood surface should be smoothed with fine
glass paper and any cavities, such as those caused by the countersinking for screw heads,
filled and allowed to set. The wooden surface should then be treated with two coats of
tautening dope. After the second coat has dried, the fabric should be spread over the wood
and stretched evenly to avoid wrinkling. A coat of tautening dope should then be brushed
into the fabric sufficiently to ensure good penetration.

Attachment of Fabric to Metal Surfaces. Where a light alloy is used as part of the
structure of a mainplane (such as to form the leading edge profile) the fabric is generally
doped into position. Alternatively, a thermoplastic adhesive may be used and guidance on
the use of this material may be obtained from the relevant aircraft manuals. To ensure
satisfactory adhesion of the fabric, the metal surfaces should be thoroughly cleaned and
primed with an etch primer.

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 Intentionally Blank

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 Doping

Environment
Dopes are highly flammable due to their volatile solvents and the low flash point, heavy
vapour they produce. Because of this they must be stored in a manner described by various
government regulations and acts of parliament and used in a carefully controlled
environment.

Apart from the normal sources of ignition – cigarettes, naked flames etc., the main risk is
posed by static electricity discharge. The process of sanding dried dope between coats will
generate a static charge which, if discharged rapidly to earth, may cause a spark to ignite
residual solvent vapour in and around the structure. The action of spraying dope will cause
the build-up of a static charge at the spray gun while a floor contaminated with dried dope
may also pick up a charge when swept. It is therefore important that the structure being
doped, the equipment and the operator are all bonded to earth. The operator should wear
overalls made of cotton and leather soled boots.

Electrical equipment may also produce sparks, so any used in the doping area must be
explosion-proof and approved as such. The use of pneumatic power tools is strongly
recommended.

The vapours produced by the dope and the solvents used to clean the equipment are also
hazardous to health. The operator must be protected from the fumes in the manner
described by the dope manufacturer in their technical literature. Any instance of skin, eye or
throat irritation, difficulty in breathing or a dry cough must be treated by immediate removal
from the area and medical advice should be sought.

In order to accomplish a proper dope job with a good finish it is important to control the
temperature and humidity of the spray shop. Adequate ventilation with a through flow of
fresh air to remove the solvent vapours and atomised dope is also required.

Ventilation should be provided by an explosion proof fan at floor level as the vapours are
heavier than air. The rate of flow is dictated by the size of the spray shop and is governed
by national regulations. The inlet should be positioned to prevent draughts, preferably in a
separate room. This will also allow the air to be pre-heated and prevent cooling in the spray
area.

Many of the problems associated with doping are caused by incorrect temperature of the
dope, the structure or the air. If the temperature is too low, the evaporation of the solvents
in the dope will cool the surface being doped and cause moisture to condense and be
trapped in the finish. If it is too high, drying will be too rapid and pin holes or blisters may
form in the surface. For best results the dope and the structure or components should be
kept in the spray shop and the environment maintained at 21-26°C prior to and during the
spray process. Humidity must also be controlled. The desired range is 45 to 50%, but
doping can be satisfactory between 20 and 70% humidity depending on airflow and
temperature.

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 All spray equipment, brushes and mixing containers must be kept scrupulously clean.
Thinners should be used before the dope has dried and Methyl-Ethyl-Ketone (MEK), or a
similar solvent, used on dried dope. Rubber seals in spray guns should be removed before
immersion in MEK to clear blockages.

The spray shop must be kept clean, free of dust and dried overspray.

Procedures
The fabric covered structure or components must be inspected to ensure that:

 the underlying structure has been protected with dope proof paint or tape as
required,
 fabric attachment is correct and secure,
 the correct tension has been applied prior to use of tautening dope (if too slack no
amount of doping will tighten it, if too tight structural damage or distortion may
occur),
 all dust has been removed from the surface,
 plastic and metal components have been adequately protected.

The best looking and most durable film is produced by using several coats of dope that are
low in solids. The Dope Scheme is a schedule listing the coats required to achieve the
desired finish. The following is a description of the doping process for nitrate and butyrate
doping of cotton fabric.

The Priming coats are the first ones applied to the raw fabric, encapsulating the fibres and
forming the mechanical attachment. The first coat is normally thinned by 25-50% and
applied by brush to ensure good penetration, but must not be allowed to form drips or runs
on the opposite surface. When doping wings, the top and bottom areas behind the spar are
treated first and allowed to shrink, before the leading edge is doped. This ensures even
tightening and prevents wrinkles forming on the leading edge cap.

Any drainage eyelets, grommets inspection rings are attached at this stage and tapes laid
using a heavy coat of dope where required, carefully brushed to remove air pockets.

A coat of thicker dope may now be applied by spray. This should be lightly sanded to
remove the fibre ends and produce a smooth finish. The surface is rinsed with water and
thoroughly dried after sanding.

Filling coats are sprayed on next as cross coats. One light coat is sprayed moving the gun
in one direction, then a second applied at moving right angles to the first before it dries.
This may be repeated several times to satisfy the scheme. The final filling coat should be
wet sanded to produce a smooth finish and the surface rinsed with water and dried again.
At this stage the structure should be tested by placing a light inside and checking the fabric
is light proof.

A number of pigmented and/or clear Finishing coats are now applied. There should not be
less than three of these and each should be lightly sanded before application of the next.

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 The final coat should be allowed to dry for at least one month before being polished with
rubbing compound and waxed. The surface should be waxed annually thereafter.

The dope scheme will require between 6 and 12 coats of dope depending on the tautness
and finish desired. A typical low tautness scheme will be comprised of:

 3-4 coats transparent tautening dope (Priming)

 2 coats aluminium finish non-tautening dope (Filling)
 1-2 coats pigmented finish non-tautening dope (Finishing)

and if glossy finish is required;

 1-2 coats transparent non-tautening finish dope (Finishing).

A typical high tautness scheme will be comprised of:

 1 coat red oxide tautening dope (Priming)

 6-7 coats transparent tautening dope (Priming/Filling)
 2 coats aluminium tautening dope (Filling)
 1-2 coats pigmented finish non-tautening dope (Finishing)

and if glossy finish is required;

 1-2 coats transparent non-tautening finish dope (Finishing).

The schemes used for polyester fabric are similar, but, as the threads are not fibrous, the
first Priming coat must wet the inner surface to ensure encapsulation and good mechanical
attachment. The modern polyurethane and vinyl dopes commonly used with polyester fabric
have additives to improve adhesion to the fabric.

Glass fibre fabric has a loose weave which makes it more difficult to dope. It is normally
pre-treated with dope so the first coat applied must be thinned only enough to soften this
treatment and provide good adhesion. The pressure used for spraying should be the
minimum required for atomisation to prevent the dope blowing through the fabric and
causing runs on the reverse side. Subsequent coats should be progressively heavier until
the weave fills and the cloth tightens.

Problems
Adhesion problems most commonly occurs between the fabric and the first coat and
between the aluminium and the subsequent coat, particularly if excess aluminium powder is
added. Use of a solvent moistened ‘Tack Rag’ just prior to applying each coat is
recommended.

Blushing is a white or greyish cast that forms on the dope surface and is caused by
moisture condensing on the uncured dope surface resulting in the nitrocellulose
precipitating out. It can be prevented by careful humidity and temperature control or using

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 retarder in the dope. A blushed area can be repaired by adding retarder to the next coat,
which allows the solvents to attack the surface and cause it to flow out.

Bubbles and Blisters are caused by the surface of the dope drying before all the solvents
have evaporated. This may happen if the dope is applied to deeply, if the previous coat is
not dry, or if the temperature is too high.

Dull Finish may be caused by holding the spray gun too far from the surface so that the
dope settles as a semi-dry mist. Small areas of dullness may be caused by porosity of the
surface.

Fisheyes are small areas which have not dried uniformly due to surface contamination with
oil, wax or silicone products. Cleanliness is essential and use of a tack rag is
recommended. When doping a repair, all wax polish should be removed from the area with
solvent.

Orange Peel is an effect caused by insufficient dope thinning, holding the spray gun too far
from the surface, using too high an atomising pressure or using a thinner which evaporates
too quickly. It can also be caused by a cold damp draught over the surface.

Pinholes are small blisters and have the same causes. They can also be caused by water
or oil contamination in the spray gun air supply.

Roping is a condition which occurs when the dope dries as it is being brushed causing an
uneven surface. It is common when the dope is cold or is over-brushed.

Rough Finish is caused by dirt and dust on the surface, insufficient sanding or low working
temperatures.

Runs and Sag are the result of too thick a coat being applied, especially to vertical
surfaces. They are caused by incorrectly adjusted equipment or poor technique.

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 Inspection and Testing
All components of the covering should be inspected for general condition. Loose finishing
tape and reinforcing patches; chafing under fairings; brittle, cracking, peeling, or
deteriorated coatings; fabric tears and rock damage; broken or missing rib lacing; and
rodent nests are unacceptable. The entire fabric covering should be uniformly taut with no
loose or wrinkled areas, or excess tension which can warp and damage the airframe.

Excess Tension
There are no methods or specifications for measuring acceptable fabric tension other than
observation. Excess tension may warp critical components, such as longerons, wing rib,
and trailing edges out of position, weakening the airframe structure.

Excess tension with cotton, linen, and glass fibre fabric covering is usually caused by
excessive dope film on a new covering, or continuous shrinking of an originally satisfactory
dope film as the plasticizers migrate from the dope with age. Heat from sun exposure
accelerates plasticizer migration.

Excess tension with polyester fabric, coated with dope, is usually caused by the combined
tension of the heat tautened polyester fabric and continuous shrinking of the dope film as
the plasticizers migrate from the dope with age.

Loose Fabric
Fabric that flutters or ripples in the propeller slipstream, balloons, or is depressed
excessively in flight from the static position, is unacceptable. Loose or wrinkled cotton,
linen, and glass fabric covering may be caused by inadequate dope film; poor quality dope;
fabric installed with excess slack; or by a bent, broken, or warped structure.

Loose or wrinkled polyester fabric covering, finished with coatings other than dope, may be
caused by inadequate or excessive heat application; excess slack when the fabric was
installed; or bent or warped structure. Polyester fabric which does not meet aircraft quality
specifications is likely to become loose after a short period of time.

Glass fabric covering should be tested with a large suction cup for rib lacing cord failure and
reinforcing tape failure caused by chafing on all wing ribs and other structural attachments
throughout the airframe. Particular attention should be given to the area within the propeller
slipstream. If failure is indicated by the covering lifting from the static position, the rib lacing
cord and reinforcing tape must be reinstalled with double the number of original laces.

NOTE: Temporary wrinkles will develop in any fabric coated and finished with dope, when
moisture from rain, heavy fog, or dew is absorbed into a poor-quality dope film, causing the
film to expand. Temporary wrinkles may also develop with any type of thick coatings, on
any type of fabric, when an aircraft is moved from a cold storage area to a warm hangar or
parked in the warming sunshine, causing rapid thermal expansion of the coating.

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 Coating Cracks
Fabric exposed through cracks in the coating may be initially tested for deterioration by
pressing firmly with a thumb to check the fabric’s strength. Natural fibres deteriorate by
exposure to ultraviolet radiation, mildew, fungus from moisture, high acid-content rain, dew,
fog, pollution, and age. Polyester filaments will deteriorate by exposure to UV radiation.

Glass fabric will not deteriorate from UV exposure, but will be deteriorated by acid rain, dew
fallout, and chaffing if loose in the propeller slipstream area.

Cotton, linen, and glass fabric coverings are dependent solely on the strength and tautening
characteristics of the dope film to carry the air loads. Dope coatings on heat-tautened
polyester fabric will also absorb all the air loads because the flexibility of polyester filaments
is higher than the dope film. Polyester fabric that is coated with materials other than dope,
is dependent solely on the heat tautening and low-elongation characteristics of the
polyester filaments to develop tension and transmit the air loads to the airframe without
excess distortion from a static position.

Cracks in coatings will allow any type of exposed fabric to deteriorate. Cracks should be
closed by sealing or removing the coatings in the immediate area and replace with new
coatings, or recover the component.

Fabric Identification
Cotton Fabric meeting aircraft specifications can be identified by an off-white colour and
thread count of 80 to 94 (or up to 110 in light fabrics) in both directions .

Aircraft linen conforming to British specifications may be identified by a slightly darker

shade than cotton fabric and irregular thread spacing. The average thread count will be
about the same as Grade A fabric (80- 84). The non-uniformity of the linen thread size is
also noticeable, with one thread half the size of the adjacent thread. When viewed under a
magnifying glass, the ends of the cotton and linen fibre nap may be seen on the backside.
The nap is also seen when the coating is removed from the front or outside surface. A light-
purple colour showing on the back side of cotton or linen fabric indicates a fungicide was
present in the dope to resist deterioration by fungus and mildew.

Polyester fabric conforming to aircraft specifications is whiter in colour than cotton or linen.
The fabric styles adapted for use as aircraft covering have a variety of thread counts, up to
94, depending on the manufacturing source, weight, and breaking strength. Polyester is a
monofilament and will not have any nap or filament ends showing.

Glass fabric is white in colour and one type is pre-coated with a blue tinted dope as a
primer, and to reduce weave distortion during handling. Thread count will be approximately
36 per inch. Glass fibres are monofilaments so the fabric will not have any nap or filament
ends showing unless they are damaged.

When a small fabric sample can be removed from the aircraft and all the coatings removed,
a burn test will readily distinguish between natural fabric, polyester, and glass fabric. Cotton
and linen will burn to a dry ash, polyester filaments will melt to a liquid and continue burning

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 to a charred ash, and glass filaments, which do not support combustion, will become
incandescent over a flame.

Coating Identification
Tautening nitrate or butyrate dope must be used to develop tension on cotton, linen, and
glass fabrics. When a small sample can be removed, burn tests will distinguish nitrate
dope-coated fabric from butyrate dope-coated fabric by its immediate ignition and
accelerated combustion. Butyrate dope will burn at less than one-half the rate of nitrate
dope. Coating types other than nitrate or butyrate dope may have been used as a finish
over dope on cotton, linen, and glass fibre fabric coverings.

If the fabric type is determined to be polyester, coating identification should start by

reviewing the aircraft records and inspecting the inside of the wings and the fuselage for the
required fabric source identification stamps for covering materials authorised under the
STC. The manual, furnished by the holder of the STC-approved fabric, should be reviewed
to determine whether the coatings are those specified by the STC.

Coating types, other than those authorised by the original STC, may have been used with
prior approval of the competent authority, and this would be noted in the aircraft records.
The presence of dope on polyester can be detected by a sample burn test.

Strength Criteria for Aircraft Fabric

The condition of the fabric covering must be determined on every 100 hour and annual
inspection, because the strength of the fabric is a definite factor in the airworthiness of an
aeroplane. Fabric is considered to be airworthy until it deteriorates to a breaking strength
less than 70 percent of the strength of new fabric required for the aircraft. For example, if
grade-A cotton is used on an airplane that requires only intermediate fabric, it can
deteriorate to 46 pounds per inch width (70 percent of the strength of intermediate fabric)
before it must be replaced

Fabric installed on aircraft with a wing loading less than 9 lb. per square foot (psf), and a
Vne less than 160 mph, will be considered un-airworthy when the breaking strength has
deteriorated below 46 lb. per inch width, regardless of the fabric grade. Fabric installed on
aircraft with a wing loading of 9 lb. per square foot and over, or a Vne of 160 mph and over,
will be considered un-airworthy when the breaking strength has deteriorated below 56 lb.
per inch width.

Fabric installed on a glider or sail-plane with a wing loading of 8 lb. per square foot and
less, and a Vne of 135 mph or less, will be considered un-airworthy when the fabric
breaking strength has deteriorated below 35 lb. per inch width, regardless of the fabric
grade.

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 Fabric Testing
Mechanical devices used to test fabric by pressing against or piercing the finished fabric are
not normally approved and are used at the discretion of the mechanic to base an opinion on
the general fabric condition. Punch test accuracy will depend on the individual device
calibration, total coating thickness, brittleness, and types of coatings and fabric. Mechanical
devices are not applicable to glass fibre fabric that will easily shear and indicate a very low
reading regardless of the true breaking strength.

If the fabric test results are in the lower breaking strength range with the mechanical punch
tester or if the overall fabric cover conditions are poor, then more accurate field tests may
be made. Cut a 1-1/4-inch wide by 4-inch long sample from a top exposed surface, remove
all coatings and unravel the edges to a 1-inch width. Clamp each end between suitable
clamps with one end anchored to a support structure while a load is applied by adding sand
in a suitable container suspended a few inches above the floor. If the breaking strength is
still in question, a sample should be sent to a qualified testing laboratory.

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 Fabric Replacement

General
The replacement of fabric, including covering of a flying surface, is regarded as a major
repair and should be performed by an appropriately authorised organisation or Licensed
Aircraft Maintenance Engineer.

The selection of fabric type (and associated processes) can depend on many factors.
These may include;

 Suitability of the materials and processes (airframe varnish/dope compatibility etc.)

 Availability of fabric and its associated chemicals, tapes, cords, threads, etc.
 Skill of the maintainer in the chosen material and process.
 Type of operation the aircraft is involved in (agricultural, high speed/aerobatics,
glider).
 Availability of suitably calibrated tools and equipment.

If the replacement fabric differs from the fabric detailed in the aircraft’s Type Certificate
(TC), then a Supplemental Type Certificate (STC) or other authorisation is required to make
the substitution.

Synthetic fabric manufacturers have gained STC approval for many aircraft types allowing
the re-covering of older aircraft.

Many aircraft maintenance manuals have limited information regarding the recovering
process required on the aircraft, with most manuals referring to stitching patterns and
special covering techniques unique to the aircraft. If recovering an aircraft using Grade A
cotton, an approved document for application guidance, in conjunction with aircraft’s
maintenance manual, is the US Federal Aviation Administration’s (FAA) Advisory Circular
(AC) 43.13-1B and the UK Airworthiness leaflet 2-8. These documents outline all
acceptable techniques for a range of practices, from doping and repairs to inspection.

Should an alternate material be chosen to cover an aircraft, and then the materials and
procedures should be detailed in the STC. This includes, but is not limited to, items such as
chemicals (paint and dopes), stitching threads, finishing and lacing tapes, fabric attaching
hardware (rivets, PK screws & clips), inspection rings, drain grommets and material. Failure
to comply with all aspects of the STC, including materials and methods, will void the STC,
making the repair un-approved.

Equipment
The equipment requirements for performing fabric work are minimal. However, several
items are required to be calibrated prior to use to ensure to compliance to instructions
covered in either the STC or aircraft maintenance manual. If utilising one of the synthetic
materials that require heat for fabric shrinkage, then the heat source (generally an
household iron) must be checked for its various temperature settings.

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 Storage
If using an organic material such as cotton, then certain environmental conditions must be
met. This includes a room temperature of (typically) 16 to 21°C and a minimum relative
humidity of 70%. Storage of fabric should be in clean dry areas away from direct sunlight.
The conditions required for storing synthetic materials are broadly similar.

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 Repairs to Fabric Coverings

General
If the fabric has been damaged extensively, it is usually impractical and uneconomical to
make satisfactory repairs by sewing and patching. The extent and location of damage to the
fabric that may be repaired will be detailed in the repair section of the aircraft manual
concerned, but extensive damage is often made good by replacing complete fabric panels.
However, the replacement of large fabric panels, particularly on one side of a component,
may lead to distortion of the structure and it may be advisable to completely re-cover the
component

Before attempting any repair to the fabric covering, the cause of the damage should be
ascertained. The internal structure should be inspected for loose objects such as stones,
remains of birds, insects, etc., and any structural damage made good. Using thinners, all
dope should be removed from the fabric surrounding the damaged area before any stitching
is carried out, since doped fabric will tear if any tension is applied to the repair stitches.

Repair of Cuts and Tears

Cuts and tears in fabric are sometimes caused by stones thrown up by the slipstream or
wheels, but more generally result from accidental damage during ground movement or
servicing. Damage may also be caused by bird strikes. Any damaged structure should be
made good and fabric repairs carried out according to the type of damage, as detailed in
the following paragraphs.

Herring-Bone Stitch
The herring-bone stitch (also known as the ‘ladder stitch’) should be used for repairing
straight cuts or tears which have sound edges. The stitches should be made as shown, with
a lock knot every 6 in (150 mm).

There should be a minimum of four stitches to the inch (two stitches to the centimetre) and
the stitches should be 0.25 in (6 mm) from the edge of the cut or tear.

After the stitching has been completed, 1 in (25 mm) wide serrated tape should be doped
over the stitching. A square or rectangular fabric patch should then be doped over the
whole repair, ensuring that the edges of the patch are parallel to the warp and weft of the
fabric covering and that they overlap the repair by 1.5 in (37 mm). The original doping
scheme should then be restored.

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 Repairs with Woods Frames
On some aircraft, repairs to cuts and tears with jagged edges, which cannot be stitched as
described in the previous paragraphs, can be repaired by using the Woods frame method.
Repairs of up to 2 in (50 mm) square may be made, provided they are clear of seams or
attachments by a distance of not less than 2 in (50 mm). The affected area should be
cleaned with thinners or acetone and repaired in the following manner:

 The Woods frame should be doped into position surrounding the damaged fabric
and, if the frame is of the square type, the edges should be parallel to the weft and
warp of the covering. When the dope has dried, the damaged portion of the fabric
should be cut out and the aperture covered by a fabric patch.

 If Woods frames are not readily available they can be made from cellulose sheet
0.030 in (0.8 mm) thick with minimum frame width of 1 in (25 mm); in the case of the
square type of frame the minimum corner radii should be 0.5 in (12 mm). In some
special cases, aircraft manufacturers use 0.080 in (2 mm) plywood for the
manufacture of the frames, in which case it is important to chamfer the outer edges
of the frame to blend with the aerofoil contour.

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 Repair by Darning
Irregular holes or jagged tears in fabric may be repaired by darning provided the hole is not
more than 2 in (50 mm) wide at any point. The stitches should follow the lines of the warp
and weft and should be closely spaced as shown. The whole repair should be covered with
a serrated fabric patch in the usual way, with an overlap of 1.5 in (37 mm) from the start of
the darn.

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 Repair by Insertion
For damage over 4 in (100 mm) square, insertion repairs are generally used, either of the
two methods described below being suitable.

Normal Insertion Repair

 The damaged area of the fabric should be cut out to form a square or rectangular
hole with the edges parallel to the weft and warp. The corners of the hole should
then be cut diagonally, to allow a 0.5 in (12 mm) wide edge to be folded under the
fabric and this should be held in position with tacking or hemming stitches.

 The patch should be made 1 in (25 mm) larger than the cut-out area and its edges
should be folded under for 0.5 in (12 mm) and tacked in position in a manner similar
to that described above. In this condition the size of the insertion patch should be
similar to, or slightly smaller than, that of the cut-out area.

 The insertion patch should be held in position inside the cut-out area with a few
tacking stitches and then sewn in position using a herring-bone stitch of not less than
two stitches to the centimetre (four stitches to the inch), as shown. A 1 in (25 mm)
wide tape should then be doped over the seams.

 For small repairs a square or rectangular cover patch, with frayed or serrated edges,
should be doped in position ensuring that the patch overlaps the edge of the tape by
1.25 in (31 mm). Where the size of the insertion patch is more than 9 in (225 mm)
square, a 3 in (75 mm) wide fabric serrated tape is often used; the tape should be
mitred at the corners and doped in position. The original finish should then be
restored.

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 Alternative Insertion Repair
An alternative repair is shown diagrammatically below. This consists of cutting away the
damaged fabric as described above, but, in this case, the edges of the aperture as well as
the edges of the insertion patch are turned outwards. The insertion patch is attached to the
fabric cover by stitching along the folded-up edges as near to the contour of the component
as practicable (i.e. about 0.0625 in (1 mm) above the surface) using the boot stitch. The
edges are then doped down and the repair covered with a doped-on fabric patch.

Boot Stitch. Two threads should be used for the boot stitch. The stitches should be made
as shown (diagrammatically) and the ends of both threads tied together in a lock knot every
6 in (150 mm), and at the end of a seam.

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 Rejuvenation of the Dope Film
If fabric loses its strength, there is nothing to do but remove it and recover the aircraft. But if
the fabric is good and the dope is cracked, it may be treated with rejuvenator, a mixture of
very potent solvents and plasticizers, to restore its resilience. The surface of the fabric is
cleaned and the rejuvenator sprayed on in a wet coat. The solvents soften the old finish so
the plasticizers can become part of the film. When the rejuvenator dries, the surface should
be sprayed with two coats of aluminium-pigmented dope, then sanded and a third coat of
pigmented-pigmented dope applied, followed with the coloured dope finish. When repairing,
rejuvenating, and refinishing covering materials approved under an STC, instructions in the
manual furnished by the material supplier should be followed.

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European Aviation Safety Agency (EASA)

Module 6
Licence Category A, B1 and B2

Materials and Hardware

6.4 Corrosion
 Intentionally Blank

4.2 Module 6.4 Corrosion

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© Copyright 2016
 Copyright Notice
© Copyright. All worldwide rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced,
stored in a retrieval system or transmitted in any form by any other means whatsoever: i.e.
photocopy, electronic, mechanical recording or otherwise without the prior written
permission of Turkish Technic Inc.

Knowledge Levels — Category A, B1, B2, B3 and C Aircraft

Maintenance Licence
Basic knowledge for categories A, B1, B2 and B3 are indicated by the allocation of knowledge levels
indicators (1, 2 or 3) against each applicable subject. Category C applicants must meet either the category B1
or the category B2 basic knowledge levels.
The knowledge level indicators are defined as follows:

LEVEL 1
 A familiarisation with the principal elements of the subject.
Objectives: The applicant should be familiar with the basic elements of the subject.
 The applicant should be able to give a simple description of the whole subject, using common words
and examples.
 The applicant should be able to use typical terms.

LEVEL 2
 A general knowledge of the theoretical and practical aspects of the subject.
 An ability to apply that knowledge.
Objectives: The applicant should be able to understand the theoretical fundamentals of the subject.
 The applicant should be able to give a general description of the subject using, as appropriate, typical
examples.
 The applicant should be able to use mathematical formulae in conjunction with physical laws
describing the subject.
 The applicant should be able to read and understand sketches, drawings and schematics describing
the subject.
 The applicant should be able to apply his knowledge in a practical manner using detailed procedures.

LEVEL 3
 A detailed knowledge of the theoretical and practical aspects of the subject.
 A capacity to combine and apply the separate elements of knowledge in a logical and comprehensive
manner.
Objectives: The applicant should know the theory of the subject and interrelationships with other subjects.
 The applicant should be able to give a detailed description of the subject using theoretical
fundamentals and specific examples.
 The applicant should understand and be able to use mathematical formulae related to the subject.
 The applicant should be able to read, understand and prepare sketches, simple drawings and
schematics describing the subject.
 The applicant should be able to apply his knowledge in a practical manner using manufacturer's
instructions.
 The applicant should be able to interpret results from various sources and measurements and apply
corrective action where appropriate.

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4.4 Module 6.4 Corrosion

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 Table of Contents

6.4 Corrosion ______________________________________________________________ 9

Introduction _____________________________________________________________ 9
Chemical Oxidation ______________________________________________________ 9
Chemical Reaction ______________________________________________________ 11
Types of Corrosion ______________________________________________________ 13
Galvanic Corrosion ______________________________________________________ 13
Surface Corrosion_______________________________________________________ 16
Pitting Corrosion ________________________________________________________ 18
Crevice Corrosion _______________________________________________________ 19
Intergranular Corrosion___________________________________________________ 21
Laminar or Exfoliation Corrosion ___________________________________________ 23
Fretting Corrosion _______________________________________________________ 25
Stress Corrosion ________________________________________________________ 26
Filiform Corrosion _______________________________________________________ 28
Mercury Contamination __________________________________________________ 29
Microbial Corrosion______________________________________________________ 31
Hydrogen Embrittlement __________________________________________________ 32
Corrosion Fatigue _______________________________________________________ 33
Common Metals and Corrosion Products _____________________________________ 34
Acid Spillage___________________________________________________________ 36
Alkali Spillage __________________________________________________________ 36
Protection of Metal from Corrosion _________________________________________ 37
Anodizing _____________________________________________________________ 38
Chemical Treatments ____________________________________________________ 43
Passivation ____________________________________________________________ 44
Metal Coating __________________________________________________________ 45
Metal Spraying _________________________________________________________ 46
Electroplating __________________________________________________________ 47
Other Coatings _________________________________________________________ 53
Painting ______________________________________________________________ 54
Finishes ______________________________________________________________ 55
Paint Stripping _________________________________________________________ 56
Paint Shop Safety _______________________________________________________ 57
Corrosion Inhibiting Compounds ___________________________________________ 58
Protection Philosophy ____________________________________________________ 60
Corrosion Prevention ____________________________________________________ 61
Corrosion Removal and Reprotection _______________________________________ 62
Preparation ____________________________________________________________ 62
Safety Precautions ______________________________________________________ 62
Degreasing ____________________________________________________________ 63
Paint Removal _________________________________________________________ 63
Mechanical Removal of Corrosion Products___________________________________ 63

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 Hidden Corrosion _______________________________________________________ 64
Surface Smoothness ____________________________________________________ 64
Contamination _________________________________________________________ 64
Cracks _______________________________________________________________ 65
Damage ______________________________________________________________ 65
Assessment ___________________________________________________________ 65
Abrasive Blasting Method of Corrosion Removal _______________________________ 67
Chemical Removal of Corrosion Products ____________________________________ 69
Rectification of Corrosion _________________________________________________ 71
Clad Aluminium Alloy Sheet _______________________________________________ 71
Aluminium Alloy Castings and Forgings, Milled Skin Panels etc. ___________________ 72
Blend of a Single Depression ______________________________________________ 73
Blending Ratios ________________________________________________________ 74
Blend of Multiple Corrosion Areas __________________________________________ 75
Using a Dial Type Depth Gauge ____________________________________________ 76
Rectification of Corrosion on Magnesium Alloys _______________________________ 77
Rectification on Corrosion of Steel __________________________________________ 78

4.6 Module 6.4 Corrosion

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 Module 6.4 Enabling Objectives and Certification Statement
Certification Statement
These Study Notes comply with the syllabus of EASA Regulation (EU) No. 1321/2014
Annex III (Part-66) Appendix I, and the associated Knowledge Levels as specified below:

Part 66 Licence Category

Objective
Reference A B1 B2 B3
Corrosion 6.4
Chemical fundamentals; (a) 1 1 1 1
Formation by, galvanic action process,
microbiological, stress;
Types of corrosion and their identification; (b) 2 3 2 2
Causes of corrosion;
Material types, susceptibility to corrosion.

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4.8 Module 6.4 Corrosion

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 6.4 Corrosion

Introduction
Metallic elements are usually compounded with other elements, in the ground, before they
are mined and (compared to the actual metals into which they are subsequently formed)
they are relatively stable. Corrosion is the tendency of metals to revert to the
thermodynamically more stable, oxidized, state. This occurs when they react with dry air to
form metal oxides, or with acids and alkalis to form metallic salts. Some metals, such as
gold and platinum, strongly resist corrosion.

Reactions, between metals and their environments, can occur in either of two (often
simultaneous) ways:

 chemical (oxidation)
 electrochemical (galvanic)

In both cases, the metal is converted into metal compounds such as carbonates,
hydroxides, oxides or sulphates.

The corrosion process involves two concurrent changes. The metal that is attacked, suffers
an Anodic change while the corrosive agent undergoes a Cathodic change. The result is
that material is lost from the Anode and gained by the Cathode, forming an ionic bond.

Chemical Oxidation
In a strict chemical sense, oxidation occurs whenever a metal is converted to its ions. An
ion is a neutral atom that has gained or lost one or more of its electrons. The term oxidation
is, however, normally used to describe the direct combination of a metal with the oxygen of
the atmosphere. The phenomenon is essentially a ‘dry’ one, although water vapour, in the
air, does play a part in the oxidation of some metals. With the exception of gold and
platinum, all metals, in contact with air, form a very thin, visible oxide film.

Chemical corrosion can be caused by direct exposure, of the metal surface, to caustic
liquids or gaseous agents such as:
 Spilled battery acids or battery fumes. Spilled acids are less of a problem now that
Nickel Cadmium batteries are in common use.
 Flux deposits from inadequately cleaned joints. Flux residues are hygroscopic (readily
absorb moisture).
 Entrapped caustic cleaning compounds. Caustic cleaning solutions should be kept
capped when not in use. Many corrosion-removal solutions are, in fact, corrosive
agents and should be carefully removed after use.

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 Effect of Oxide Thickness
The oxide film that forms on metals, generally tends to protect them from further corrosive
attack. The oxidation rate normally falls sharply as the film thickness increases so that, at
some time, there is virtually no further increase in film thickness.

Metals that form this type of tenacious and impervious film include pure aluminium, titanium
and chromium.

Occasionally, there is a continuation of oxidation, due to the fact that oxides may react
chemically, or combine with, water to produce a film that is porous to the passage of further
oxygen through it. The oxide skin may also crack or flake and expose the metal surface to
further oxidation.

Effect of Temperature
The effect of an increase in temperature usually results in an increase in the rate of
oxidation of a metal.

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 Chemical Reaction
Of the first type, the powdery Rust formed on ferrous metals is probably the most familiar.
Iron (Fe) at the surface of a component undergoes a number of simple changes. Firstly,

Fe Fen+ + n electrons,

i.e. the iron atom can lose some electrons and become a positively charged ion. This allows
it to bond to other groups of atoms that are negatively charged.

We know that wet steel rusts to give a variant of iron oxide so the other half of the reaction
must involve water (H2O) and oxygen (O2) something like this;

O2 + 2H2O + 4e- 4OH

This makes sense as we have a negatively charged material that can combine with the iron,
and the electrons, which are produced in the first reaction, are used up. We can, for clarity,
ignore the electrons and write;

2Fe + O2 + 2H2O 2Fe(OH)2

Iron + Water with oxygen dissolved in it Iron Hydroxide

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 Oxygen dissolves quite readily in water and because there is usually an excess of it, reacts
with the iron hydroxide;

4Fe(OH)2 + O2 2H2O + 2Fe2O3H2O

Iron hydroxide + oxygen water + Hydrated iron oxide
(brown rust)

The appearance of this corrosion on different metals is normally as follows:

 Steel - Reddish brown (Rust)

 Aluminium alloy - Whitish powder
 Magnesium alloy - Greyish white powder
 Copper and its alloys - Green coating
(Verdigris)
 Cadmium and zinc White powder.

Pollutants in the environment such as acids,

alkalis and salts may alter and accelerate the
reaction.

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 Types of Corrosion
Galvanic Corrosion
This may also be known as electrolytic, electro-chemical or dissimilar metal corrosion.

Consider a simple electric cell. It consists of a plate of copper and a plate of zinc, both of
which are immersed in an electrolyte of dilute sulphuric acid.

If the plates are not touching each other in the solution and are not connected to each other
outside the solution then no action takes place; but as soon as they are connected, a
current of electricity flows through the completed circuit. At the same time bubbles of
hydrogen form at the copper plate while the zinc plate begins to dissolve in the acid to form
zinc sulphate, a salt. The chemical potential energy of the zinc is being converted into
electrical energy.

Note that the electric current referred to here is the flow of negatively charged particles or
electrons from the zinc anode (-) to the copper cathode (+), as opposed to the convention
which assumes that an electric current flows from positive to negative. Zinc is anodic
towards copper so that when these metals are connected and immersed in an electrolyte
the zinc will dissolve or corrode far more quickly than if immersed in the electrolyte by itself.
The electrolyte here means any solution which will conduct electricity e.g. impure moisture.

This will apply to any pair of dissimilar metals, one of which will always be anodic to the
other. The rate of electrolytic action will often be extremely slow and the flow of current
between the two, very small, however, over time a great deal of damage can be done.

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 The electro-chemical series shown here includes some familiar metals. Should any two of
the metals be in contact, with an electrolyte between them, then the one which is higher in
the table will be anodic to the other and will be the one which will corrode.

If a steel screw is used to secure an aluminium alloy inspection panel and impure moisture
gets between the two metals, the aluminium alloy, being the anodic metal will corrode and
be eaten away.

If two sheets of dissimilar metals are riveted together, impure moisture (due to atmospheric
humidity) will be trapped between them providing an electrolyte, causing a current to flow
from the anodic metal to the cathodic metal. As a result, corrosion will take place on the
surface of the anode and molecules of corroded metal will be deposited on the cathode. If
aluminium alloy and magnesium alloy are in contact, both will corrode.

Similar action may take place on the surface of an alloy, the elements in the surface of the
metal may be anodic and cathodic to one another.

Graphite deposited on aluminium alloy will cause electro-chemical corrosion. Therefore

graphite pencils should never be used to mark out aircraft material.

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© Copyright 2016
 Module 6.4 Corrosion 4.15
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 Surface Corrosion
This is usually due to direct chemical attack. Spillage from batteries, aircraft toilets, galleys,
drinks etc. cause direct chemical attack.

Indirect chemical attack can be caused by chemicals present in the air. The very small
amount of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere dissolves in the rain forming very weak
carbonic acid which corrodes metal. In and near large towns the atmosphere contains
smoke and fumes containing sulphur dioxide which dissolves in rain to form sulphurous
acid; this is oxidised into dilute sulphuric acid which again corrodes metal. Near the coast
the salt in the atmosphere forms hydrochloric acid and caustic soda and severe corrosion
occurs in these areas. Engine Exhaust gases contain nitric acid and moisture which may
blow back over the aircraft. Cement dust and water on floors forms a corrosive alkaline
solution.

If these corrosive deposits are not removed and the surface protected against further action
the surface will become rough and the corrosion will deepen.

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© Copyright 2016
 Module 6.4 Corrosion 4.17
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 Pitting Corrosion
Pitting corrosion is a localized form of corrosion by which cavities or “holes” are produced in
the material. Pitting is considered to be more dangerous than uniform surface corrosion
damage because it is more difficult to detect as corrosion products often cover the pits. A
small, narrow pit with minimal overall metal loss can act as a stress riser and lead to the
failure of an entire engineering system.

Pitting corrosion can be caused by;

 Localized chemical or mechanical damage to the protective oxide film; water

chemistry factors which can cause breakdown of a passive film are acidity, low
dissolved oxygen concentrations (which tend to render a protective oxide film less
stable) and high concentrations of chloride (as in sea water)
 Localized damage to, or poor application of, a protective coating
 The presence of non-uniformities in the metal structure of the component, e.g. non-
metallic inclusions.

It may be detected by the appearance of lumps of white powder or alternatively small

depressions on the surface.

Protection from surface corrosion is normally by painting or coating.

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© Copyright 2016
 Crevice Corrosion
Crevice corrosion is the most common type found in aluminium structures. It is a localized
form of corrosion usually associated with a stagnant solution on the micro-environmental
level. Such stagnant microenvironments tend to occur in crevices (shielded areas) such as
those formed under insulation material, fastener heads, washers, surface deposits,
disbonded coatings, threads, clamps, lap joints and corners. Crevice corrosion is initiated
by changes in local chemistry within the crevice:

 Depletion of inhibitor in the crevice

 Depletion of oxygen in the crevice
 A shift to acid conditions in the crevice
 Build-up of aggressive ion species (e.g. chloride) in the crevice

A typical scenario is that the solution will absorb oxygen from the air. The liquid near the
surface will then contain more oxygen than the liquid near the bottom of the crevice. This
will produce anodic and cathodic areas in the liquid.

The anodic area is usually at the bottom of the crevice so corrosion starts there. The
corrosion products at the bottom of the crevice will increase the difference in potential in the
liquid, speeding up the corrosive action in that area.

Crevice Corrosion can sometimes be detected in structures by the bulging or 'pillowing' of

the skin between fasteners. This is caused by the build-up of corrosion products between
the plates of lap joints or between the skin and stringers or frames, and will lead to splitting
of the skin or failure of the fasteners. By the time it is visible, the corrosion has usually
progressed beyond the point at which it can be repaired and the material will have to be
replaced.

This form of corrosion may be prevented by protecting both metal joints, and joints between
metals and non-conductors, with a coating of primer and wet jointing compound or sealant

Module 6.4 Corrosion 4.19

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 prior to assembly and by use of filleting or sealing compound after assembly. All enclosed
regions in aircraft structures should be vented and drained as adequately as possible; this
also helps to prevent the accumulation of condensation and discourages the growth of
moulds and bacteria which can also cause corrosion.

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© Copyright 2016
 Intergranular Corrosion
This is also known as intercrystalline corrosion. It is usually confined to aluminium alloys
and stainless steel.

It is normally caused in the first place by incorrect heat treatment although it could be due to
the effects of heat in or on the aircraft itself. During solution heat treatment any delay
between removal of the metal from the salt bath and quenching, will allow the grains of the
metal to grow in size. This enlargement of the grains may allow areas of dissimilar metals to
provide efficient anodes and cathodes for galvanic corrosion formation. The corrosion
spreads along the grain boundaries and is accelerated if fluctuating stresses are applied.
This may cause a complete failure of the part without any external indication. Hairline
cracks or small blisters on the surface may be an indication of intergranular corrosion.

This type of corrosion is particularly dangerous because in most cases it cannot be

detected: if it is suspected, it can only be confirmed with X-ray equipment. Any part found to
have intergranular corrosion must be scrapped

Module 6.4 Corrosion 4.21

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4.22 Module 6.4 Corrosion
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© Copyright 2016
 Laminar or Exfoliation Corrosion
This is a form of intergranular corrosion that takes place in extruded or rolled metals; mostly
aluminium alloys. As the grains run in the direction of the extrusion or rolling, the corrosion
will do the same and there will be layers (laminations) of metal with corrosion between.

This corrosion will be more obvious than normal intergranular corrosion, because the
expansion caused by the corrosion will cause lifting and flaking of the surface. As with other
types of intergranular corrosion, by the time it is evident on the surface, the strength of the
metal has been greatly decreased.

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4.24 Module 6.4 Corrosion
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© Copyright 2016
 Fretting Corrosion
This corrosion takes place between two heavily loaded surfaces where there is a very small
continuous relative movement. The rubbing movement which may be very minute removes
any natural protective film and also removes particles of metal from the surface. These form
an abrasive which aggravates the effect of the rubbing action. This form of corrosion, which
can eventually cause cracking and fatigue failure, sometimes affects splined drives and
gearwheels. It may be recognised by the appearance of ‘cocoa' powder staining on steels
while on aluminium alloys and magnesium alloys a fine dark grey to black powder is
produced.

Jointing compound or sealant applied during construction will prevent fretting corrosion in
structures. Molybdenum disulphide grease is used as an anti-fretting agent in mechanisms
when approved by the manufactures of the equipment or aircraft.

Module 6.4 Corrosion 4.25

Turkish Technic Inc.
© Copyright 2016
Training Purpose Only Rev.01 – 31 March 2016
 Stress Corrosion
Stress corrosion may occur when a metal has a tensile stress applied to it and is in an
environment where corrosion is likely to occur, when neither on its own would not cause a
problem. It often occurs when an unusual load, or contaminant, is applied to a component
which performs well in a normal situation.

Stress on aircraft parts may be residual within the part as a result of the production process
or an externally applied operational loading. Press-fit bushings, interference fasteners and
severe metal forming are examples of the high residual tensile stresses which can lead to
stress cracking.

Environmental contaminants may include sea water, cleaning fluids, oils and process
chemicals.

Examples of materials and environments which do not mix under stress include:

Aluminium Hydrogen
Stainless Steel Chlorides
High Strength Steel Hydrogen

Cracks caused by stress corrosion lengthen rapidly because the corrosion takes place at
the end of the crack instead of along its sides and the loss of material intensifies stress at
this point. Crack may follow the grain deep into the item. This leads to the sudden and
unexpected failure of a component.

Stress corrosion affects not only structural components but fasteners, pipe work and
pressure vessels as well.

4.26 Module 6.4 Corrosion

Rev.01 – 31 March 2016 Training Purpose Only Turkish Technic Inc.
© Copyright 2016
 Module 6.4 Corrosion 4.27
Turkish Technic Inc.
© Copyright 2016
Training Purpose Only Rev.01 – 31 March 2016
 Filiform Corrosion
Filiform corrosion usually occurs under thin oil, grease or varnish films and is likely to be
found on metal surfaces which have a protective film. It appears like worm casts or thread
like lines of corrosion on aluminium and magnesium alloys. This type of corrosion often
starts at rivets and extends along the surface of painted sheet beneath the paint.

Filiform corrosion might also be the result of incorrect application of paint finishes especially
polyurethane paint. In order to speed up painting operations on large aircraft etch primers
are used which contain some phosphoric acid. The acid etches the surface and converts
into a phosphate film after about thirty minutes provided there is sufficient moisture present
in the air to properly convert it. If an epoxy or zinc chromate primer or a polyurethane top
coat is applied before the etch primer has properly converted then acid will be trapped
against the metal. These finishes are not sufficiently porous to allow moisture to penetrate
to complete conversion of the acid and filiform corrosion will occur.

4.28 Module 6.4 Corrosion

Rev.01 – 31 March 2016 Training Purpose Only Turkish Technic Inc.
© Copyright 2016
 Mercury Contamination
If mercury is spilled in an aircraft it will combine with aluminium alloy to form an amalgam
which has no appreciable structural strength. The mercury rapidly 'soaks' in and attacks
along the grain boundaries of the aluminium alloy particularly in moist conditions and when
the metal is under stress. The affected component may be completely destroyed. This
corrosion may be recognised on aluminium alloys by the appearance of a greyish powder
fuzzy deposit or a whiskery growth.

It is most important that all spilled mercury is retrieved and a thorough inspection of the
structure carried out.

After a spill the aircraft must not be moved and no action taken which might disturb the
mercury.

Protective clothing and rubber gloves must be worn. Care must be taken not to inhale or
swallow mercury and its vapour. The area must be well ventilated.

The mercury can be picked up using any of the following methods:

 A vacuum cleaner incorporating a mercury trap.
 A medicine dropper or rubber battery water syringe.
 A special brush with nickel plated carbon fibre bristles. This is drawn over the
contaminated area and picks up the mercury.
 A special foam pad pressed on to the mercury to absorb it.
 By pressing adhesive tape on to the small mercury globules. When the tape is
removed, the mercury is removed also.

When all the visible mercury has been collected, the area must be x-rayed to ensure that
mercury has not lodged in crevices.

Finally a film of oil should be applied to the area.

The area should be inspected for signs of corrosion at regular intervals.

Any corrosion damage must be repaired and contaminated components replaced.

Ensure that toxic vapour precautions are observed at all times during the following
operation:

 Do not move aircraft after finding spillage. This may prevent spreading.
 Remove spillage carefully by one of the following mechanical methods:
 Capillary brush method (using nickel-plated carbon fibre brushes).
 Heavy-duty vacuum with collector trap.
 Adhesive tape, pressed (carefully) onto globules may pick them up
 Foam collector pads (also pressed, carefully, onto globules).

Module 6.4 Corrosion 4.29

Turkish Technic Inc.
© Copyright 2016
Training Purpose Only Rev.01 – 31 March 2016
 Alternative, chemical methods, of mercury recovery entail the use of:
 Calcium polysulphide paste.
 Brushes, made from bare strands of fine copper wire
 Neutralise the spillage area, using ‘Flowers of Sulphur’.
 Try to remove evidence of corrosion.
 The area should be further checked, using radiography, to establish that all
globules have been removed and to check extent of corrosion damage.
 Examine area for corrosion using a magnifier. Any parts found contaminated
should be removed and replaced.

Note: Twist drills (which may be used to separate riveted panels, in an attempt to clean
contaminated surfaces) must be discarded after use.

Further, periodic checks, using radiography, will be necessary on any airframe that has
suffered mercury contamination.

4.30 Module 6.4 Corrosion

Rev.01 – 31 March 2016 Training Purpose Only Turkish Technic Inc.
© Copyright 2016
 Microbial Corrosion
Microbial (Microbiological) corrosion occurs in the integral fuel tanks of aircraft using
aviation kerosene and is caused by fungal growths such as Hormoconis resinae (previously
called Cladosporium resinae) and Pseudomonas aeruginosa. The fungus spores can
remain dormant in kerosene for extended periods and grow actively when water is present
at the correct temperature. Aviation kerosene holds more water in suspicion than gasoline
and this moisture condenses out in low temperature conditions and collects in the bottom of
the fuel tanks.

The organisms live at the water/fuel interface and feed off the hydrocarbons in the fuel. The
fungal growth becomes attached to the aircraft structure and as they grow, they form mats
that are dark in colour and appear jelly-like. Their waste includes water, sludge, acids and
other harmful by-products which attack metal structures, protective coatings and rubber
seals. Dislodged fungus can also block filters.

Water should be drained from tanks on a regular basis and aircraft which operate in a
tropical environment for prolonged periods may require an approved fungicide such as
Biobor added to their fuel. Aircraft stored in a heated hangar should have their tanks
drained or treated with biocide.

Module 6.4 Corrosion 4.31

Turkish Technic Inc.
© Copyright 2016
Training Purpose Only Rev.01 – 31 March 2016
 Hydrogen Embrittlement
Hydrogen embrittlement is a phenomena that occurs in various metals, particularly ferrous,
aluminium and titanium alloys, under sustained loads at stresses far below the actual
ultimate tensile strength. Certain stainless steels and precipitation hardened steels are not
affected.

Ferrous Alloys
In susceptible ferrous alloys hydrogen embrittlement occurs when a component containing
small amounts of hydrogen is subjected to a sustained load. Fracture of the part can occur
under loads as low as 30% of the yield strength after only a few thousand service hours.
The hydrogen will migrate to an area of stress (such as occur at notches, corrosion pits, or
other stress risers) once it is present in the metal surface. The resulting hydrogen
concentration then causes the initiation and propagation of a brittle crack.

Certain solvents and plating processes can introduce hydrogen into a part. Since only a
very thin surface layer will be affected, the hydrogen can be easily removed by a bake
operation at 375°F (191°C) as long as the part is unplated or plated with a porous finish
such as some cadmium plating. Hydrogen is also produced as a product of corrosion.
Under certain conditions, corrosion can occur without evidence of rusting. Any resultant
pitting magnifies the problem but embrittlement is impossible to detect. It is therefore
essential that an adequate protective finish be maintained on all high strength steel parts.

The stresses required for an embrittlement failure may be caused by improper processing
or installation induced residual stresses rather than service induced. The susceptibility of
steel parts to hydrogen embrittlement increases as the hardness and strength increase.
Steel parts heat treated to 200 KSI (thousands of pounds per square inch tensile strength)
and above are highly susceptible, whereas parts heat treated to 180-200 KSI are only
susceptible if they are subjected to high sustained stresses.

Titanium
The problems of hydrogen embrittlement in titanium occurs under the same situations as
they do in steel but the mechanism is different. The hydrogen can become chemically
bonded with the titanium and cannot be baked from the part without resorting to extremely
high temperatures in a vacuum.

Hydrogen embrittlement of titanium can occur on contact with acids at room temperature or
when exposed to steam, oil or other substances containing hydrogen at temperatures
above 550°F ( 288°C).

When introduced into the titanium, hydrogen collects at high stress areas. If this is residual
stress (as caused by bending, forming or welding) a stress relief operation should be done.
This is done at 975°F ( 524°C) for approximately 6 hours. The hydrogen embrittlement of
titanium will cause delayed cracking and a reduction in notch tensile and impact properties.

Hydrogen pick-up can be avoided by using non-embrittling solutions during any wet
processing and by using protective coatings when subjecting the parts to high temperature
processing in a hydrogen containing environment.

4.32 Module 6.4 Corrosion

Rev.01 – 31 March 2016 Training Purpose Only Turkish Technic Inc.
© Copyright 2016
 Tetrachloroethylene, carbontetrachloride, and other chlorinated solvents must not be used
with titanium if the part will subsequently be exposed to either processing or service
imposed temperature in excess of 550°F (288°C).

Corrosion Fatigue
Corrosion fatigue is fatigue in a corrosive environment. It is the combined effect of corrosion
and fatigue, which can cause failure of a structural component far quicker than either of
those components if they were working alone. It is the mechanical degradation of a material
under the joint action of corrosion and cyclic loading. Nearly all engineering structures
experience some form of alternating stress and are exposed to harmful environments
during their service life. The environment plays a significant role in the fatigue of high
strength structural materials like steels, aluminium alloys and titanium alloys. Materials with
high specific strength are being developed to meet the requirements of advancing
technology. However, their usefulness depends to a large extent on the extent to which
they resist corrosion fatigue.

The photo above shows a propeller blade – broken by corrosion fatigue. Evidence is the
classic ‘beach marks’ of the fatigue crack propagation, and the staining of corrosion

In normal fatigue testing of smooth specimens, about 90% of the life is spent in crack
nucleation and only the remaining 10 % in crack propagation. However, in corrosion fatigue,
crack nucleation is facilitated by corrosion and typically about 10 % of life is sufficient for
this stage. The rest, 90 % of life is spent in crack propagation. Thus it is much more
informative to evaluate the crack propagation behaviour during corrosion fatigue.

Module 6.4 Corrosion 4.33

Turkish Technic Inc.
© Copyright 2016
Training Purpose Only Rev.01 – 31 March 2016
 Common Metals and Corrosion Products
One of the problems involved in corrosion control, is the recognition of corrosion products
whenever they occur. The following brief descriptions are of typical corrosion products,
common to materials used in aircraft construction.

Iron and Steel

The most common, and easily-recognizable, form of corrosion is red rust. The initial oxide
film, formed on freshly exposed steel, is very thin and invisible. In the presence of water, or
in a damp atmosphere, especially if sulphur dioxide (industrial atmosphere) or salt (marine
environment) is present, thick layers of hydrated oxide develop. These layers vary in colour
from brown to black. Rust promotes further corrosion by retaining salts and water. Mill scale
(a type of oxide formed at high temperatures), also promotes rusting, by forming an
electrolytic cell with the underlying steel. Heavy deposits of rust can be removed only by
abrasive blasting or by immersion in rust-removing solutions.

Surface rust can develop on steel nuts, bolts and other fasteners and may not adversely
affect the operational integrity of the equipment. Its appearance is an indication that
adequate maintenance procedures have not been followed.

Aluminium Alloys
The corrosion of aluminium and its alloys, takes a number of different forms. It may vary
from general etching of the surface, to the localized, intergranular-attack, characteristics of
some strong alloys in certain states of heat-treatment. The corrosion products are white to
grey and are powdery when dry. Superficial corrosion can be removed by scouring, light
abrasive blasting, or by chemical methods.

In general, pure aluminium sheet and ‘Alclad’ surfaces have good corrosion resistance,
except in marine environments. In these areas, aluminium and its alloys need protection
and high-strength aluminium alloys are always given a substantial protective treatment.

Magnesium Alloys
Magnesium corrosion products are white and
voluminous, compared to the base metal. When the
failure of protective coatings on magnesium alloys
occurs, the corrosive attack tends to be severe in the
exposed areas, and may penetrate totally through a
magnesium structure in a very short time. Any corrosion,
on magnesium alloys, therefore requires prompt
attention. In contrast to high-strength aluminium alloys,
the strong magnesium alloys, used in aircraft, do not
suffer intergranular attack. Corrosion is readily visible on
the surfaces of Magnesium Alloys.

4.34 Module 6.4 Corrosion

Rev.01 – 31 March 2016 Training Purpose Only Turkish Technic Inc.
© Copyright 2016
 Titanium
Titanium is highly corrosion-resistant, but should be insulated from other metals to avoid
dissimilar metal corrosion of the adjacent material. Titanium alloys can suffer stress
corrosion at temperatures above 300C when in the presence of salt and fatigue cracks can
develop more quickly in a saline atmosphere.

Cadmium can penetrate the surface of titanium alloys and embrittle them at all
temperatures above ambient (as can Lead, Tin and Zinc at temperatures higher than
approximately 120°C). Embrittlement can occur if the cadmium is plated onto the titanium or
if cadmium-plated steel parts (and cadmium-contaminated spanners) are used with
titanium. Great care must be taken to ensure that these conditions never occur if at all
possible.

Copper Alloys

Copper and its alloys are relatively resistant to

corrosion. Tarnishing has no serious consequences in
most applications (apart from electrical resistance
increase). Long-term exposure to industrial or marine
atmospheres gives rise to the formation of the blue-
green patina (aerugo or verdigris) on copper surfaces,
while brasses can suffer selective removal of zinc (de-
zincification). In aircraft construction, copper-based
alloys are frequently cadmium-plated, to prevent
dissimilar metal corrosion.

The corrosion on copper is green in colour and often

called “verdigris”

Cadmium and Zinc

Cadmium and zinc are used as coatings, to protect the parts to which they are applied.
Both confer sacrificial protection on the underlying metal. Cadmium is normally chosen for
use in the aircraft industry, as it is more durable under severe corrosive conditions such as
in marine and tropical environments. Both metals produce white corrosion products.

Nickel and Chromium

Electroplated nickel is used as a heat-resistant coating, while chromium is used for its wear-
resistance. Both metals protect steel only by excluding the corrosive atmosphere. The
degree of protection is proportional to the thickness of the coating. Once the underlying
steel is exposed (through loss of the coating, due to abrasion or other damage), then the
coatings actually accelerate the rusting, due to the fact that the steel is more anodic than
the protective coating.

Chromium is also highly resistant to corrosion, whilst Nickel corrodes slowly in industrial
and marine atmospheres, to give a blue-green corrosion product.

Module 6.4 Corrosion 4.35

Turkish Technic Inc.
© Copyright 2016
Training Purpose Only Rev.01 – 31 March 2016
 Acid Spillage
An acid spillage, on aircraft components, can cause severe damage. Acids will corrode
most metals used in the construction of aircraft. They will also destroy wood and most other
fabrics. Correct Health and Safety procedures must be followed when working with such
spillages.

Aircraft batteries, of the lead/acid type, give off acidic fumes and battery bays should be
well ventilated, while surfaces in the area should be treated with anti-acid paint. Vigilance is
required of everyone working in the vicinity of batteries, to detect (as early as possible) the
signs of acid spillage. The correct procedure to be taken, in the event of an acid spillage, is
as follows:
 Mop up as much of the spilled acid using wet rags or paper wipes. Try not to
spread the acid.
 If possible, flood the area with large quantities of clean water, taking care that
electrical equipment is suitably protected from the water.
 If flooding is not practical, neutralise the area with a 10% (by weight) solution of
bicarbonate of soda (sodium bicarbonate) with water.
 Wash the area using this mixture and rinse with cold water.
 Test the area, using universal indicating paper (or litmus paper),to check if acid has
been cleaned up.
 Dry the area completely and examine the area for signs of damaged paint or plated
finish and signs of corrosion, especially where the paint may have been damaged.
 Remove corrosion, repair damage and restore surface protection as appropriate.

Alkali Spillage
This is most likely to occur from the alternative Nickel-Cadmium (Ni-Cd) or Nickel-Iron (Ni-
Fe) type of batteries, containing an electrolyte of Potassium Hydroxide (or Potassium
Hydrate). The compartments of these batteries should also be painted with anti-corrosive
paint and adequate ventilation is as important as with the lead/acid type of batteries. Proper
Health and Safety procedures are, again, imperative.

Removal of the alkali spillage, and subsequent protective treatment, follows the same basic
steps as outlined in acid spillage, with the exception that the alkali is neutralised with a
solution of 5% (by weight) of chromic acid crystals in water.

4.36 Module 6.4 Corrosion

Rev.01 – 31 March 2016 Training Purpose Only Turkish Technic Inc.
© Copyright 2016
 Protection of Metal from Corrosion
There are three basic methods of protecting metal from corrosion:

 To convert the surface by either chemical or electrolytic methods to produce a

corrosion resistant coating.
 To coat the surface with a metal that will not corrode or is more resistant to corrosion
than the base metal.
 To coat or paint the surface with a non-metallic substance to produce a protective
skin.

Before any protective treatment can be carried out, components or parts must be
thoroughly cleaned and degreased. This is normally done by one of the following:

 A trichloroethylene vapour bath.

 A mixture of equal proportions of white spirit and naphtha.
 An approved degreasing agent.

Module 6.4 Corrosion 4.37

Turkish Technic Inc.
© Copyright 2016
Training Purpose Only Rev.01 – 31 March 2016
 Anodizing
Aluminium alloy fittings made by casting or forging are normally protected from corrosion by
anodising. This is known as a surface conversion treatment.

In electrolysis a DC current is passed through an electrolyte between two plates or

electrodes. The positive plate is termed the anode and the negative plate the cathode. The
chemical effect of the current causes oxygen to be liberated at the anode and hydrogen to
be released at the cathode.

In the case of anodising, splitting of the electrolyte into hydrogen and oxygen is important.
The part to be anodised is suspended in an electrolyte and made the anode of the electrical
circuit which will also have a cathode. Hydrogen forms at the cathode but the oxygen, which
forms at the anode, actually combines with the surface of the part being anodised, to form a
continuous film consisting mainly of aluminium oxide. In other words a controlled corrosion
takes place on the surface of the part and the aluminium oxide surface will have a high
resistance to further corrosion. As the aluminium oxide is also an insulator, no current can
flow between an anodised part and a contacting surface, so galvanic corrosion is resisted.

4.38 Module 6.4 Corrosion

Rev.01 – 31 March 2016 Training Purpose Only Turkish Technic Inc.
© Copyright 2016
 The Chromic Acid Anodising Process
Anodising conveniently divides into 3 major areas:

Chromic Acid Anodising - Produces coatings of exceptional corrosion and chemical

resistance for its film thickness in an electrolyte, which is non-corrosive towards aluminium.
These coatings are thin, and relatively soft and generally only used in specialised
applications.

Sulphuric Acid Anodising - Embraces anything from heavy duty black dyed coatings for
high-tech instruments to cheap coloured ashtrays, expected to last in a pub for a few
weeks. It also includes architectural anodising primarily for protecting aluminium window
frames etc. from the elements. The natural colour of these films is light grey; other colours
are achieved by dyeing the film.

Hard Anodising - Is a branch of sulphuric acid anodising where process conditions have
been pushed in a certain direction to achieve significantly harder, thicker, denser films.
Applications involve resistance to wear, corrosion, temperature effects etc.

Module 6.4 Corrosion 4.39

Turkish Technic Inc.
© Copyright 2016
Training Purpose Only Rev.01 – 31 March 2016
 The chromic acid process provides a coating of aluminium oxide 0.0001 inches thick. It is
also known as the Type 2 anodising process. Basic details of the process are shown in the
illustration. Separate mild steel or stainless steel plates can be used as cathodes instead of
the bath.

The DC supply voltage must be controlled as shown in the graph. Initially the current may
be up to 10 amps per square foot of anode area, but drops to about 3 to 4 amps per square
foot during processing.

After anodising, the parts must be thoroughly rinsed in cold water. The porous anodic
coating is then sealed by immersing for ten minutes in water at a temperature not less than
96°C.

The chromic acid process will show up any flaws or cracks through the appearance of
yellow stains on the surface of the part after washing but before sealing.

4.40 Module 6.4 Corrosion

Rev.01 – 31 March 2016 Training Purpose Only Turkish Technic Inc.
© Copyright 2016
 The Sulphuric and Anodising Process
The sulphuric acid process, also known as the Type l anodising process, provides a coating
of aluminium oxide 0.0003 to 0.0005 inches thick.

The basic details of this process are shown in the illustration.

The bath may be lined with rubber but a ceramic bath is also suitable. If the bath is rubber
lined or ceramic, lead or aluminium plates can be used as the cathode.

Suspension wires, hooks etc. should be made of aluminium or titanium.

The bath should be operated at between 15 and 18 volts and the current should be 12 to 15
amps per square foot of anode area. The process normally takes thirty minutes.

After anodising, the parts are rinsed in cold water. The aluminium oxide coating is then
sealed by immersing the part in a solution of 70 to 100 grams of potassium or sodium
dichromate plus 18 grams of sodium carbonate per litre of water for 5 to 10 minutes at a
temperature, not less than 96°C.

If the anodic coating is required to be coloured for identification or decorative purposes, the
parts are immersed in a dye solution before final sealing. Both Type 1 and Type 2 coatings
may be dyed.

Module 6.4 Corrosion 4.41

Turkish Technic Inc.
© Copyright 2016
Training Purpose Only Rev.01 – 31 March 2016
 The Hard Anodising Process
The hard anodising process, also known as the Type 3 anodising process provides a
harder thicker coating which has greater resistance to abrasion, corrosion and electrical
breakdown. Coatings up to 0.003 inches thick can be produced. The treatment reduces the
fatigue strength of the part but this can be partially restored by the sealing process.

The process is similar to the sulphuric acid anodising process. Low concentrations of
sulphuric acid are used with electrolyte temperatures between -5 and +5°C. Higher currents
and voltages are also used. A low temperature on the surface of the part is achieved by
cooling the electrolyte outside the bath then directing the flow of cooled electrolyte on to the
part being treated. Hard anodising is often applied to limited areas of aluminium alloy items
which have been previously anodised using the chromic acid process, the areas to be hard
anodised having been masked off with a lacquer.

Checks After Anodising

All parts must be examined visually. All other tests specified shall be applied to 2 percent of
all parts anodised with a minimum of one part per anodising batch. A number of tests are
specified and two examples are given:

 Apply methyl violet dye to a test piece before sealing. There should be no
appreciable loss of colour when rubbed vigorously with a damp cloth. The same test
repeated on any of the parts after sealing should result in every trace of the dye
being removed.

 The insulating properties of the anodic coating may be checked using a 60 volt dry
cell battery connected to a spring clip and a ¼ inch diameter metal ball. A voltmeter
is also connected into the circuit. One lead is clipped to the part in order to penetrate
the anodic film. The other lead with the ball end is moved over the surface, the
voltmeter should maintain its reading of 60 volts if the coating is satisfactory.

NOTE Due to the danger to health from inhaling fumes from an anodic oxidation plant,
suitable fume extractors are usually necessary. Protective clothing including rubber gloves,
aprons and boots are also required.

4.42 Module 6.4 Corrosion

Rev.01 – 31 March 2016 Training Purpose Only Turkish Technic Inc.
© Copyright 2016
 Chemical Treatments
These are proprietary non-electrolytic dip treatments. Basically they are all the same and
require immersion of the parts for a specific period of time in a bath containing a special
chemical solution, followed by washing. This forms a hard, non-porous oxide film, providing
protection from corrosion.

Examples of proprietary treatments given in DTD 900 are as follows:

 Alocrom 1000
 Alocrom 1200
 Alodine
 Walterisation ‘L’ Process
 Alaclene 300
 Bonderite 710
 Tridure ‘Al’ Process
 Alchromate process
 Kenvert 40

The colour of the films produced varies from yellow to golden to brown except alocrom
1000 which gives a clear (slight blue/green) finish.

The basic Alocrom process requires degreasing and thorough cleaning of the component
(solvent residue will affect the finish). Slight abrasion or a dip in deoxidising bath (Deoxidine
or similar) may be required.

The component must then be immersed in a freshly made solution Alocrom. The immersion
period depends on the strength and freshness of the solution but will normally be in the
range of 2-10 minutes. The finish should be pale golden and iridescent in appearance. A
brown finish indicates over-treatment which can weaken the metal.

The component must be thoroughly flushed with clean water and a brush to remove all
solution. Alocrom contains a cocktail of acids which will continue to convert the aluminium
and reduce its strength if not removed. The surface is delicate when wet and should be air
dried or gently padded dry, not rubbed.

Once dried, the surface produced is a hard nonporous oxide film which may then be primed
and painted.

Alocrom may be applied by brush to flat surfaces or by wet paper method to angled
surfaces in-situ. In both cases the area must be kept moist with solution during the
treatment period. Great care must be taken to ensure that surrounding structures are not
contaminated with solution, particularly joints and crevices. Washing must be as stringent
as for dipped components.

As Alocrom decomposes it gives off a variety of toxic gasses including cyanide. It should
therefore be used in a well-ventilated area. It is also a strong oxidising agent and when it
dries on organic material (such as paper towels and cloths) there is a risk of spontaneous

Module 6.4 Corrosion 4.43

Turkish Technic Inc.
© Copyright 2016
Training Purpose Only Rev.01 – 31 March 2016
 combustion. These materials as well as the solution itself must be disposed of in the
approved manner.

Passivation
Certain Alloy Steels, Corrosion Resistant Steels (CRES) and Stainless Steels can have
their corrosion resistance enhanced by Passivation.

This is a process that produces a chemically passive layer at the surface of the alloy by
removing the exogenous ("growing outside") iron or iron compounds from the surface of the
steel by means of a chemical dissolution. The "free iron" is dissolved in a solution usually
composed of nitric acid which also produced a thin transparent oxide film further protecting
the metal.

The solution strength, exposure time and temperature are determined by the specific alloy
being treated and the wrong treatment can have a detrimental effect on the metal.

4.44 Module 6.4 Corrosion

Rev.01 – 31 March 2016 Training Purpose Only Turkish Technic Inc.
© Copyright 2016
 Metal Coating
The production of a metal coating may be achieved by several methods. Which one is
chosen depends on the metal to be protected, its form, the environment in which it will be
used and the level of protection required.

Cladding
Aluminium alloy in sheet form is usually protected from corrosion by cladding with pure
aluminium. Thin aluminium layers are rolled on to each side of the aluminium alloy. The
aluminium adds 5% to the thickness of the sheet.

The most commonly used aluminium alloys in aviation contain copper and/or zinc along
with other metals. This gives the material superior strength but also makes it more
susceptible to galvanic corrosion. The pure aluminium cladding protects against corrosion.
The aluminium is anodic to the aluminium alloy and therefore gives sacrificial protection,
even to the cut edges and where holes are drilled. The pure aluminium also forms its own
oxide coating which excludes oxygen and gives added protection.

Module 6.4 Corrosion 4.45

Turkish Technic Inc.
© Copyright 2016
Training Purpose Only Rev.01 – 31 March 2016
 Metal Spraying
Metallic coatings of aluminium, zinc, tin, copper, lead, brass, bronze and many others may
be applied by a Metal or Flame Spraying process which uses the metal in wire form. The
wire is drawn through the gun and nozzle by a pair of powered feed rolls. Here the wire is
continually melted in the oxygen propane or acetylene flame and atomised by a
compressed air blast which carries the metal particles to the previously prepared surface.
No alloying occurs and the surface should be clean and preferably roughened. There are
two processes:

 METALLISING - where 0.003 in to 0.005 ins (0.076 to O.13mm) of zinc of aluminium

is required. See BS 2569 Part 1.

 ALUMINISING - Where a minimum coating of 0.007 in (0.178 mm) of aluminium

alloy only, is required. See BS 2569 Part 2.

Note: Metal Spraying can be used to produce a conductive coating on non-metallic surfaces
such as GRP panels used as antenna.

4.46 Module 6.4 Corrosion

Rev.01 – 31 March 2016 Training Purpose Only Turkish Technic Inc.
© Copyright 2016
 Electroplating
The most common method used to protect steels is electroplating. Metallic coatings
produced by electroplating fall into two classes:

Coatings less noble than the metal to which they are applied e.g. cadmium or zinc on
steel. The coating surface oxidises and forms a protective skin around the basic metal but if
it fails it will give sacrificial protection to the basic metal. The coating is anodic to the basic
metal and if the basic metal is exposed a current will flow from the anodic to the cathodic
metal and the coating will corrode eventually leaving the basic metal open to corrosive
attack.

Module 6.4 Corrosion 4.47

Turkish Technic Inc.
© Copyright 2016
Training Purpose Only Rev.01 – 31 March 2016
 Coatings more noble than the metal to which they are applied e.g. nickel or chromium
on steel. These metals do not easily corrode in air or water, are resistant to attack by acids
and provide a tough protective skin around the part. However, as the base metal is anodic
to the coating it will corrode locally by electro-chemical action if the coating is broken,
resulting in pitting corrosion. The products of corrosion may eventually lift the coating
locally.

Sometimes chromium or nickel plating is used for restoring worn parts by building up lost
material and not primarily to give protection from corrosion.

The basic principle of electroplating is to make the part to be plated the cathode of an
electrical circuit and the plating metal the anode while both are immersed in a suitable
electrolyte. Salts of the plating metal are added to the electrolyte partly to ensure that the
minimum quantity of gas is emitted while the maximum effect is obtained in depositing the
metal. The DC current flows from the anode to the cathode and causes metal from the
electrolyte to be deposited on to the part (cathode) while the anode (plating metal) slowly
dissolves to maintain the metal content of the electrolyte. In some cases, as in chromium
plating, an insoluble anode may be used, the chromium is provided by the electrolyte itself.

During electroplating the electrolyte must be agitated to prevent hydrogen bubbles clinging
to the parts; this would make the plating brittle.

The time required for electroplating depends upon the type of plating and on the thickness
required. On completion, the parts must be thoroughly washed in clean water then dried.

There are two methods of electroplating:

The Bath or Vat Method

The bath or vat method is used for electroplating larger parts and is illustrated below left.

4.48 Module 6.4 Corrosion

Rev.01 – 31 March 2016 Training Purpose Only Turkish Technic Inc.
© Copyright 2016
 The Barrel Method
The barrel method is used for small parts. The current flows from the plating metal on the
anode rod, through the electrolyte to the parts and finally to the cathode wire suspended
from the centre of the anode rod. The barrel is made of a material that will not be plated.

One of the main advantages of this method of plating is that because the barrel is slowly
rotating the small parts are subjected to a slight continuous burnishing action which
produces a smooth finish.

Removal of Hydrogen Embrittlement

All plated steel parts having a tensile strength in excess of l004N/mm2 (65 tons sq. in) must
be baked as soon as practicable after plating to remove hydrogen embrittlement. This is
usually done at a temperature of between 130°C and 200°C The time require varies
according to temperature, the lower the temperature the longer the time. Details are given
in the appropriate plating specification.

Module 6.4 Corrosion 4.49

Turkish Technic Inc.
© Copyright 2016
Training Purpose Only Rev.01 – 31 March 2016
 Partial Plating
If a component or part is required to be left unplated over a particular area e.g. the unplated
shank of a close tolerance bolt, one of the following methods may be employed:

A special wax is heated and brushed on to the area to be left unplated then allowed to cool
and solidify. Plating is then carried out in the normal way and afterwards the wax is peeled
off.

A special lacquer is brushed on to the area to be left unplated and allowed to dry. After
plating in the normal way the lacquer can be peeled off.

The area to be left unplated is masked with lead foil and covered with adhesive vinyl tape
which is then varnished. The masking can be removed after plating in the normal way.

The part can be plated all over then the plating not required can be removed during the final
machine operation.

Re-plating Local Areas (Dalic Process)

Local repairs to damaged metallic plating, and the deposition of metals where accessibility
is limited, can be carried out by a specialised plating process without immersion in a plating
bath. The part to be plated is made the cathode by connecting it to the DC supply of the
special power unit. The electrolyte is brushed over the metal surface using an absorbent
pad attached to the end of a graphite anode. The manufacturer of the parts must approve
the use of this equipment and recommended plating solutions and currents should always
be used.

Cadmium, copper, zinc and tin can be deposited very rapidly by this method.

4.50 Module 6.4 Corrosion

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© Copyright 2016
 Checking the Serviceability and Thickness of Electroplating
There are various methods of testing the effectiveness of plated coatings, some which are
destructive and must be done on a test piece, and others which may be done to production
item. They are too numerous to detail in full but some of the more common ones are listed
here.

Corrosion resistance can only be really tested by exposure to a corrosive environment.

The Copper-Accelerated Acetic Acid-Salt Spray (CASS) test method exposes a test piece
to a strong corrosive agent in fine mist form for accelerated testing which must be resisted
for a set period.

Thickness measurement may be done in a number of ways. One very accurate, but
destructive, method is the use of coulometry, the measurement of the number of coulombs
and time required to deplete the coating by electrolysis.

Module 6.4 Corrosion 4.51

Turkish Technic Inc.
© Copyright 2016
Training Purpose Only Rev.01 – 31 March 2016
 The BNF jet test may be used to check the thickness of electroplated coatings. In this test a
corrosive chemical solution is allowed to fall from a calibrated jet on to a test piece. The
time taken to penetrate the plating is noted together with the temperature of the solution,
and the thickness of the plating calculated from these figures.

X-ray Fluorescence Spectrometry (XRF) is a very accurate non-destructive method of

thickness determination but is of limited portability. It may also be used to determine the
composition and purity of the plating material.

Hand portable non-destructive thickness testers are less accurate and may use
electromagnetic induction to measure non-magnetic coatings on ferrous metals and eddy
current principles on non-ferrous metals.

The adhesion of the plating may also be determined by a number of potentially destructive
methods.

A simple method involves rubbing an area of one square inch for 15 seconds with the
smooth edge of a copper coin. If no lifting of the plating is noted the adhesion is
satisfactory.

Special high adhesion tape is available. This is stuck on the part being tested then pulled
rapidly off. If the plating remains intact it is considered serviceable.

Wet and dry thermal tests may be carried out where the work piece is heated to a
predetermined temperature, heat soaked then cooled rapidly. Inspection will reveal any
disbond between the coating and the substrate.

Other tests which may be required include;

 Abrasion/Wear Resistance
 Chip Resistance
 Coefficient of Friction
 Solvent Resistance
 Impact Testing
 Plating/Coating Hardness
 Plating/Coating Contamination Analysis
 Peel Testing
 Coating Weight

4.52 Module 6.4 Corrosion

Rev.01 – 31 March 2016 Training Purpose Only Turkish Technic Inc.
© Copyright 2016
 Other Coatings

Chromate Passivation
Chromate passivation reduces corrosion (“white rusting”) of cadmium and zinc, particularly
under humid conditions. It also improves the adherence of paint to cadmium. The process
consists of immersing the part for 5 to 10 seconds in a solution of 200 grams of sodium
dichromate and 6.6 millilitres of sulphuric acid in 1 litre of water at room temperature. This
gives the parts their characteristic golden appearance. The process is described in
specification DEF 130.

Hot Dipping
This treatment consists of dipping the steel to be coated into another molten metal and then
removing it. Zinc is normally used, the process being called 'Galvanising'. Tin can also be
used to coat steel sheet producing 'Tinplate'. Clean mild steel sheets are passed through
squeeze rolls to remove the surplus tin. Steel sheet coated in a lead/tin alloy is known as
'Terneplate'.

Cementation Process
In each of the following methods the steel parts are heated in a rotating drum surrounded
by powdered metal when alloying of the two metals occurs.

Sheradising
A uniform coating of zinc is formed by heating the component in zinc dust at about 370
degrees C for 3 to 12 hours. A coating thickness of 0.06 mm is obtained. See BS 492l.

Calorising
A layer of an iron aluminium alloy 0.62mm to 0.75mm in thickness is obtained by heating
mild steel in powdered aluminium at 850 degrees C to 1000 degrees C. Calorised steel has
good resistance to oxidation at high temperature.

Phosphating
This process consists of heating the parts to be treated in a bath of dilute iron phosphate.
The bath is heated to about 90 degrees C by steam coils. When the parts are immersed in
the bath, a rapid stream of bubbles occurs for a period of 30 to 45 minutes. When the
bubbling stops the coating process is complete. The parts are removed from the bath and
thoroughly washed. The treatment converts the surface of the part into a crystalline
structure which is porous and must be protected by the application of paint or other
specified protective.

There are a number of different phosphating processes, e.g. 'Parkerising', 'Granodising' and
'Walterising'. The colour produced varies from grey to black.

Parko Lubrizing
This is a chemical treatment applicable to iron and steel parts which converts the surface
into a non-metallic oil absorptive phosphate coating. It is designed primarily to reduce wear
on moving parts.

Module 6.4 Corrosion 4.53

Turkish Technic Inc.
© Copyright 2016
Training Purpose Only Rev.01 – 31 March 2016
 Painting
The primary reason for painting an aircraft is to protect the skin and structure from
corrosion. Paint does this by excluding air and liquids from contact with the bare metal.
Primer provides a supply of chromate which inhibits corrosive action on the metal surface.
The top coat of paint provides an abrasion and fluid resisting cover to the primer and also
the decorative finish.

Painting Materials
Painting is carried out in accordance with a scheme. Painting schemes may be in
accordance with British Standards, DTD, DEF or may be prepared by a manufacturer.
Primers, filler coats and finishing coats may be made from different materials.

Paint may be applied by conventional spray gun, airless spray gun, dipping, brushing and
by means of a roller.

Primers
The main purpose of a primer coat is to provide adhesion to the metal surface. If a standard
primer is used, the surface must not only be cleaned and degreased, it must also be etched
by mechanical or chemical means before the primer is applied. Alclad surfaces are only
etched using chemical methods. Anodised and chemically treated surfaces do not require
etching before the application of paint.

There are four main types of primers - synthetic, stoving, etch and epoxy.

Synthetic and stoving primers are very similar. They contain chromates and produce a
thick coating but their resistance to the fluids used in modern aircraft is not very good.

Etch primers differ in that they contain phosphoric acid and have very good adhesion on
untreated sheet metals. Primers can often be applied directly to aluminium and its alloys
without any pre-treatment other than cleaning but Alclad must be etched prior to the
application of these primers.

This may be done using Deoxidine 202, which removes any residual oils and grease and
lightly etches the surface of the metal.

Approved solvents are used to remove any obvious oils and greases. Deoxidine 202 paste
is then brushed over the surface and left for 15 to 20 minutes. The Deoxidine dries and can
be removed by washing with clean water and a sponge. A clean dry air blast is then used to
dry the surface which is now chemically clean and microscopically etched. Etch primer
should now be applied as soon as possible.

Epoxy primers are supplied in two containers, the contents of which must be mixed before
use. They have a very good resistance to the fluids used in modern aircraft e.g. ester based
hydraulic fluids and synthetic lubricants used in gas turbine engines. They provide
maximum resistance to corrosion, may also be used as a primer in stove enamel paint
schemes and are frequently used under polyurethane finishes.

4.54 Module 6.4 Corrosion

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© Copyright 2016
 Finishes
There are six main finishes available, cellulose, synthetic, stoving enamel, acrylic, epoxy
and polyurethane.

Cellulose and synthetic finishes were widely used in the past, mainly because they are
easily applied, polished and repaired. Both have good adhesion and weathering properties
but are not resistant to the fluids used in modern aircraft. Synthetic paint may be applied if
necessary on top of cellulose paint. Epoxy paint applied on cellulose or synthetic paint will
cause the existing finish to wrinkle or blister.

Stoving enamels generally have a high resistance to abrasion and are used for engine and
airframe internal components which are not adversely affected by the stoving temperature.

There are two stoving schemes currently in use:

DTD 56 - The parts are sprayed, dipped or brushed with an enamel paint which is
allowed to dry and then heated for 2 hours at a temperature not exceeding
170°C in a stove or oven. Another coat of enamel is then applied and again
heated for 2 hours.

BSX 31 - This is similar to the above except that the first coat is a primer instead of
enamel and the temperature must not exceed 125 °C

Acrylic paint has a good resistance to high temperatures, but has poor resistance to the
fluids used in modern aircraft. It dries rapidly and is a single pack material. It is easy to strip
when required.

Epoxy paint relies on a chemical reaction for curing and is supplied in twin pack form. It
produces a hard glossy surface, and is resistant to aircraft fluids and acids. Its weathering
properties are poor from the appearance point of view and tends to ‘chalk’ or dull quickly. It
is difficult to strip off.

Polyurethane paint is supplied in twin pack form. It dries to a hard glossy finish often
referred to as the ‘wet look’ and has good weathering properties and resistance to fluids
used in modern aircraft. It is however very toxic during spraying.

Notes on Painting
While some finishes are known as paints others may be called enamels varnishes or
lacquers.

An enamel, like paint, cures by the conversion of some of its solvents, by heat, oxidation or
by catalytic action. An enamel however is usually a heat resisting finish.

A lacquer is a finish which cures by the evaporation of its solvents and one which can
always be put back into its original condition by the use of thinners.

Module 6.4 Corrosion 4.55

Turkish Technic Inc.
© Copyright 2016
Training Purpose Only Rev.01 – 31 March 2016
 A varnish is generally a clear finish which cures by oxidation rather than by evaporation of
its solvents. It usually produces a tough water resistant film which is not softened by the
solvents used in the varnish.

Aircraft battery compartments are sometimes painted with an acid/ alkaline resisting black
bituminous paint to specification DEF 1402.

Provided paints are stored in their original sealed containers, the storage life is normally 12
months in the United Kingdom but this might be reduced to 6 months in tropical conditions.

Paint Stripping
When refinishing an aircraft the original paint is stripped back to the bare metal. Approved
proprietary paint strippers are available for removing particular types of paint. Epoxy and
polyurethane paints are the most difficult to remove.

It is most important to use the paint stripper approved by the manufacturer in the specified
manner because most paint strippers are caustic and:

 May have an adverse effect on structural bonding adhesives.

 May damage sealants, plastics and composite materials.
 May cause hydrogen embrittlement of steels having a tensile strength in excess of
1004 Newtons per square millimetre. (65 tons/in2)
 May cause severe chemical burns to the skin

Care must be taken when masking components. Vents and drains should be plugged to
prevent the entry of paint stripper, washing water and paint particles.

The paint stripper should be applied carefully to the surface of the paint and left until the
paint has softened. Remember it may run or drip onto those working below. When the paint
has softened, it can be removed with a scraper. Residue should be washed off with water.
A short bristled nylon brush can be used to remove residue from seams and crevices. It
may be necessary to apply the paint remover a second time.

Softened paint must be removed from piano hinges, control rod bearings and other moving
parts. After the surface has been washed, it should be wiped with a cloth soaked in solvent,
to remove any traces of paint.

Where an epoxy primer has been used, the top coat may be stripped off leaving the primer
intact. After removal of the top coat the primer should be washed with solvent to remove
any contaminants.

WARNING: DO NOT BREATH THE VAPORS OF THE CAUSTIC STRIPPER. DO NOT

GET IT IN YOUR EYES, ON YOUR SKIN, OR ON YOUR CLOTHES. SERIOUS INJURY
TO PERSONS CAN OCCUR.

4.56 Module 6.4 Corrosion

Rev.01 – 31 March 2016 Training Purpose Only Turkish Technic Inc.
© Copyright 2016
 Paint Shop Safety
The following precautions are to be observed in paint shops:

 The paint shop must be well ventilated with temperature and humidity controls.
 Barrier cream should be applied to all exposed skin.
 A full face mask with an independent air supply should be used when spraying paints
and solvents.
 Avoid splashing paint and painting materials on to the skin or into the eyes.
 Wear goggles, PVC gloves, protective clothing and suitable breathing apparatus
when using paint strippers.
 Ensure areas where paint stripper is applied are cordoned off to prevent accidental
exposure.
 Ensure all masking and blanking is removed after painting, especially from
pitot/static vents and probes, and drains.

Module 6.4 Corrosion 4.57

Turkish Technic Inc.
© Copyright 2016
Training Purpose Only Rev.01 – 31 March 2016
 Corrosion Inhibiting Compounds
Various corrosion inhibiting compounds (CICs) are used for both temporary protection in
storage and additional protection in service, in problem areas and harsh environments.
They are usually in the form of a waxy organic compound suspended in a solvent carrier.
This allows them to penetrate joints and crevices before the solvent evaporates leaving a
viscous coating. Some dry to a tack free lacquer like finish.

They may be applied by brush, pump spray or aerosol and must only be used in
accordance with the manufacturer’s instructions.

Typical areas treated include:

 Freight holds and bilge areas

 Undercarriage bays and wheel wells
 Unpressurised fuselage areas
 Bulkheads and pressure decks
 Floor structure below galleys and toilets
 Structure around entry doors and hatches
 Wing dry bays
 Wing leading and trailing edge cavities
 Stabiliser in spar areas.

These areas will be periodically reprotected in accordance with the maintenance schedule
or as required.

Examples of CICs used include:

 Dinotrol AV8, AV30 etc.

 LPS 3, LPS 4 etc.
 Astrolan 31, 32 etc.

As with all solvent based and spray applied chemicals, correct protective clothing and
procedures must be used at all times. Extreme care must be taken when spraying in
enclosed spaces.

4.58 Module 6.4 Corrosion

Rev.01 – 31 March 2016 Training Purpose Only Turkish Technic Inc.
© Copyright 2016
 Module 6.4 Corrosion 4.59
Turkish Technic Inc.
© Copyright 2016
Training Purpose Only Rev.01 – 31 March 2016
 Protection Philosophy
The following is a description of the protection philosophy applied by Boeing during airframe
manufacture. The numbers preceded with 'BAC' are Boeing Airplane Company process
specifications, those preceded by 'BMS' are Boeing Material Specifications. The italic
references are brand names or descriptions of products which meet these specifications.

Finishes - General
The finishing of aluminium is designed to provide adequate corrosion protection in
environments of varying severity. Corrosion protection of aluminium is a function of several
parameters: substrate, environment, weight of proposed protective scheme, appearance,
and aerodynamics. Specific schemes vary according to the particular airplane model.

Corrosive Environments
Minimal aluminium protective schemes for the interior in general require either alodine
(BAC 5719) (Alocrom) or chromic acid anodizing (BAC 5019) depending on whether the
aluminium is clad or bare, and one coat of epoxy primer (BMS 10-11 Type I) (Base Epoxy
Primer) .

The minimum protective system for exterior painted areas is in general surface treatment of
alodine (BAC 5719) (Alocrom) on clad aluminium or chromic acid anodizing (BAC 5019) on
bare aluminium and one coat of epoxy primer (BMS 10-79). BMS 10-79 Type II primer is
formulated to provide increased resistance to filiform corrosion and to provide better
corrosion protection. Additional coatings are used in areas where the corrosive environment
is severe, or where decorative finish is needed. Areas which tend to collect moisture and
corrosive chemicals include the interior bilge, wheel wells, and locations below lavatories
and galleys. These areas generally receive two coats of epoxy primer (BMS 10-11 Type I)
over a chromic acid anodize finish (BAC 5019) and are top coated with an epoxy enamel
(BMS 10-11 Type II). Joints in these areas are sealed with either BMS 5-95 (Chromate-
loaded repair sealant) or BMS 5-79 (Fuel resistant repair sealant) sealants.

Wing skins are subject to standing water and continuous exposure to the weather. The
initial finish system for wing skins is chromic acid anodize (BAC 5019) and prime with one
coat each epoxy primer (BMS 10-20) (Fuel Tank Finish). The upper wing skin is then given
2 coats of BMS 10-100 (Aeroflex), a polysulfide containing coating, and the lower wing skin
and spar cavities are given a topcoat of flexible urethane enamel (BMS 10-60 Type II).

BMS 10-20 is an epoxy system, heat cured in manufacturing, but can be cured at room
temperatures during repairs. It is formulated for increased corrosion resistance and is used
in one or two coats in all of the integral fuel tank structure.

Interior empennage structure such as bilge areas in general receives chromic acid anodize
(BAC 5019) and two coats of epoxy primer (BMS 10-11). Some models require an
additional topcoat of white enamel.

4.60 Module 6.4 Corrosion

Rev.01 – 31 March 2016 Training Purpose Only Turkish Technic Inc.
© Copyright 2016
 Corrosion Prevention
Another weapon in the fight against corrosion is prevention by design. From experience
gained, manufacturers can design structures which are less prone to the normal causes of
damage.

The collection of water from condensation and leakage is a common cause of corrosion in
the structure. Although drainage paths to the overboard vents have been provided, these
have often been inadequate, tending to become blocked, or not covering all the areas in
which water can become trapped.

Analysis of these faults has led to changes in design as shown here.

Module 6.4 Corrosion 4.61

Turkish Technic Inc.
© Copyright 2016
Training Purpose Only Rev.01 – 31 March 2016
 Corrosion Removal and Reprotection
No matter how well protected the aircraft is at manufacture, the general wear and tear of
airline operation will expose the airframe to corrosive attack. While a knowledge of
corrosion rectification procedures is most important for the aircraft engineer, it is
emphasised that frequent thorough cleaning can minimise the occurrence of corrosion in
and on aircraft. Thorough inspection at the times specified in the Approved Maintenance
Schedule should ensure that any corrosion is detected in its early stages thus simplifying
rectification.

Preparation
Before attempting any corrosion removal procedure carry out the following:

 Position the aircraft in an area with washing facilities for rapid rinsing of all surfaces.
 Bond the aircraft to the ground.
 Remove the battery if corrosion is in that area.
 Cover pitot static heads, static vents and engine openings. Protect aircraft interior
from moisture and chemicals.
 Protect surfaces adjacent to the working area from chemical paint strippers,
corrosion removal agents and surface treatment materials.
 Before commencing corrosion rectification, reference must be made to the aircraft
Structural Repair Manual. The following notes are of a general nature only.

Safety Precautions
The following are general safety precautions which should be observed when handling
solvents, special cleaners, paint strippers, etchants and surface conversion chemicals:

 Barrier cream must be rubbed on the hands before starting work.

 Avoid prolonged breathing of solvent or acid vapours and do not use them in
confined spaces without adequate ventilation or approved respirator.
 Never add water to acid. Always add acid to water.
 Always mix chemicals using the approved procedure, with containers which will
withstand heat.
 Ensure that a supply of clean water and eye irrigator bottles for emergency use is
available in the immediate area.
 Use rubber or PVC gloves, goggles or plastic face shields and suitable protective
clothing.
 Immediately wash any harmful material from body, skin or clothing.
 Harmful materials splashed in the eyes must be immediately flushed out with water
and medical aid obtained.
 Do not eat or keep food in work areas and always wash hands before eating or
smoking.
 Clean all equipment after work has been completed.
 Many chemicals employed in remedial or corrosion preventative procedures can
cause pollution if discharged into a waterway via a surface water drainage system.
Local regulations vary and the Local Water Authority must be contacted regarding
the disposal of effluent.

4.62 Module 6.4 Corrosion

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© Copyright 2016
 Degreasing
Before attempting to remove corrosion from any metal surface, it must be cleaned and
degreased.

There are a number of solvents and solvent cleaning processes used in aircraft and
component maintenance. Some of these solvents and processes may have a denigrating
effect on aircraft materials, or pose a threat to health. Therefore, the use of solvents and
processes such as immersion, spraying and vapour bath cleaning etc., should be carried
out strictly in accordance with the procedure stated in the Aircraft Maintenance Manual or
Maintenance Process Specification.

Paint Removal
Approved non-flammable paint strippers should be used to remove paints. The surrounding
areas should be masked off or covered with suitable protective material e.g.., polyurethane
sheet. The strippers should be brushed over the paint, left on the surface for a few minutes
and the softened paint then removed using a non-metallic scraper. After the paint has been
removed all traces of the stripper must also be removed.

Mechanical Removal of Corrosion Products

Mechanical methods of corrosion removal are:

 Manual abrasion with scrapers, metal wool and abrasive pads or papers
 Grinding using abrasive wheels, discs, rotary files etc. mounted in a power drill. Use
of grinding method is restricted, always check the Structural Repair Manual for
applicability.
 Abrasive blasting using a Vacu-blast, a compressed air powered, abrasive blasting
machine. It incorporates a vacuum system, which retains the abrasive within the
blasting gun, and makes the operation dust free. Abrasive of the wrong type can
damage aircraft structures. The equipment should only be used by trained
personnel. Blasting with fine glass beads or aluminium oxide removes corrosion
products and damaged material, leaving the sound metal surface ready for protective
treatment.

Module 6.4 Corrosion 4.63

Turkish Technic Inc.
© Copyright 2016
Training Purpose Only Rev.01 – 31 March 2016
 When removing corrosion the essential requirements are:

 Remove all the corrosion, visible and hidden

 Leave the surface smooth, without stress raisers
 Leave the surface uncontaminated by the removal process
 Do not blend material into a crack
 Do not cause metallurgical or thermal damage to the surface
 The amount of metal removed must be within the specified limits for the part to be
assessed as serviceable.

Hidden Corrosion
Not all corrosion is visible at the surface of the part being examined, special measures may
be needed to determine its extent. Intergranular corrosion, in its early stages, cannot
always be detected beneath a paint film. The full extent of the damage may only be
revealed by separating the joints and mating surfaces. To ensure that all corrosion damage
has been removed, an appropriate NDT technique may be required on completion of
corrosion removal.

Surface Smoothness
Surface smoothness requirements depend mainly on strength factors. Highly stressed,
critical structural components usually require a high degree of smoothness. Depressions
remaining after removal of pitting, exfoliation or cracks, should be saucer-shaped and
without ridges.

Contamination
Contamination of the surface by the materials used to remove the corrosion can cause
further attack. This can be caused by contaminated abrasive in Vacu-blast equipment,
grinding wheels previously used on a different metal, and by the use of steel wire brushes
or wool on light alloys, titanium and stainless steels. Scotchbrite Cleaning Pads used on

4.64 Module 6.4 Corrosion

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© Copyright 2016
 aluminium alloy must not subsequently be used on other metals and vice versa, since small
particles may become embedded in the surface and cause dissimilar metal corrosion.
Silicon Carbide abrasive, steel brushes and steel wool must never be used on aluminium or
magnesium alloys.

Cracks
The indiscriminate use of grinding wheels and abrasives, can close over a crack or blend in
delamination. This can be avoided by grinding out visible corrosion and then abrasive
blasting the area. This may cause hidden delamination to peel. NDT techniques may also
be used when this condition is suspected.

Damage
Surface heating during grinding operations, can cause thermal damage. Some grinding
techniques can cause flow in the surface material to a depth of 5 microns (0.0002 inches).
Surface flow can conceal minute cracks which could accelerate stress corrosion cracking,
and only laboratory techniques can reveal this condition. Special grinding points may be
specified to overcome these effects. These avoid an unacceptable temperature rise and
leave a surface in which the microstructure is undisturbed.

Assessment
The maximum depth of metal removed is measured and assessed for serviceability in
accordance with the SRM.

Module 6.4 Corrosion 4.65

Turkish Technic Inc.
© Copyright 2016
Training Purpose Only Rev.01 – 31 March 2016
4.66 Module 6.4 Corrosion
Rev.01 – 31 March 2016 Training Purpose Only Turkish Technic Inc.
© Copyright 2016
 Abrasive Blasting Method of Corrosion Removal
Abrasive blasting is a corrosion removal process in which small, hard particles are shot at
high speed against a corroded area from a gun powered by compressed air. The abrasive
particles shatter the relatively brittle corrosion products. Although a range of abrasive
particles are available commercially only glass beads and aluminium oxide are used as a
blasting medium in the aerospace industry.

Glass bead blasting has a light peening effect on the surface of the metal being treated
making the metal more resistant to stress corrosion and fatigue. Peening of the surface
material can, however, be detrimental if corrosion products are trapped and cracks hidden.
Aluminium oxide does not tend to trap corrosion products owing to the sharper profile of the
particles, but the peening effect is not as great as that of glass beads. The SRM will specify
the type and grade of blasting medium to be used.

On magnesium alloy structures only glass beads are used.

Safety Precautions
Fine dry particles of certain metals e.g., titanium and magnesium can form explosive
mixtures in air and can ignite spontaneously. Operators are briefed on the precautionary
measures as part of their training.

• A face mask and protective goggles must be worn. Ear defenders are required
when working in confined spaces.

• Spilled abrasive is to be picked up immediately as it can make surfaces slippery.

• The blasting machine must be bonded to the aircraft and the aircraft bonded to
earth.

• Paint must be removed from the area and the area cleaned before blasting starts.

• Care must be taken not to remove excessive material. Excessive pressure can
distort thin skins.

• Adjacent areas are to be masked to prevent damage and ingress of beads into
intakes etc.

Module 6.4 Corrosion 4.67

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 Abrasive blasting medium which has been used, for example, on ferrous metal must not
subsequently be used on non-ferrous structures.

4.68 Module 6.4 Corrosion

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 Chemical Removal of Corrosion Products
Chemical methods of neutralising corrosion are used mainly on aluminium and magnesium
alloys. The safety precautions details earlier for handling chemicals etc., must be observed.

Where thickened phosphoric acid (Deoxidine) is approved for use on aluminium alloys the
following procedure is generally used.

 Remove paint. Degrease the area.

 Remove as much of the corrosion products as possible by mechanical methods.
Feather the edges of surrounding paint.

Apply a coat of the specified thickened phosphoric acid (Deoxidine) by brush to the
corroded area, taking care to avoid ingress to crevices or joints. Avoid contact with ultra-
high tensile steels by masking as necessary. Fresh solution must be used for each
application.

 Allow 5 to 20 minutes for the solution to act; agitate with a stiff bristle brush where
heavy corrosion is present. Wipe off, and wash the area with clean water.

 If necessary, repeat the above procedures.

 Dry all surfaces thoroughly.
 Apply the Alocrom 1200 process and allow to dry for a minimum of two hours, then
apply a primer and paint finish scheme within 48 hours.

NOTE: Deoxidines must not be used on magnesium alloys. The chemical method used for
removing corrosion from magnesium is described in the section headed ‘Rectification of
Corrosion on Magnesium’.

Module 6.4 Corrosion 4.69

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4.70 Module 6.4 Corrosion

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 Rectification of Corrosion

Clad Aluminium Alloy Sheet

After degreasing and removing the paint finish, remove the corrosion. The mechanical
methods of removing corrosion are preferred.

 For light deposits a stiff fibre brush may be used followed by flushing with a
detergent. Rinse with water and dry afterwards.
 Fine grade Scotchbrite cleaning pads.
 Aluminium wool when the part is not in-situ.
 Abrasive paper/cloth.
 Vacu-blast abrasive blasting using glass beads or aluminium oxide.
 For heavier deposits an approved chemical corrosion remover such as thickened
phosphoric acid (Deoxidine) may be used. Surrounding areas or parts must be
masked with suitable protective material.

After removal of corrosion, the surface must be thoroughly rinsed with clean water and
finally dried.

Assessment for Serviceability

The maximum depth of metal removed may be determined by using a dial test indicator
mounted in a steel block or a depth gauge as illustrated. The SRM or Service Bulletin will
give the maximum permissible reduction in thickness which is acceptable. For example, in
the case of l6swg Alclad, 0.l7mm (0.007in) and for 18 SWG 0.13 mm (0.005 in.) nominally
10% of the original thickness.

Reprotection
Apply the BRUSH ALOCROM 1200 process as follows:

Brush Alocrom is supplied as two liquids, Parts A and B.

To make the working solution, mix equal volumes of Part A and Part B in a plastic
container. Stir well.

Make up only sufficient mix for use within 24 hours. Any mix remaining after 24 hours must
be disposed of in the approved manner.

Thoroughly degrease the area to be treated and apply the solution with a nylon brush or
cotton cloth until the surface turns to a golden yellow colour. This takes from one to ten
minutes depending on the temperature.

Rinse with clean water then allow to dry for a minimum of two hours.

Finally - Apply the specified primer, e.g. epoxy primer and the appropriate final finish within
48 hours.

Module 6.4 Corrosion 4.71

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 NOTE Etch primers should not be applied over Alocrom 1200 Care must be taken
when mixing and applying Alocrom 1200. PVC gloves and eye shields should
be worn. Cloths used with Alocrom must be washed before discarding,
otherwise they may create a fire hazard.

Aluminium Alloy Castings and Forgings, Milled Skin Panels etc.

After degreasing and removing the paint finish, remove the corrosion. The mechanical
methods of removing corrosion are preferred, e.g.:

 Scotchbrite pads.
 Aluminium wool when the part is not in-situ.
 Abrasive papers.
 Vacu-blast abrasive blasting using glass beads or aluminium oxide.
 Carbide tipped scrapers.
 Grinding wheels and flap wheels.

The corrosion pits should be transformed into saucer shaped depressions which relieve
stress concentrations. Care must be taken when using power driven tools to avoid
overheating.

The SRM or Service Bulletin will give the required proportions for blended areas.

Thickened phosphoric acid (Deoxidine) may be used if approved by the SRM.

Assessment for Serviceability

The maximum depth of metal removed must be within the limits specified in the SRM,
Service Bulletins etc. Initial assessment is normally carried out after removal of the loose
corrosion, to determine whether or not the component can be salvaged.

It is usually specified that no pitting is permissible. Where pitting may be blended out the
maximum depth and area will be specified, or it may be required that the dimensions of the
part must remain within the drawing limits.

In general, the removal of corrosion must not weaken a part to such an extent that it will
endanger the safety of the aircraft. If in doubt, the part must be repaired or replaced.

The depth of a blended area may be measured as shown in the illustrations.

Reprotection
Apply the BRUSH ALOCROM 1200 process as described for clad aluminium alloy sheet.

Finally apply the specified primer, e.g. epoxy primer and the appropriate final finish within
48 hours.

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 Blend of a Single Depression

Module 6.4 Corrosion 4.73

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 Blending Ratios

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 Blend of Multiple Corrosion Areas

Module 6.4 Corrosion 4.75

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 Using a Dial Type Depth Gauge

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 Rectification of Corrosion on Magnesium Alloys
Degrease and remove paint from the affected area.

The following mechanical methods are usually specified:

 Stiff non-metallic brush, e.g. nylon. Abrasive papers.

 Vacu-blast using glass beads.
 Scotchbrite pads.
 Carbide tipped scrapers for blending out pits.

Care must be taken not to remove the original chromate film unnecessarily.

Where there is no danger of trapping the solution, light corrosion can be cleaned off by
swabbing with a solution of 10% by weight of chromic acid and 0.1% by volume of sulphuric
acid in water. This solution may be made up as follows:

 2 ounces of CHROMIC ANHYDRIDE

 1 pint of WATER
 8 drops of SULPHURIC ACID

Using a clean non-fluffy cloth, rub the solution into the corroded area until all the corrosion
has been removed. Rinse thoroughly with clean water and dry the surface. Care should be
taken to confine the solution to the corroded area, as the solution can damage the existing
chromate film.

Assessment for Serviceability

The procedure followed during the assessment of magnesium parts is the same as that
described for non-clad aluminium alloy castings and forgings.

Reprotection
Magnesium alloy should be reprotected by applying the BRUSH ALOCROM 1200 process.

Finally apply the specified primer, e.g. epoxy primer and the appropriate final finish within
48 hours.

Module 6.4 Corrosion 4.77

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 Rectification on Corrosion of Steel
Degrease and remove paint from the affected area using approved paint remover. Any
specific instructions for removing corrosion given in the aircraft Structural Repair Manual
(SRM) or Service Bulletins or their equivalent must always be followed.

Steels in aircraft structures are normally plated with zinc, cadmium or chrome. The aim is to
remove only the minimum of plating during corrosion removal.

The most effective and preferred method of removing corrosion products from ferrous
surfaces is by mechanical means. On all components, especially highly stressed parts,
ensure that the corrosion damage is within acceptable limits.

The following methods may be used:

 Grinding wheels
 Wire brushes
 Abrasive papers
 Vacu-blast equipment using glass beads or aluminium oxide abrasives
 Oilstones
 Carbide tipped scrapers

Great care must be taken when removing corrosion from highly stressed parts, that no
scratches are produced or remain on the surface. If possible, remove the corrosion with
crocus paper, if not, use fine grade wet and dry abrasive paper finally restoring the mirror
finish.

Cadmium compounds, including dust created by disturbance of corrosion products on

cadmium plated surfaces are toxic. They can cause serious illness if ingested or inhaled. All
cadmium contaminated waste materials such as wet abrasive paper and Vacu-blast
abrasive are to be treated as industrial waste and disposed of accordingly. Contaminated
overalls are to be bagged, marked as such and sent for cleaning.

Chemical methods for removing corrosion must not be used in situ unless specified by the
manufacturer and must also be of an approved type. Before using a corrosion removing
chemical, remove loose corrosion by mechanical means and mask surrounding areas
where applicable, by covering with a suitable protective material.

Chemical corrosion removers fall into two categories: phosphoric acid or alkaline based.
Approved phosphoric acid or alkaline based corrosion removers may be used on steels
having a tensile strength up to 1000 N/ mm2 (65 tons/sq. in).

Only alkaline corrosion removers contained in DTD 901 may be used on steels having a
tensile strength greater than 1000 N/mm (65 tons sq. in), when specified by the
manufacturer and provided the parts are only lightly corroded (rusted).

NOTE: The use of phosphoric acid based corrosion removers causes hydrogen
embrittlement in steels having a tensile strength greater than 1000 N/mm2 (65 tons/sq. in).

4.78 Module 6.4 Corrosion

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 After using rust removers, the area must be thoroughly rinsed with clean water and dried.

Assessment for Serviceability

The procedure followed during the assessment of steel parts is the same as that described
for non-clad aluminium alloys.

Reprotection
Where possible, cadmium plated steel parts should be replated in accordance with the
aircraft manufacturer’s instructions. For small local repairs in situ, the cadmium plating may
be omitted but one coat of primer and two coats of final finish must be applied. Any special
instructions given in the SRM or Service Bulletins must be followed.

Stainless Steels, Nickel Based Alloys, Titanium and Titanium Based Alloys
If corrosion is found on these alloys reference must be made to the aircraft SRM for
guidance.

Module 6.4 Corrosion 4.79

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4.80 Module 6.4 Corrosion

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© Copyright 2016
European Aviation Safety Agency (EASA)

Module 6
Licence Category A, B1 and B2

Materials and Hardware

6.5 Fasteners
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Module 6.5 Fasteners

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 Copyright Notice
© Copyright. All worldwide rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced,
stored in a retrieval system or transmitted in any form by any other means whatsoever: i.e.
photocopy, electronic, mechanical recording or otherwise without the prior written
permission of Turkish Technic Inc.

Knowledge Levels — Category A, B1, B2, B3 and C Aircraft

Maintenance Licence
Basic knowledge for categories A, B1, B2 and B3 are indicated by the allocation of knowledge levels
indicators (1, 2 or 3) against each applicable subject. Category C applicants must meet either the category B1
or the category B2 basic knowledge levels.
The knowledge level indicators are defined as follows:

LEVEL 1
 A familiarisation with the principal elements of the subject.
Objectives: The applicant should be familiar with the basic elements of the subject.
 The applicant should be able to give a simple description of the whole subject, using common words
and examples.
 The applicant should be able to use typical terms.

LEVEL 2
 A general knowledge of the theoretical and practical aspects of the subject.
 An ability to apply that knowledge.
Objectives: The applicant should be able to understand the theoretical fundamentals of the subject.
 The applicant should be able to give a general description of the subject using, as appropriate, typical
examples.
 The applicant should be able to use mathematical formulae in conjunction with physical laws
describing the subject.
 The applicant should be able to read and understand sketches, drawings and schematics describing
the subject.
 The applicant should be able to apply his knowledge in a practical manner using detailed procedures.

LEVEL 3
 A detailed knowledge of the theoretical and practical aspects of the subject.
 A capacity to combine and apply the separate elements of knowledge in a logical and comprehensive
manner.
Objectives: The applicant should know the theory of the subject and interrelationships with other subjects.
 The applicant should be able to give a detailed description of the subject using theoretical
fundamentals and specific examples.
 The applicant should understand and be able to use mathematical formulae related to the subject.
 The applicant should be able to read, understand and prepare sketches, simple drawings and
schematics describing the subject.
 The applicant should be able to apply his knowledge in a practical manner using manufacturer's
instructions.
 The applicant should be able to interpret results from various sources and measurements and apply
corrective action where appropriate.

Module 6.5 Fasteners

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Module 6.5 Fasteners

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 Table of Contents

6.5 Fasteners _____________________________________________________________ 13

6.5.1 Screw Threads _______________________________________________________ 13
Principle _______________________________________________________________ 13
Screw Thread Terminology ________________________________________________ 14
Definitions_____________________________________________________________ 14
Classes of Fit __________________________________________________________ 16
Single and Multiple Threads _______________________________________________ 17
Right and Left Hand Threads ______________________________________________ 18
Power Transmission Threads ______________________________________________ 19
Thread Systems _________________________________________________________ 21
General_______________________________________________________________ 21
Unified Thread System ___________________________________________________ 22
Metric Screw Threads____________________________________________________ 24
Self Tapping Threads ____________________________________________________ 25
Future Trends __________________________________________________________ 25
Cutting Screw Threads at the Bench ________________________________________ 27
General_______________________________________________________________ 27
Taps _________________________________________________________________ 27
Care and Use of Taps ___________________________________________________ 28
Dies _________________________________________________________________ 30
Thread Manufacture ______________________________________________________ 33
Thread Gauges __________________________________________________________ 35
Screw Thread Gauges ___________________________________________________ 35
Plug Screw Gauges _____________________________________________________ 35
Ring Screw Gauges _____________________________________________________ 35
Direct Measurement _____________________________________________________ 36
6.5.2 Bolts, Studs and Screws _______________________________________________ 39
Features _______________________________________________________________ 39
General_______________________________________________________________ 39
Head Style ____________________________________________________________ 40
Grip Length____________________________________________________________ 42
Material_______________________________________________________________ 43
Surface Finish _________________________________________________________ 43
Critical Bolted Joints _____________________________________________________ 44
Locking Facilities _______________________________________________________ 44
Usage ________________________________________________________________ 45
Nuts ___________________________________________________________________ 46
General_______________________________________________________________ 46
Stiffnuts ______________________________________________________________ 47

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 Anchor Nuts ___________________________________________________________ 49
Sheet Spring Nuts ______________________________________________________ 50
Point-Wrenching Nuts____________________________________________________ 51
Shear Nuts ____________________________________________________________ 51
Klincher Locknuts _______________________________________________________ 51
Thread Inserts __________________________________________________________ 53
General_______________________________________________________________ 53
Wire Thread Inserts _____________________________________________________ 53
Thin Wall Inserts ________________________________________________________ 58
Key-locked Inserts ______________________________________________________ 58
Swaged Inserts _________________________________________________________ 59
Ring-locked Inserts ______________________________________________________ 60
Washers _______________________________________________________________ 63
Studs __________________________________________________________________ 65
General_______________________________________________________________ 65
Standard Studs_________________________________________________________ 65
Waisted Stud __________________________________________________________ 65
Stepped Stud __________________________________________________________ 66
Shouldered Stud ________________________________________________________ 66
Insertion and Removal of Studs ____________________________________________ 67
Bolted Joints ___________________________________________________________ 75
Torque Loading _________________________________________________________ 79
General_______________________________________________________________ 79
Torque Wrenches _______________________________________________________ 81
Calibration of Torque Wrenches ____________________________________________ 85
Torque Loading ________________________________________________________ 86
Torque Correction_______________________________________________________ 89
Pre-Load Indicating Washers ______________________________________________ 91
Fastener Systems _______________________________________________________ 93
British Fastener Standards ________________________________________________ 93
British Standard Fasteners with Unified Threads _______________________________ 97
‘AS’ Bolts and Screws __________________________________________________ 100
BA and BSF Bolts ______________________________________________________ 102
Nuts of British Manufacture ______________________________________________ 103
Stiffnuts of British Manufacture____________________________________________ 105
American Fastener Standards ____________________________________________ 108
Air Force/Navy (AN) ____________________________________________________ 111
Military Standards (MS) _________________________________________________ 111
National Aerospace Standards (NAS) ______________________________________ 113
Special Bolts__________________________________________________________ 116
Screws ______________________________________________________________ 119
6.5.3 Locking Devices _____________________________________________________ 123
Purpose_______________________________________________________________ 123
Split Pins______________________________________________________________ 123

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 Rollpins _______________________________________________________________ 125
Locking Washers _______________________________________________________ 126
Spring Washers _______________________________________________________ 126
Crinkle Washers _______________________________________________________ 126
Cup Washers _________________________________________________________ 126
Shakeproof Washers ___________________________________________________ 127
Tab Washers _________________________________________________________ 127
Locknuts and Locking Plates _____________________________________________ 129
Locknuts _____________________________________________________________ 129
Locking Plates ________________________________________________________ 129
Wire Locking __________________________________________________________ 131
General______________________________________________________________ 131
Wire Locking Procedure _________________________________________________ 132
Locking Tabs _________________________________________________________ 135
Examples of Wire Locking _______________________________________________ 136
Wire Sealing (Tell-Tale Wire) ______________________________________________ 137
Peening and Grub Screws ________________________________________________ 139
Peening _____________________________________________________________ 139
Grub Screws __________________________________________________________ 139
Locking by Adhesives ___________________________________________________ 141
Pins __________________________________________________________________ 143
General______________________________________________________________ 143
Clevis Pins ___________________________________________________________ 145
“Pip” Quick Release Pins ________________________________________________ 146
Circlips and Locking Rings _______________________________________________ 149
Keys and Keyways ______________________________________________________ 151
Quick Release Fasteners_________________________________________________ 153
General______________________________________________________________ 153
Dzus Fasteners _______________________________________________________ 154
Camloc Fasteners _____________________________________________________ 157
Oddie Fasteners _______________________________________________________ 158
Latches _______________________________________________________________ 159
Trigger Action Latch ____________________________________________________ 159
Hook Latch ___________________________________________________________ 160
Pin Latch ____________________________________________________________ 161
Sealed Latch _________________________________________________________ 162
6.5.4 Aircraft Rivets _______________________________________________________ 163
Solid Rivets ___________________________________________________________ 163
General______________________________________________________________ 163
Heat Treatment of Rivets ________________________________________________ 165
Compatibility of Rivets and Metals _________________________________________ 167
Rivet Types __________________________________________________________ 168
Rivet Identification _____________________________________________________ 170

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 American Specifications _________________________________________________ 171
British Rivet Identification ________________________________________________ 172
Riveting _______________________________________________________________ 175
Introduction___________________________________________________________ 175
Types of Riveted Joints _________________________________________________ 176
Rivet Clearance _______________________________________________________ 178
Rivet Allowances ______________________________________________________ 179
Rivet Grip ____________________________________________________________ 179
Strength of Joints ______________________________________________________ 180
Rivet Positions ________________________________________________________ 181
Rivet Layout __________________________________________________________ 183
Rivet Selection ________________________________________________________ 185
Hole Preparation_______________________________________________________ 186
Cleco Clamps and Pliers ________________________________________________ 191
Aerodynamic Smoothness _______________________________________________ 192
Countersinking ________________________________________________________ 193
Dimpling _____________________________________________________________ 197
Riveting Procedure _____________________________________________________ 201
Solid Riveting Tools ____________________________________________________ 201
Hand Riveting _________________________________________________________ 202
Pneumatic Rivet Guns __________________________________________________ 203
Rivet Snaps __________________________________________________________ 205
Bucking Bars _________________________________________________________ 206
Pneumatic or Air Drill Motors _____________________________________________ 207
Rivet Cutters__________________________________________________________ 209
Rivet Miller or Shaver ___________________________________________________ 210
Maintenance of Air Tools ________________________________________________ 211
Riveting Procedure _____________________________________________________ 212
NACA Method of Flush Riveting ___________________________________________ 214
Rivet Squeezers _______________________________________________________ 215
Rivet Inspection _______________________________________________________ 216
Rivet Removal ________________________________________________________ 220
Hollow Rivets __________________________________________________________ 223
General______________________________________________________________ 223
‘Pop’ Rivets __________________________________________________________ 224
Chobert Rivets ________________________________________________________ 226
Avdel Rivets __________________________________________________________ 231
American Blind Rivets __________________________________________________ 239
Pull Through Rivets ____________________________________________________ 240
Self-Plugging (Mechanical Lock) Rivets _____________________________________ 241
Cherry Rivets _________________________________________________________ 242
CherryMAX Rivets _____________________________________________________ 245
Cherry Rivet Head Styles ________________________________________________ 247
Cherry Rivet Specifications ______________________________________________ 248
Hole Preparation for Cherry Rivets _________________________________________ 249
Cherry Rivet Selection __________________________________________________ 250
Cherry Installation______________________________________________________ 251

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 Cherry Rivet Inspection _________________________________________________ 254
CherryLOCK and CherryMAX Removal _____________________________________ 256
Imex Rivets ___________________________________________________________ 257
Huck Blind Rivets ______________________________________________________ 259
Pin Rivets and Lockbolts ________________________________________________ 261
General______________________________________________________________ 261
Hi-Shear Fasteners ____________________________________________________ 263
Collar Removal ________________________________________________________ 269
Huckbolts ____________________________________________________________ 271
Blind Bolts ____________________________________________________________ 275
General______________________________________________________________ 275
Jo-Bolts _____________________________________________________________ 277
Rivnuts _______________________________________________________________ 283
Threaded Pin Fasteners _________________________________________________ 285
General______________________________________________________________ 285
Hi-Lok / Hi Tigue Fasteners ______________________________________________ 286
Other Threaded Pin Fasteners ____________________________________________ 292
Tapered Shank Fasteners _______________________________________________ 295
Fastener Inspection ____________________________________________________ 297

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Module 6.5 Fasteners

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 Module 6.5 Enabling Objectives and Certification Statement
Certification Statement
These Study Notes comply with the syllabus of EASA Regulation (EU) No. 1321/2014
Annex III (Part-66) Appendix I, and the associated Knowledge Levels as specified below:

Part 66 Licence Category

Objective
Reference A B1 B2 B3
Fasteners 6.5
Screw threads 6.5.1 2 2 2 2
Screw nomenclature;
Thread forms, dimensions and
tolerances for standard threads used
in aircraft;
Measuring screw threads
Bolts, studs and screws 6.5.2 2 2 2 2
Bolt types: specification, identification
and marking of aircraft bolts,
international standards;
Nuts: self locking, anchor, standard
types;
Machine screws: aircraft
specifications;
Studs: types and uses, insertion and
removal;
Self tapping screws, dowels.
Locking devices 6.5.3 2 2 2 2
Tab and spring washers, locking
plates, split pins, pal-nuts, wire
locking, quick release fasteners, keys,
circlips, cotter pins.
Aircraft rivets 6.5.4 1 2 1 2
Types of solid and blind rivets:
specifications and identification, heat
treatment.

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Module 6.5 Fasteners

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 6.5 Fasteners

6.5.1 Screw Threads

Principle
A wedge is a simple machine which can be used to apply a load. If a wedge is driven under
an object it will raise it, the distance being governed by the inclination of the wedge. A
steeper wedge will move it a greater distance, but a shallower wedge will raise a greater
weight. Of course a wedge may also be used to prevent movement as in a door stop.

A screw may be considered as an inclined plane or wedge wrapped around a cylinder or

shaft to form a helix. The distance along the cylinder by one full turn of the helix is the 'pitch'
(P).

It can be seen from the diagram that a shallow wedge angle produces a fine pitch thread
while a steeper angle produces a course pitch thread.

When a male thread is engaged in a female thread, e.g. a bolt in a nut the full surface area
of the female "wedge" is in contact with the male. More force (F) may be exerted between
the two surfaces of a shallow wedge than when the wedge angle is greater. Also, as friction
is dependent on applied load and surface area, it can be seen that a shallow wedge angle
will produce more friction and greater resistance to both tightening and loosening. This is a
desirable property in threaded fasteners, particularly in smaller threads where the surface
area is already limited by size.

When a thread is used to produce motion, e.g. a worm screw, greater travel (P) will be
produced by a course thread but again more force can be applied by a fine one.

Module 6.5 Fasteners

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© Copyright 2016
Training Purpose Only Rev.01 – 31 March 2016
 Screw Thread Terminology

Definitions
The screw thread is a complex geometrical figure involving several elements.

Pitch
The pitch of a screw thread is the distance in inches or millimetres from any point on a
thread to the corresponding point on the next thread measured parallel to the axis.

The pitch is equal to

Effective Diameter
This may also be called the pitch diameter, and is the diameter of an imaginary cylinder
(Pitch Cylinder) which splits the fundamental triangles exactly in half.

Minor Diameter
The minor diameter is the distance measured between the roots of the thread, in the case
of a male thread and between the crests of the thread in the case of a female thread.

Major Diameter
Is the measured diameter over the crests of the thread (roots in the female).

Crest
The top surface joining the flanks of the thread.

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 Root
The root is the bottom of the groove joining adjacent sides or flanks of the thread, whether
of the male screw or of the female screw.

Flank or Side
The surface of the thread form which connects the crest with the root.

Thread Angle
The included angle between the flanks measured in the axial plane.

Lead
The distance a screw thread advances axially in one complete turn (i.e. same as pitch for
single start thread).

Length of Engagement
The axial distance over which two mating threads are designed to make contact.

Angular Depth
The triangle formed by the intersection of the extended flanks. The vertical height of this
triangle is the angular depth.

Actual Depth
The distance between the crest and the root of the thread measured perpendicular to the
axis

Fundamental Triangle
The triangle formed by the intersection of the extended flanks
(XYZ).

Truncation
The distance measured radially from the crest or root of the thread to the adjacent apex of
the fundamental triangle.

Module 6.5 Fasteners

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Training Purpose Only Rev.01 – 31 March 2016
 Classes of Fit
As with all mechanical 'fits' screw threads are subject to tolerances. This tolerance is
designated by Thread Class. In the Unified thread system there are five classes of fit, Class
1 is a loose fit, Class 2 is a free fit, Class 3 is a medium fit, Class 4 is a close fit and Class 5
is a tight fit. In a specification the thread will have the letter A added for male (external)
threads and B for female (internal) threads. Both partners must be of the same class.

Classes 1A and 1B are intended for special applications involving replacement parts, for
quick and easy assembly even when the threads are slightly damaged or dirty.

Classes 2A and 2B are general purpose threads used for most commercial applications.

Classes 3A and 3B are used for closer tolerances than those available from classes 2A and
2B. This makes them suitable for high performance precision applications.

Class 4 and 5 are little used and give a wrench or force fit requiring the application of high
torque for semi-permanent assembly.

Aircraft bolts are almost always manufactured in the Class 3, medium fit.

In the metric thread system there are separate tolerances for the major and minor
dimensions of a thread. These are indicated by upper case letters for female threads and
lower case for male. There are:

 5 tolerance grades (grades 4 to 8) available for the minor diameter of the nut thread.
 3 tolerance grades (grades 4,6 and 8) for the major diameter of the bolt thread.
 5 tolerance grades (grades 4 to 8) for the pitch diameter tolerance of the nut thread.
 7 tolerance grades (grades 3 to 9) for the pitch diameter tolerance of the nut thread.

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 Single and Multiple Threads
When formed by one continuous groove a thread is said to be single or single start. The
majority of threads used for adjustment and fastening are single thread. In such threads the
lead, that is, the distance travelled axially by an engaged threaded part in a complete turn,
is always equal to the pitch of the thread.

Multiple start threads consist of two or more ridges left by grooves cut side by side. In this
way the axial travel or lead of the thread is increased without changing the pitch. For
example, a nut engaged with a doublestart thread will travel twice as far in one complete
turn as one engaged with a single thread of similar pitch. In multiple threads the lead is
equal to the Pitch of the thread (P) multiplied by the number of starts.

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 Note that Lead (L) = Pitch (P) x Starts

Right and Left Hand Threads

A right hand thread is one on which the thread is cut so that turning of the nut in a clockwise
direction will tighten it on a bolt. A left hand thread requires the nut to be turned anti-
clockwise to tighten it. Left hand threads are only used for special purposes.

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 Power Transmission Threads

There are several forms in common use:

Square Thread
The thread form is a square. It is used on lead screws and feed shafts in machine tools.
The rams of aircraft lifting jacks have a square thread for the locking collars.

Acme Thread
A modified form of square thread with sloping faces and flat roots and crests. Largely
employed in making lead screws and feed shafts for machine tools. May be multi-start to
provide fast traversing motion when this is necessary.

Buttress Thread
The form is triangular with one face 900 or nearly so to the screw axis and a second face
inclined at 450. It combines low friction with resistance to shear. The thread takes axial
loads in one direction only. It is used in bench vices having quick release jaws.

Ball Screw Thread

A modified square thread for use with recirculating ball nuts in which the
female thread element is comprised of hardened steel balls. This type of
high strength, low friction thread is commonly used on aircraft for flap
drive and stabiliser drive units.

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 Thread Systems

General
In the early days of the industrial revolution each manufacturer produced screw threads of
their own devising. This led to a lack of compatibility and interchangeability, and variable
quality. In 1841, Sir Joseph Whitworth announced a standard thread form. The Whitworth
thread had a pitch and depth based on the fractional diameter of the bolt and a thread angle
of 55°. In 1902 the British Standards Institute (BSI) was founded and adopted Whitworths
thread as British Standard Whitworth (BSW).

The BSW thread is fairly course and is suited to steam engines and bridges, but not for the
small threads required for precision engineering. In 1908 the British Standard Fine (BSF)
thread was introduced. Developed from BSW, BSF shared the 55° thread angle but with a
range of smaller pitches. British Association (BA) threads with a 47.5° thread angle was
also introduced for threads below 1/4 inch diameter.

British Standard Pipe (BSP - also based on Whitworth) for fluid tight pipe connections and
British Standard Cycle (BSC) for the bicycle and motorcycle industries were also devised.

BSW and BSC were never used in the aviation industry, however, BSF, BA and BSP can all
be found on older aircraft.

In the United States, standard course and fine threads were also developed in the
nineteenth century and in 1918 the Society of Automotive Engineers (SAE) adopted the
National Course and National Fine (NC and NF) threads. These, like BSW and BSF, were
based on fractional bolt diameters, at least for sizes over 3/16 inch, but with a thread angle
of 60°.

Meanwhile, most of Europe had converted to the metric system and a series of metric
threads were developed, also based on the 60° thread form

The second world war highlighted to the allies the problems caused by the plethora of
standards and in 1956 Britain, Canada and the United States agreed to standardise on the
60° NC and NF threads which became known as Unified threads (hence UNC and UNF).
These were adopted by British Standards and a gradual change over began.

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 As the UK became more involved with our European neighbours, trade requirements
dictated the increased use of metric units and in 1965 the BSI decreed that we adopt the
International Standards Organisation (ISO) metric system (and, of course, it's threads).

However, throughout the 1950s, '60s and '70s the Americans dominated the commercial
aircraft building business and so the Unified thread system remained the standard for the
aviation industry. Today all western aircraft, even those of European origin like Airbus
products, predominantly employ Unified threads.

Unified Thread System

As previously stated, this is a common standard screw thread agreed and introduced by
Britain, America and Canada to fulfil a need for interchangeability of threaded products. The
thread angle is 60° and the thread root is always radiused while the thread crest can be
either radiused or flattened.

The types of Unified threads are:

 UNC - Unified Coarse

 UNF - Unified Fine
 UNEF - Unified Extra Fine
 UN - Unified with constant pitch regardless of diameter
 UNS - Unified with special pitch/diameter combinations
 UNJF - Unified fatigue resistant fine thread.

The unified threads used in the aerospace industry are UNC, UNF or UNJF and are
normally manufactured as a Class 3 fit.

A Unified thread is specified by it’s nominal diameter and it’s pitch (number of Threads Per
Inch or TPl). The nominal diameter of a fastener thread is dependent on the diameter of the
shank on which it is cut.

Thread sizes of 3/16 inch and below are referred to by a number from #0 (0.060 inch
diameter) to #10 (0.190 inch diameter) in 0.013 inch increments, followed by the number of
TPI. Usually only the even number sizes are used and sizes below #8 have coarse threads,
e.g. 6-32 UNC. Threads of #10 size are available as either 10-24 UNC or 10-32 UNF
however the 32 TPI UNF form is preferred. (Note: 8-32 UNC and 10-32 UNF have the same
TPI and may appear to engage, but will not carry the designed loading).

Thread diameters of 1/4 inch and above are referred to by their fractional size followed by the
number of TPI. The range rises in 1/16 inch increments to 5/8 inch then 1/8 inch increments
beyond. Most common fasteners in this range have UNF threads e.g. ¼ - 28 UNF (or 0.25-
28 UNF).

The full abbreviation system for the identification of Unified threads includes the class of fit
e.g. ¼-28 UNF 3. For a left handed thread the suffix ‘L’ is added. The numbered threads
are designated in a similar way e.g. 10-32 UNF 3 (or 0.190 -32 UNF 3). The part number is
prefixed by the specification number.

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 The following sizes are commonly used in the aerospace industry:

UNJC and UNJF threads

“J” threads are made in both external and internal forms. The external thread has a much
larger root radius than the corresponding UNC or UNF threads. This radius is mandatory
and its inspection is required, whereas no root radius is required on UNC, UNF, or UNEF
threads. Since the larger root radius increases the minor diameter, a UNJF or UNJC
fastener has a larger net tensile area than a corresponding UNF or UNC fastener. This root
radius also gives a smaller stress concentration factor in the threaded section. Therefore,
high-strength (180 ksi or more) bolts usually have “J” threads. These threads are
manufactured to Class 3 fit only.

Because of the enlarged root radius a UNJ bolt cannot be used with a UN nut, but a UN bolt
is compatible with either a UN or UNJ nut. Thread types are not interchangeable i.e. a UNF
screw must be used with a UNF nut of the same size.

The size of the hole to be drilled for tapping an internal thread and holes for screw thread
clearance are given in the applicable National Standard. However tapping and clearance
drill sizes are reproduced in readily available charts e.g. ZEUS reference tables.

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 Metric Screw Threads
Metric screw threads have a thread angle of 600 and those used in the aerospace industry
use the MJ profile which is suitable for highly stressed applications. The MJ profile thread is
a metric version of the imperial UNJ thread.

Aerospace screws, bolts and nuts are manufactured in a series of diameter and pitch
variations from 1.6mm to 39mm.

The metric screw thread is identified by the letters MJ to identify the metric J thread form
followed by the nominal size and pitch in mm (separated by the sign X) and followed by the
tolerance class (separated by a dash from the pitch). Example MJ6 x 1 - 3 = Metric fatigue
resistant thread form, 6mm diameter, 1mm pitch, class 3 fit.

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 Self Tapping Threads
Self Tapping threads are tapered male screw threads which are designed to cut their own
mating thread in softer materials such as wood, plastic and aluminium. They are not used
structurally on modern aircraft but are often found securing internal trim items and fittings.

The thread form and dimensioning varies depending on the intended use of the fastener
and various numbering systems are employed. They should always be installed into pre-
drilled holes at or below the core diameter.

Future Trends
Because of the importance of reducing weight in the construction of an aircraft, designers
are constantly seeking means of using higher strength or lighter alloys for structural
purposes. This trend applies particularly to fasteners and it is apparent that the use of
smaller diameter bolts, bolts with a shorter threaded portion and miniature anchor nuts will
become more widespread. It will be accompanied by the use of threads of UNJF form.

Because of the vast experience gained, particularly in America, in the use of both standard
and miniature components, it has been internationally agreed to use Unified inch threads on
fasteners. However, with the introduction of metric dimensions in other fields, it is probable
that a metric thread series will eventually become more widely accepted.

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 Cutting Screw Threads at the Bench

General
Screw threads of up to about 1 1/4" can be successfully produced by hand methods using
taps for internal threads and dies for external threads.

Before tapping, a hole must be drilled which should be equivalent to, or slightly larger than
the minor diameter of the thread. Reference tables giving recommended drill tapping sizes
are a part of every engineer’s tool kit.

Taps
These are used for cutting internal screw-threads. Made of hardened and tempered high
carbon steel or high speed steel, they are fluted shafts with multiple cutting edges and
driving flats on one end. The flutes are provided to clear the swarf during the cutting
process. Usually manufactured in sets of 3, comprising taper, intermediate and bottoming.

Taper Tap (or First)

Used for starting thread, diameter at point is less than the minor diameter of the thread.

Intermediate (or Second)

Used to deepen thread cut by taper tap.

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 Bottoming (or Plug)
This is not tapered and its purpose is to finish the thread to the bottom of blind or deep
through holes.

Care and Use of Taps

Care must be taken not to damage the cutting edges and a chipped tap must never be
used. When not in use, taps should be kept clean, and stored in a rack.

Taps are normally used in a tap wrench. At the start of the tapping process great care must
be taken to ensure that the tap is perpendicular to the hole in both planes. It must be kept
square to the hole throughout the cutting process. The tap must turned 90° forward to cut
and then 90° backward to release the swarf. Use of a cutting compound will lubricate the
tap, help clear swarf and produce a better finish.

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 Dies
Dies are used for cutting external screw threads.

Circular Split Dies

Made of hardened and tempered high carbon steel or high speed steel, these are split rings
with multiple cutting edges and cut-outs to clear the swarf. These usually cut a full thread in
one operation, but a split in the die allows adjustment of the depth of cut. The threads in the
die are tapered on one side to aid starting so it is important to use the die the right way up.

Dies are used in a Die Stock, which has three grub screws for retention and adjustment.
The centre screw must be aligned with the split in the die and is used to 'spread' it and
reduce the cutting depth. The outer two screws align with dimples in the die and are used to
retain it in the stock and prevent rotation. When the centre screw is released, the outer two
can be used to 'close' the split and deepen the cut. Care must be taken not to over-adjust
the die as they are brittle and fracture easily.

Use of Dies
The rod to be threaded should have a 45° chamfer to aid starting the cut and provide a
lead-in on the finished thread. The die must be presented the correct way up and
perpendicular in both planes. Again the cut is made 90° forward and 90° back to clear the
swarf and cutting compound will improve the quality of the thread.

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 Half Dies
Take smaller cuts to reach the desired size as the amount of material removed can be
controlled.

Die Nuts
Used to run down an existing thread which has become damaged. They are not adjustable
and should only be used where permitted.

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 Thread Manufacture
Production threads are usually machine made. Threads may also be formed by cutting on a
lathe or grinding on a specialised machine.

On a lathe, a cutting tool of the correct angle and form can be used with the automatic feed
mechanism to produce a high quality thread in one operation. This allows greater accuracy
than the tap and die method.

Ground threads are more accurate still and are used for gauges and precision threads in
measuring instruments, and large drive threads for flap mechanisms etc. Taps and dies are
also manufactured in this way.

Both of these methods are, however, expensive. For mass produced items, such as bolts,
thread rolling is often used. In this method the rod is held between a set of hardened steel
rollers with the reverse of the desired thread form ground on them. As the rod is rotated,
pressure is applied to the rollers and the metal is deformed, to produce the crests and
roots. As there is no cutting, the metal grains are displaced but not damaged and the thread
is cold worked, improving its strength.

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 Thread Gauges

Screw Thread Gauges

The simplest method of checking threads in the production shop is by means of screw-
thread limit-gauges. These gauges possess the same thread form as the mating thread,
and are assembled with the thread being checked. Thread gauges ensure that screw
threads are of the correct size as specified in the applicable standard.

Plug Screw Gauges

When gauging nuts or internal threads of full-form a “GO”, "NOT GO" plug gauge is used.
The gauge is accurately made to the minimum dimensions of the required thread, therefore
if it will assemble with the component it will ensure that the major, minor, and effective
diameters are not below the minimum dimensions; it will also ensure that any errors in
pitch, angle and thread form are insufficient to reduce the effective diameter below its
minimum.

Ring Screw Gauges

For the gauging of bolts or external threads the equivalent mating gauges are known as
ring screw gauges. As in the case of plug screw gauges a limit system can be provided by a
full-form “Go” and “Not-Go” effective ring gauge. As the factors involved are exact
counterparts of the gauging of internal threads. The “Go” ring gauge has a full-form thread,
and the “Not Go” gauge is truncated on the minor diameter, and cleared on the major
diameter at the root of thread.

GO and NOT GO screw ring gauges are used to check that an external thread is correct.
Plain ring or calliper gauges are used to check the diameter of an external thread.

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 Direct Measurement
Occasions are likely to occur when a threaded product is manufactured in quantities which
make it uneconomical to provide suitable gauges. Direct measurement of diameters, pitch
and flank angles is then carried out. Various devices are available for this including optical
machines in which projection of the thread form on to a screen allows the thread roots and
flanks to be checked for correct formation.

For workplace thread identification purposes a micrometer to determine the major diameter
and a set of thread gauges to determine the thread form and TPI is usually sufficient.

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 6.5.2 Bolts, Studs and Screws
A modern commercial aircraft is composed of many individual component parts, units and
assemblies. Amongst the most numerous of these are the fasteners, the nuts, bolts, screws
and rivets, that hold the whole thing together. In fact a Boeing 747 contains over 2 400 000
individual fasteners of many different types and sizes.

The word “fastener” is used as a general term to describe all of the various types of
fastening device employed in the construction of an aeroplane. It is necessary to use this
term because the meanings of the words “bolt” and “screw” for instance, may be interpreted
differently by separate organisations.

One commonly used definition says the word “bolt” describes a threaded fastener with a
plain (unthreaded) shank portion, whilst “screw” refers to a fully threaded item regardless of
thread size, head style or material. Another definition hold that any external wrenching (e.g.
hex drive) is a bolt, while and internally driven (e.g. slotted or Allen socket) item is a screw.

To avoid confusion it is easier to use the term threaded fastener although 'bolt' and 'screw'
are often used and are often interchangeable.

Features

General
The fastener systems discussed in this section are standard threaded fasteners and their
mating parts (washers, nuts, locking devices etc.). The various types of rivet, lock pin and
special threaded fastener are considered elsewhere.

A standard fastener comprises of a threaded portion, a head and sometimes a plain shank
or grip. Between the shank and the thread is a small tapered transition zone or lead-in and
between the shank and the head is stress relieving fillet radius.

A fastener will be defined by a number of parameters which are laid down in detail in it’s
specification. These include it’s Thread Form, Shank Diameter, Head Style, Grip Length,
Material, Surface Finish and Locking Facilities.

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 Head Style
The design of a fastener will be dictated by the specification requirements and the
environment that it is intended to operate in.

Where a flush surface is required, the fastener hole may be countersunk to accommodate
the head. The standard countersink angle is 1000 although variations do occur.

Flush fastener heads are provided with a Recess Drive or “slot”. This slot may be of one of
the following forms:

 Straight
 Radiused straight (“Hi-Torque”)
 Cruciform (cross shaped e.g. “Philips”)
 Off set cruciform (“Torq-set”)
 Off-set three point (“Tri-wing”),
 Splined (e.g. "Torx")or
 Hexagonal (Allen).

It is important to use the correct type and size of screwdriver or 'bit' as the wrong tool will
damage the head and may prevent successful removal of the fastener. Many fasteners
have the tool size stamped on the head.

The straight screwdriver should fit snuggly into the slot to its full depth most of it's width. It
should not be used on the Hi-Torque head which has a special curved slot and a dedicated
screwdriver bit.

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 Cruciform fasteners should be carefully identified as Philips, Reed and Prince, Posidrive
and Torque-set fasteners each have their own dedicated drivers, use of the wrong one will
damage the fastener slot and impair or prevent removal.

Tri-wing screws are easy to identify as they are the three point slots, however, it is
important to select the correct bit size.

Torx is a trade name for the hexalobular internal driving slot or Star head. It is a
standardised design so different sized drivers will fit fasteners from different manufacturers.

The Hexagonal socket or Allen head is driven by a hexagonal key sized in fractions of an
inch.

Protruding head fasteners may have any of the above Recess Drive slots in a variety of
head styles or may be External Wrenching.

External Wrenching fasteners have flats on the outer edges and may be turned with a
spanner or socket. They are normally hexagonal (6 point) or Bi-Hex (12 point). The head
size for both types is specified as the distance Across the opposite Flats of the hexagon
(AF) as a fraction of an inch or metric measurement. Therefore a 7/16 inch AF Bi-Hex socket
will fit both a 7/16 inch AF hex. bolt head and a 7/16 inch AF 12 point bolt head.

Note: BA, BSW and BSF head sizes are directly related to thread size, and spanner sizes
are specified by this, e.g. a 1/4 BSF spanner only fits a bolt or nut with a 1/4 BSF thread.

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 Fasteners holding parts together may be subjected to two types of “load”. Loads carried
along the length of a fastener are known as Tension loads whilst those felt across the
fastener are called Shear loads. A fastener in tension will require a head and nut of
sufficient strength to spread the load to the surrounding structure. A fastener taking only
shear loads may have the size of the head reduced to save weight. Most fasteners take a
combination of both loads and will be designed to carry them with an adequate safety
margin.

Grip Length
The nominal length depends on the style of the fastener in question. If the item has a plain
shank and protruding head the nominal length or “grip” is measured from the underside of
the head to the end of the plain shank.

If the item has a protruding head and is fully threaded the nominal length is a measure of
the threaded portion.

If the item has a Flush head (countersunk) the depth of the head is included in the nominal
length or grip.

The increments in which the length is measured varies between the standards systems and
must be determined before fastener identification can take place.

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 Material
Like head style, the material used will be dictated by the design requirements and operating
environment.

Factors to be considered in the selection of fastener material include required tensile

strength, corrosion resistance, temperature tolerance, weight and cost.

Materials commonly used include Alloy Steels, Corrosion Resistant and Stainless Steels,
Titanium Alloys, Nickel Chrome Alloys and Aluminium Alloys.

Each has its own properties, strengths and weaknesses. For instance Titanium Alloys are
lighter than steel, stronger and more heat resistant than Aluminium Alloys, have good
corrosion resistance characteristics and are more fatigue resistant than either of the above.
They are, however, prone to cracking if exposed to certain solvents and are more
expensive to produce.

Surface Finish
Most materials require some sort of coating to improve their corrosion resistance. The
coating or plating applied will depend on both the material and the intended environment.

The most common forms of protection for aircraft fasteners include Aluminium coating,
Anodising, Cadmium plating, Chromium plating, Nickel-Cadmium plating, Passivating,
Phosphate Fluoride coating and Silver plating.

Cadmium plating is the most common method of protecting steel and other ferrous alloy
fasteners. When electroplated onto a fastener it produces a tough golden-brown coloured
coating. However in areas where high temperatures occur, cadmium causes Hydrogen
Embrittlement in the component which may lead to it’s failure. In these circumstances small
components may be Silver Plated while other alloy’s must be selected for larger parts.

Some steels can be Passivated. This is an electrochemical process whereby the surface of
the component is converted to a chemically “passive” corrosion resistant state which does
not require plating. Aluminium Coating is another method of protecting fasteners. Pure
aluminium is extremely resistant to corrosion and a layer deposited on the fastener will
prevent it’s exposure to a corrosive environment. This coating is however, easily damaged.

Titanium Alloys may be protected by any of the above coatings or may be left un-coated
depending on the intended use.

Aluminium Alloy fasteners are usually Anodised. This is an electrochemical process which
produces a film of oxidised material on the surface which protects the item from further
corrosion.

Other coatings or surface treatments may be used and some fasteners may be treated with
organic coatings such as grease, wax or paint to protect them in transit.

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 Critical Bolted Joints
Many bolted joints on aircraft are regarded as being critical to the integrity of the structure.
To ensure the quality of the joint is acceptable, the tolerances of both bolt and hole are
carefully controlled. Bolts of this kind are referred to as Close Tolerance bolts and they are
normally installed into reamed holes.

Close Tolerance bolts are identified by a number of different markings, it is, however, vital
that all fasteners are selected by part number and installed as instructed, with reference to
the Approved Technical Publications.

If the hole has become elongated or has worn larger than the diameter of the bolt, the
whole purpose of the close tolerance concept has been destroyed. Reference must be
made to the Structural Repair Manual but repair will normally involve replacement by a
similar fastener with an oversized shank. Oversizes are normally available in 1/64"
increments.

Holes for close tolerance bolts may require special preparation. For instance certain holes
require Cold Working, a process where the hole is broached with a tool of specific diameter.
This compresses the material around the hole, improving fatigue resistance. If the hole has
to be oversized, this process may have to be repeated.

Locking Facilities
Most fasteners require some form of locking to prevent them from becoming loose when
subjected to vibration in operation. This may be provided by the mating parts or by a feature
of the fastener itself.

Many fasteners have holes drilled in the heads to allow them to be wire locked to an
adjacent fastener or a suitable part of the structure. Others have a hole drilled through the
threaded portion to allow a split pin to be used in conjunction with a suitable nut. Some
have a small nylon pellet inserted into a cutout in the thread or a patch of dry adhesive on
the thread to increase the friction and lock the nut in place.

The subject of locking will be covered later in these notes.

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 Usage
As can be seen there are a wide variety of fastener styles each with their own properties. It
is important that only the fastener specified for a particular location is used in that location.
Installation of the incorrect type of fastener may have catastrophic consequences.

The Illustrated Parts Catalogue (IPC) for the aircraft, equipment or unit, specifies each
individual fastener by Part Number and must always be used to identify the parts needed
for any job.

When a part is unavailable or has been superseded, an alternative part can only be
substituted under suitable authority. One source of information on acceptable alternatives is
the Structural Repair Manual (SRM) for an aircraft which gives a recognised substitutions
table.

Repair Schemes, Modifications and Service Bulletins (SB's) will also give information on
fastener substitution and replacement. An example is the issue of an SB by Boeing calling
for the replacement of all structural fasteners made from H11 alloy steel with fasteners
made of Inconel (Nickel Chromium alloy) on all Boeing airliners.

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 Nuts

General
Fasteners have to mate with a female thread form. This may be a threaded hole in a
structure or component or, more frequently, a nut. Like fasteners, nuts come in all shapes
and sizes, made from many different materials. It is therefore important to select
replacement nuts by part number from the Illustrated Parts Catalogue.

Standard nuts are hexagonal in shape and are usually the same size across flats as a bolt
of the same thread size. Often they are symmetrical, but some have an enlarged bearing
surface on one side and so must be used the right way up, these are sometimes referred to
as Engine nuts. Nuts are normally six to ten threads deep but thinner light weight versions
are available for shear applications.

Many are provided with locking facilities which include wire locking holes and split pin slots.
Some nuts have a plain raised portion to accommodate the slots without compromising the
screw thread, these are referred to as Castellated nuts.

Bi-hex or twelve-point nut are often used and these are of a smaller diameter than their
hexagonal counterparts and are thus lighter.

Wing nuts are used in non-structural applications where a quick release is required. The
wing may be drilled for wire locking.

Pal nuts are light weight pressed steel nuts of various designs which contain only a partial
thread and are usually used for non-structural purposes.

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 Stiffnuts
Stiffnuts are commonly used in the aerospace industry and have an element or feature
which increases the friction between the nut and its mating part to prevent loosening
caused by vibration. The most common methods are 'thread disruption' where part of the
thread is distorted radially or axially, and the 'insert' type where the fastener has to cut a
thread in a plastic or fibre insert.

In order to check the effectiveness of the friction element of a small diameter stiffnut, it is
general practice to turn the nut onto its mating thread by hand. If it is possible to pass the
thread through the friction element by hand, then the locking is unsatisfactory. However,
certain manufacturers specify acceptable limits of ‘in-built’ or frictional torque for various
thread types and sizes and in these instances each stiffnut should be checked with a torque
wrench before re-use.

Oddie Stiffnut
The top of this nut is counterbored, slotted vertically and depressed inwards to form a circle
of six tongues with the diameter slightly smaller than the bolt thread core diameter. As the
nut installed the threads of the bolt displace the tongues upwards, and a load is applied to
the contacting thread faces.

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 Philidas Stiffnut
This nut is made with a circular crown in which two slots are cut, one above the other with
an arc of about 270°. The wings are displaced downward thus providing locking tension.

Aerotight Stiffnut
This nut is made with a circular crown which is slotted across the diameter and also on
each side through an arc of 150°. The resultant wings are depitched and forced inwards,
thus causing a sideways as well as downwards tension on the bolt threads.

Note: These types are seldom encountered on modern aircraft.

Nyloc Stiffnut
This nut is counterbored at the top and spun over to retain a nylon insert, the insert is not
threaded and has an internal diameter slightly less than the diameter of the bolt to which it
is fitted. On assembly, the bolt displaces the nylon in forming a thread, and a high friction
value is set up between the load carrying sides of the thread in contact with the nylon. They
may be used only once and are not suitable for hot locations.

Nyloc Cap Nut

Similar to the Nyloc nut but incorporates a nylon insert in cap form to seal the end of the
bolt or screw to which the nut is fitted. A cap nut is used for special applications, such as in
pressurised cabins, fuel and oil tanks etc., when leakage or seepage along the bolt thread
is undesirable.

Kaylok
This nut is pressed from sheet steel and is both light and strong. The rear portion of the
threaded 'tube' is deformed to produce an ellipse. The mating thread will overcome the
distortion but the resilience of the nut will maintain a grip on the bolt. These nut have the
additional advantage that an internal Kaynar socket can be used in areas of restricted
access.

Lightweight Stiffnut
Like the Kaylok the top of this nut is distorted to an oval shape. When the nut is screwed on
to the bolt, the top of the nut is forced to assume the round shape of the bolt and thus
provides a locking device. When the nut is removed from the bolt it assumes its original
shape.

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 Care must be taken not to reject these stiffnuts as unserviceable due to the distortion which
is an integral feature of their design.
The term Lightweight is used because this type of stiffnut has the equivalent strength of
larger nuts with the same thread diameter. They are available in both hex and bi-hex form.

Anchor Nuts
Anchor nuts are stiffnuts which are retained (either fixed or floating) on a plate which is
riveted to the structure to provide a blind attachment. Where more than one nut is attached
to a plate they are referred to as Strip nuts.

Clip nuts are self locking threaded elements retained by a spring steel clip housing. When
slid over the edge of a thin flange, a small spring section centres it in the fastener hole.

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 Clinch Nuts have an unthreaded spigot which is swaged into the attachment hole in sheet
metal to retain them.

Sheet Spring Nuts

These nuts are used with standard and sheet metal self-tapping screws to support line
clamps, conduit clamps, electrical equipment, and access doors. The most common types
are the float, the two-lug anchor, and the one-lug anchor. The nuts have an arched spring
leek that prevents the screw from working loose. They should be used only where originally
used in the fabrication of the aircraft.

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 Point-Wrenching Nuts
These nuts are generally used where a nut with a high tensile length is required. These
nuts are installed with a small socket wrench. They are usually self-locking.

Shear Nuts
These nuts are designed for use with devices such as drilled clevis bolts and threaded
taper pins that are normally subjected to shearing stress only. They are usually self-locking.

Klincher Locknuts
Klincher locknuts are used to ensure a permanent and vibration proof, bolted connection
that holds solidly and resists thread wear. It will withstand extremely high or low
temperatures and exposure to lubricants, weather, and compounds without impairing the
effectiveness of the locking element. The nut is installed with the end that looks like a
double washer toward the metal being fastened. Notice in figure 5.20 that the end that looks
like a double hexagon is away from the metal being fastened.

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 Thread Inserts

General
With the assembly of units and components, fasteners are often installed in threaded holes.
With the periodic disassembly and reassembly of these parts during their maintenance
cycle, threads in softer metals will become worn and damaged. Thread inserts are usually
fitted in light alloy materials such as aluminium, magnesium, bronze and brass, to provide a
more resilient screw thread. They also produce a large diameter thread and thus a stronger
attachment point in the softer materials.

In addition, thread inserts are often specified for repair work in steel components, where the
original thread has been damaged and fitment of an insert enables the original size bolts to
be used without affecting interchangeability.

There are basically two types of inserts available. One is known as a wire thread insert
(often referred to by the trade name "Helicoil") and is made from specially formed wire
wound into a helical coil. The other is known as a thin wall insert and is made from a tube
with threads formed on both the inside and the outside surfaces. Both types are
manufactured in a variety of materials and finishes and may have either plain or selflocking
threads.

Thread inserts should only be used when specified in the relevant manual, drawing or
repair scheme and care should be taken to ensure that the correct insert is used.

Inserts should be installed strictly in accordance with the manufacturer’s instructions, since
there may be slight variations between inserts conforming to the same specifications.

Wire Thread Inserts

A wire thread insert is a precision formed wire of
diamond section (usually of spring steel or stainless
steel) wound into a helical coil, the crosssection of
the wire forming a thread both inside and outside the
coil. When correctly installed, the coil provides a
thread which conforms to a particular British
Standard or other specification with a good surface
finish and the inherent flexibility to compensate to
some degree for any errors of form in the engaging
bolt or screw. The radial pressure attained in fitting
the insert produces good self-locking characteristics.
The possibility of thread failure from vibration,
fatigue, corrosion or seizure is also reduced. Wire
thread inserts have a tang at the inner end to
facilitate fitting with a special tool; this tang may be
removed after installation if required.

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 Installation
Since the internal and external threads on a thread insert have the same number of threads
per inch and the internal thread is designed to be of standard size, then a special size tap is
required to cut the threads into which the insert is fitted. These special taps and checking
gauges are provided by the insert manufacturers. Installation procedures, which comprise
drilling and tapping the hole, thread gauging, insertion of the insert and removal of the tang,
are outlined.

Drilling
The hole for the insert should be drilled to the diameter and depth specified in tables
supplied by the insert manufacturer, the depth being calculated from the fitted length of the
insert, plus the thread runout, plus a half pitch gap at each end of the insert (see graphic).
Care should be taken to ensure that the hole is drilled in the correct location and square to
the surface, and that all swarf is removed before tapping. In some cases, particularly when
the hole is near to the edge of the component, it may be necessary to check for cracks by a
specified non-destructive testing method.

Thread Tapping
The thread should be tapped with a special tap provided by the insert manufacturer, a
straight-fluted tap being used for hand tapping and a spiral-fluted tap for machine tapping
where this is possible. Normal workshop practices should be used for tapping, with special
emphasis on cutting the thread coaxially with the hole. Lubricant should be used according
to the type of metal being cut, e.g. a light mineral oil is generally recommended for tapping
light alloys.

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 Thread Gauging
After the insert thread has been cut it should be cleaned of all swarf and foreign matter. The
thread should then be checked with a special GO/ NO GO plug gauge provided by the
insert manufacturer to ensure that the thread is satisfactory. Any thread imperfections
indicated by tightness of the GO gauge should be removed by further use of the original tap
or, if this is ineffective, by use of a new tap.

Fitting the Insert

An insert should be screwed into the tapped hole by the use of either an inserting key or an
inserting tool of the prewind type, depending upon which is recommended for the particular
insert. A different sized key or tool is provided for each size of insert.

The inserting key should be used by sliding the insert onto it so that the tang is engaged in
the driving slot at its forward end; the assembly should then be applied to the tapped hole,
compressing the insert downwards with the thumb and forefinger of one hand while turning
the key with the other hand; no downward pressure should be applied on the key. The
insert will wind into the thread and should be installed so that the outer end of the insert is
at least half a pitch below the surface of the component.

When a prewind tool is used, the insert should be placed in the chamber with the tang
towards the nozzle and the mandrel pushed forward through the insert to engage the tang
in the slot. The mandrel should be rotated clockwise and pushed gently forward to engage
the insert coil in the nozzle threads, rotation being continued until the insert is about to
emerge from the outer end of the nozzle. The tool should then be placed squarely over the
tapped hole and the handle rotated to transfer the insert from the tool into the tapped hole;
no forward pressure should be used.

Unless otherwise stated, inserts should be installed so that the outer coil is at least half a
pitch below the component surface.

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 Absolute cleanliness of the tapped hole and freedom from burrs is essential to prevent
distortion of an insert. When jointing compound or anti-corrosive compounds are specified,
they should be applied strictly according to the relevant instructions and surplus compound
should be removed as specified after installing the insert.

Removal of the Tang

It is not normally necessary to remove the tang of a wire thread insert from a blind hole, but
removal is usually specified in through holes for screw clearance or product appearance. A
tang in a through hole is removed by use of the inserting key used as a punch, with the tang
outside the engaging slot, or by use of a special punch. A sharp blow with a hammer on the
key or punch will fracture the wire at the notch where the tang joins the coil. To remove the
tang from an insert fitted in a blind hole, long round-nosed pliers are required; the tang
should be bent backwards and forwards through the insert bore until it fractures at the notch
and can be removed.

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 Removal of Inserts
If an insert has to be removed because of bad fitting, damage or wear, this can be done by
carefully picking out the top coil and bending it inwards to form a rough tang and
unscrewing it with the insertion tool or a pair of pliers.

Some manufacturers recommend the use of a tapered lefthand tap of appropriate size,
which grips the top coils internally and unwinds the insert when rotated. Others provide a
range of extractor tools which are fitted with hardened and tempered blades, the blade will
bite into the inner surface of the insert, which can then be unscrewed. After removal of an
insert, the threads in the hole should be carefully examined for damage before fitting a new
insert.

If thread damage is excessive, a repair insert or "Twinsert" can be fitted into the re-drilled
and tapped hole and a standard insert installed in to this.

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 Thin Wall Inserts
A thin wall insert comprises a tube with threads formed on its internal and external surfaces.
These inserts do not exert any outward radial pressure on the threaded holes into which
they fit, and are locked in position by various methods. Inserts are supplied in a variety of
types, materials and finishes, and the internal thread may be non-locking, or self-locking by
means of a deformed thread or nylon insert; inserts are identified and ordered by
manufacturer’s part numbers.

Key-locked Inserts

Drilling and Tapping

Tables provided by the manufacturer give details of the drill diameters, hole depths and
taps to be used to form the threaded holes for each size of insert. When preparing the
threaded holes, the general precautions outlined should be carefully followed.

Installation
The inserts may be screwed in by hand or by the use of an installation tool until the keys
butt against the component surface, this being the correct installed depth. The keys are
then driven into place by hammer blows or a press, using the installation tool as a punch.
When the keys are flush with the top of the insert, installation is complete.

Removal
Should it become necessary to remove a key-locked insert, this may be done as follows:-

 Drill out the insert to a diameter equal to the distance between two opposing key
slots and to the depth of the key heads.
 Deflect the keys inward with a punch and break them off.
 Remove the insert with a standard extractor.

After removal of the insert, the threads on the part should be inspected for damage. If the
threads are undamaged a replacement insert of the same size may be fitted, but care
should be taken to ensure that the keys are located in different places from the original
keys.

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 Swaged Inserts

Drilling and Tapping

The holes for these inserts must be drilled with a special drill and counterboring tool
supplied by the insert manufacturer for each size of insert. Holes should be drilled so that
the counterbore depth is as specified in the relevant tables for the insert concerned, and the
precautions outlined should be observed. The hole should be tapped using a tap of the
relevant size, to the drawing requirements. All swarf should then be removed and the
thread inspected.

Installation
A special insertion tool is used for installing these inserts (see graphic). The insert internal
thread is deformed in such a way as to permit the insertion of the hexagonal driver (unified
threads), or has three axial grooves (metric threads), so that the insert can be rotated. The
insert should be screwed into the threaded hole until it is the specified distance below the
component surface. The insert is swaged by hammer blows on the end of the tool and
installation is complete when the stop washer face contacts the component surface.

Note: Insertion tools for the larger sizes of inserts are power operated.

Removal
Where necessary, swaged inserts may be removed in the following way:

 Using a drill of the relevant diameter, drill the insert to the depth specified in the
manufacturer’s tables to separate the swaged portion of the insert.
 Carefully remove the swaged portion with a scriber or similar tool.
 Using the installation tool, unscrew and remove the threaded part of the insert.
 The thread and counterbore should be checked for size and damage. If satisfactory,
a replacement insert of the same size may be fitted.

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 Ring-locked Inserts

Drilling and Tapping

The holes for these inserts should be drilled and counterbored in a similar way to those for
swaged inserts. Similar drilling/counterboring tools should be used and the dimensions of
the holes should conform to those listed in the tables provided by the manufacturer; the
precautions outlined should also be observed. The holes should be tapped using a tap of
the specified size, to drawing requirements. All swarf should then be removed and the
thread should be inspected.

Installation
A special tool is used to install these inserts the bore having serration’s which fit the
serration’s of one particular size of insert. The insert should be screwed into the prepared
hole until its upper surface is 0.25 to 0.5 mm (0.010 to 0.020 in) below the component
surface. The locking ring should then be placed over the insert, so that the inner serration’s
engage those of the insert. Installation is completed by fitting the drive tool (see graphic)
into the locking ring (ensuring that it is square to the component surface), and hammering
the end of the tool so that the outer serration’s on the locking ring bite into the material
surrounding the counterbore. The installed locking ring should be flush with the surface of
the component.

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 Removal
When necessary, ring-locked inserts may be removed in the following way:

 Drill out the insert to the depth of the counterbore, using a drill of the diameter
specified in the tables provided by the manufacturer.
 Remove the insert by use of a standard stud extractor or a lefthand threaded tap of
suitable size.
 If necessary, use a punch to separate and remove the remaining portion of the
locking ring.
 Provided the hole thread is not damaged, a replacement insert and locking ring of
the same size may be fitted.

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 Washers
Plain washers are used to provide a smooth bearing surface between the nut an the
structure or component to protect it when tightening the nut. They may be used to spread
the load on a tightened bolt across a larger area. They may also be used to adjust the grip
length of a fastener.

Washers are produced in a variety of materials, sizes and thicknesses and must be
identified by part number and used accordingly.

Those intended for use under a bolt head often have a chamfer or countersink to
accommodate the under-head radius and must be used in the correct orientation.

Various anti-vibration and locking devices may be incorporated in washer design. Among
these are spring washers and shakeproof washers which are axially deformed to increase
friction between the nut or bolt and the structure it is installed on. These should be used
once and discarded. When used on light alloy structures a plain washer is also installed to
protect the surface.

Tab washers have a lug, which is located on the edge of a surface or in a hole provided to
prevent rotation, and two tabs which are bent up against the flats of the nut, once tightened,
to prevent loosening.

The 'Tinnerman' type washer is a large diameter aluminium washer with a countersunk
recess. It is used to attach fibreglass and composite panels, the large flange spreading the
load of the countersunk fastener to the surrounding material.

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 Studs

General
Studs are metal rods which are threaded at each end. They are used, where it is not
desirable or possible to drill through both components for the fitting of bolts. One end of the
stud is screwed, to the full extent of the thread, into a tapped hole in one component - the
'fast' end, a second component is placed onto the exposed plain portion of the stud and
clamped by a nut. They also provide a means of alignment control, particularly when they
are irregularly spaced.

Standard Studs
These are supplied in the following sizes: 3/16 , 1/4, 5/16 and 3/8 UNF. The plain portion is the
same diameter as the major diameter of the thread and the length is indicated by the part
number. The lengths of the threaded portions is dictated by the specification.

Waisted Stud
The diameter of the plain portion of the waisted stud is reduced to the
minor diameter of the threaded ends, making the stud lighter in weight,
without impairing its ultimate strength.

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 Stepped Stud
This type is made with one threaded end of larger diameter than the other. The large end
screws into the unit, which is usually of soft metal, so providing greater holding power.
Stepped studs are also used as replacements for damaged studs where the stud hole in the
job, which may also have been damaged, has to be drilled and tapped to a larger diameter.

Shouldered Stud
The integral shoulder, machined on the plain portion of the stud, seats firmly on the surface
of the job into which the stud is screwed, providing a more rigid assembly than could be
obtained with the use of an ordinary stud.

Where greater depth of thread engagement is required i.e., soft material, a coarse series
thread may be employed at the ‘fast’ (secured) end and a fine series thread at the clamping
nut end of the stud.

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 Insertion and Removal of Studs

Stud Replacement
A stud must be a good fit and should remain in position when the nut is removed. Studs that
are damaged or loose are to be removed and new ones fitted. There are a number of
accepted methods of stud replacement, some of the more common ones are detailed in the
following.

Note: If a anti-seize or locking compound is specified this must be applied prior to

replacement and in accordance with the manufacturers instructions.

Locknuts
Two plain nuts are screwed onto the top thread and locked against each other, the lower
nut being held by a spanner whilst the upper nut is tightened down onto it. The complete
assembly is screwed in using the top nut. When the stud is finally screwed down into
position both locknuts are removed and discarded. For removal, the two nuts are locked in
the same way and the lower one turned to loosen the stud.

Stud Box
This consists of a hexagonal body, with two different sized threads at each end and is
suitable for the insertion of two sizes of studs. The stud box is screwed onto the stud and
locked by a bolt, a soft metal disc between them is used to prevent damage to the stud and
the locking bolt. The stud is then fitted by turning the box body with a suitable spanner. Stud
box removal is effected by slackening the locking bolt and unscrewing the box body from
the stud.

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 Stud Tool
The Stud Tool consists of a hollow body with a handle attached. The upper end is threaded
to accommodate a locating screw, the other end contains internally machined cam faces.
Located in this end is a cage containing three hardened steel rollers which are free to move
radially within the limit of their axis holes in the cage. The cage assembly is retained within
the body by an end plate. The stud to be inserted or extracted, is passed through the hole
in the end plate until the plain portion of the stud is positioned within the cage. The locating
screw is adjusted to prevent further entry of the stud into the tool and prevent damage to
the threads.

When the tool body is rotated the light frictional grip of the rollers on the stud shank cause
them to rotate within the housing and ride round the cam faces. The rotating cam faces
force the rollers inwards, thus providing a tight grip on the stud shank. The stud then turns
with the tool in the direction of rotation. Partial rotation in the opposite direction will allow the
rollers to disengage from the stud shank thus permitting the tool to be removed. This tool is
not suitable for waisted studs.

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 Stud Removal
Loose or undamaged studs may be removed by the use of locknuts - (use spanner on the
lower nut), stud tool or universal stud extractors.

Universal Stud Extractors consists of a body machined to accommodate the square drive
socket bush (for use with ratchet handle or knuckle bar) and an eccentrically mounted
knurled wheel. The body is bored to allow the insertion of the largest diameter stud of the
tools range.

The stud is placed in the extractor until the plain portion is in line with the knurled wheel, a
suitable handle is inserted in the square drive socket. Initial movement of the handle rotates
the socket bush forcing the knurled wheel to contact and grip the plain portion of the stud,
further movement of the handle will turn the extractor body and stud. Slight rotation in the
opposite direction causes the knurled wheel to disengage from the stud shank allowing the
extractor to be removed.

The Stud Removal Wrench is a one piece tool that works on the same principle.

Note: These tools damage the plain portion of the stud which must be discarded after
removal

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 Damaged Studs
Those damaged or broken above the surface of the component may be removed by one of
the following methods:

 Unscrew stud with a suitable pipe wrench or stud removal tool

 File flats on projecting part of stud and use an open ended spanner or tap wrench to
unscrew.
 Cut and file screwdriver slot in projecting part and unscrew with a screwdriver.

Sheared or Broken Studs

For studs broken flush with or below the surface of the component one of the following
methods should be used:

 Drill out stud, tap over-size and fit stepped stud.

 Drill out stud, tap and fit threaded insert (or Twinsert).
 Drill (minor diameter of stud), pick out old loose thread, re-tap to standard size - use
only when accurate drilling and marking out facilities are available.
 Drill a hole approximately half the stud diameter. Drive in a square or splined tapered
drift, unscrew with a spanner - care must be taken not to expand the stud.
 Drill and tap the stud with a thread opposite hand to that of the stud, insert a bolt and
unscrew.

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 Ezy-Out Screw Extractor
This resembles a coarse left hand tapered tap and is used in conjunction with a tap wrench.
The recommended size of hole (indicated on the screw extractor) is drilled centrally in the
stud and the ‘Ezy-Out’ is inserted and tapped in. Rotating the wrench in an anti-clockwise
direction causes the extractor to screw in and grip the stud tightly until, when sufficient
turning movement is applied, the stud commences to unscrew. This type of extractor is
suitable for right hand threads only. Where space allows, step drilling the hole increases the
contact area between the stud and the extractor.

CAUTION: THE HARDNESS OF THIS TOOL MAKES IT VULNERABLE TO BREAKING

IF SIDE LOADS/HIGH TORQUE IS APPLIED.

Rigid Type Screw Extractor

This extractor is issued as a boxed set; the set consists of a quantity of twist drills, drill
guides, extractor shafts and hexagonal adapters, covering a specified range of screws. A
table containing all relevant data is contained on the lid of the box supplied with the set. The
specified drill guide is placed in the hole of the sheared stud and a drill is passed through,
boring a hole in the centre of the stud, (this accessory can only be used when the stud is
broken beneath the surface of the component). The extractor shaft, which is hardened and
serrated is driven into the drilled hole and the internally serrated hexagonal adapter is
placed in position on the shaft. A suitable spanner is applied to the adapter and the whole
assembly including the stud, is turned to unscrew it.

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 Spark Erosion
Hardened steel studs and screws can be removed by this method. The metal is removed by
the thermal effect of electric discharges across the gap between the tool electrode and the
broken stud. The electrode which is approximately the minor diameter of the stud, is
mechanically vibrated so that periodic contacts with the metal to be removed is made.
When contact is made the current will flow and as the electrode leaves the workpiece an
arc will be struck, this however, will be quenched by the fluid in which the specimen is
immersed. The spark gap is maintained automatically as erosion proceeds. On completion
of this process the remaining threads are removed.

Note: These methods which detail the repair action, may only be used when
authorised in the relevant repair schedule.

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 Bolted Joints
The strength and reliability of bolted joints, or any joint dependant on a screw thread, is
governed by the quality of the assembly.

In order that the full strength of a nut is to be realised, it is essential that the bolt thread is
fully engaged with the nut. Nut thickness standards have been drawn up on the basis that
the bolt will always sustain tensile fracture before either the nut or bolt thread will strip.
Typically the first few pitches of a thread are only partially formed because of the chamfer
and thread lead-in or run-out areas. It is, therefore vital that the bolt thread protrudes
through the nut. Failure to ensure this runs the risk that thread stripping will occur.

It is common practice to specify that one to two full thread pitches must protrude although
sometimes a measurement is given. Boeing and Airbus specify that for flat ended bolts of
all sizes the minimum protrusion is 1/32 inch, while for bolts with a chamfered lead-in the
entire chamfer must protrude. A British requirement calls for the chamfer plus one full
thread (i.e. 1.5 - 2.5 threads). When these requirements have been met the bolt is said to
be "In Safety".

Conversely if the bolt is too long the nut may run out of thread before the desired tension is
achieved. In this situation the assembly is said to be "Thread-bound". Attempting to tighten
the assembly further will damage both the nut and bolt threads and may make disassembly
difficult. Ineffective clamping caused by a thread-bound bolt leaves the joint weakened and
subject to movement and wear.

Selection of the correct fasteners using the Illustrated Parts Catalogue will usually prevent
assemblies having insufficient or excessive thread protrusion and differences from the
stated part should be investigated. A certain amount of discretion is sometimes given by the
manufacturer and the engineer must select the best grip length for a given part number.
The use of packing washers to modify the grip length is permitted only within limits stated in
the Structural Repair Manual.

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 Where a ring of bolts, or nuts on studs, are used to hold and assembly flange together, or a
cover plate in place, even clamping is essential to ensure a good seal is achieved. It is
usual practice to tighten the fasteners in stages and in a specific order to ensure the correct
installation.

The order for tightening the fasteners is sometimes given in the maintenance or overhaul
manual but when it is not stated, fasteners should be tightened as diametrical opposites.
The diagrams illustrate the order for various types of joint.

The manual may specify stages to tightening, e.g. tighten all bolts finger tight, then in
sequence to half required tightness, then in same sequence to fully tight, then back off half
turn and tighten to final value in sequence. Some instructions require repeated tightening in
sequence until none of the fasteners drop out of the torque range. If no stages are specified
it is good practice to partially tighten diametric opposites to seat the component before
applying final torque in the same sequence.

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 Torque Loading

General
All fasteners must be tightened to a controlled 'tightness'. This is done not to prevent the
fastener from loosening (that is accomplished by the locking devices and mechanism
described elsewhere) but to ensure that the clamping force of the fastener is adequate and
the tensile load on it has not exceeded its limits.

When a nut is tightened onto a bolt, clamping material between them, the tendency is to
stretch the bolt shank. This action controls the clamping force up to the elastic limit of the
bolt material. Beyond this point the bolt becomes permanently deformed and the clamping
load can no longer be relied upon. The bolt also becomes weakened at the elastic limit and
if loaded further, either during installation or in service, it will fail.

For fasteners used in pure shear applications the clamping action is of little significance so
the upper limit is more important. However for most applications, which are in tension, or
tension and shear, the fastener must be tightened to a point between the critical upper and
lower limits.

The tension on a fastener can be determined by measuring the amount it stretches during
tightening and indeed this is done on some vital bolted joints. It is, however, an awkward
process and is not suitable for the majority of threaded fasteners installed on an aircraft. A
more common method is to measure the amount of torque applied to the fastener.

Torque is force applied in rotary motion. Knowing the pitch of the thread it is possible to
determine the tension on the fastener from the torque applied to it. This method is easy to
apply but less accurate due to factors such as the friction between the threads.

Torque measurements are derived from the force applied and the distance from the axial
centre at which it is applied;

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 Torque = Force X Length of Lever

It is measured in units such as pounds force/inches (lb/in, lbf.in, inch/ pounds), pounds/feet
(lb/ft, lbf.ft, foot/pounds), kilogram/metres (kg/m), newton/metres (N/m, mN) and deka-
Newton/metres (daNm, mdaN). While both imperial and metric values are quoted in
maintenance manuals nowadays, in the UK aviation industry most organisations use
imperial measurements.
The most basic method of measuring a torque value is to use a force measuring device
such as a spring balance on the end of a spanner or wrench of known length.

This method is, however, cumbersome an difficult to achieve in areas of restricted access.
For this reason direct reading instruments have been developed.

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 Torque Wrenches

There are basically three types of torque wrench.

Flexible Beam Type

One type contains a flexible beam which bends under load. On the more basic tool a
pointer attached to the flexible beam indicates on a scale attached to the socket drive block,
while the more modern torque wrenches have a geared mechanism and the amount of
bend is shown by a needle on a dial which is graduated in units of torque. The dial often
has a follow-up needle which records the maximum torque achieved.

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 Break Type
The second type contains a spring loaded over-centre device which must be preset before
use. When this preset torque is reached, the wrench ‘breaks’ with an audible click and
jump. Further tightening of the fastener will increase the torque. On this type the spring
mechanism is tensioned and the torque preset by rotating the handle or an attached knob,
a scale on the shaft indicates the torque value set. The socket drive can usually be pushed
through to allow torque loading in either direction.

Similar to this is the Slipper type torque wrench containing a clutch mechanism which slips
at the preset torque and prevents over-tightening. This type is usually used on production
lines and is factory set so it cannot be adjusted by the operative.

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 For smaller sizes of nuts and bolts screwdriver type torque wrenches are available which
break when the set torque is reached. Again it is important not to continue tightening the nut
or bolt beyond the break point, otherwise the fastening will be over tightened. The torque
setting may be adjusted by turning a ring with a datum mark against a calibrated scale, or
turning an allen key.

Slipper type torque screwdrivers are also available for production line use.

Dial Measuring Type

The Dial Measuring type torque wrench uses a calibrated spring to measure the torque,
while a gear mechanism produces the dial reading. An overload protection rod is included
to protect the mechanism, but it will not prevent too much torque being applied. The dial
often has a follow-up needle which records the maximum torque achieved, and sometimes
a light or buzzer which operates when a predetermined torque is reached.

The socket head incorporates a ratchet mechanism so that fasteners can be spun down
and torqued with the same tool. It also has a socket drive on both sides so that torque can
be applied in both directions.

Due to its accuracy and durability, the Dial Measuring torque wrench is the preferred type in
the aircraft industry.

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 In instances where very high torque values are required, such as gas turbine engine shaft
nuts, mechanical torque multipliers and hydraulically powered 'spanners' are used. The
torque multiplier is a gearbox which increases the input torque value by a set factor e.g. 4
X, 10X etc. The hydraulic torque spanner has gauges which indicate hydraulic pressure
applied and must be converted into a torque value. These can achieve values in excess of
80,000 lb. ft.

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 Calibration of Torque Wrenches
All torque wrenches that are used on aircraft must be regularly inspected, tested and
calibrated by a facility equipped to do so. The equipment must carry evidence of the facility
that certified the equipment and the date that it is due for recalibration/inspection.

If the calibration sticker date has expired or it is believed the instrument is faulty do NOT
use the measuring equipment but return to the standards facility responsible for its
calibration.

Prior to use, a confidence check should also be performed to satisfy the user that the
wrench calibration is accurate. Torque testing machines are available at all tool issue stores
for this purpose.

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 Torque Loading
Where a Maintenance Manual does not give a specific torque loading for a fastener it is
assumed that the Standard Torque value applies. Standard Torque tables are included in
Chapter 20 - Standard Practices of the Maintenance Manual.

Separate tables are often included for shear head fasteners, stiffnuts, pipe union nuts,
clamps and studs.

Recommended Techniques
Torque loading instructions vary slightly between aircraft and engines and most
manufacturers specify lubricated torque values i.e. threads and mating surfaces lubricated
with oil or anti-seize compound, but some applications require dry torque values. Due to the
varying effects of friction under different conditions of assembly it is important that torque be
applied in accordance with the manufacturer’s instructions. The pre-load applied to a
fastener at a specified lubricated torque would be considerably higher than if the same
torque were applied dry.

It is normal practice to tighten the nut, as friction between the fastener shank and the hole it
passes through will give an inaccurate indication of the torque applied. The Standard
Torque table gives a correction factor for cases where the fastener must be turned.

It may be necessary to check the frictional torque of stiffnuts before reuse, using a torque
wrench, acceptable values are given in the Maintenance Manual. Also, the frictional or run-
down torque of a stiffnut may need to be added to the torque for the type and size of thread
('torque added rollon', T.A.R.)

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 Assembly
To remove the roughness from threads and mating surfaces when assembling new
components which require high torque loadings:

1. Clean, and where specified, lubricate the threads and mating surfaces of nut,
bolt and washer.
2. Tighten the nut to half the specified torque value.
3. Slacken the nut then finally re-tighten to the specified torque value.

Torque should be applied with a gently rising pressure, not jerks of the wrench and
pressure must be released as soon as the desired torque is indicated.

When the torque loaded fastener is to be secured by means of a split pin or lock wire,
tighten first to the low limit of the torque range. If necessary, tighten the fastener so that the
next slot aligns with the hole, ensuring that the maximum torque is not exceeded. If the
maximum torque is reached and the slot in the nut does not line up with the hole in the bolt,
the nut and washer must be changed.

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 The torque wrench selected for a particular use should have a range such that the specified
torque falls within the upper range of the scale.

Ensure that a torque wrench with a floating drive is used the right way round e.g. Britool
type.

Fasteners which may have been tightened beyond the maximum specified torque value,
must be removed and scrapped.

Where it is necessary to re-torque a fastener assembly, the nut must be backed off part of a
turn and re-tightened to the specified value.

Whenever a torque wrench is used, it must be confirmed that the specified torque and the
wrench are in the same units. If they are not, then the specified torque should be converted,
by calculation, to the units shown on the wrench scale. Any measurements taken must be
taken in appropriate units.

Some Useful Conversions

lb ft. x 1.35 = Nm
Nm x 0.74 = lb. ft.
lb. in x 0.113 = Nm
Nm x 8.849 = lb. In.
lb. In. x 1.15 = Kg. Cm
Kg. Cm x 0.87 = Ib. in.
Ib. ft. x 12 = Ib. in.
lb. in. 12 = lb. ft.

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 Torque Correction
If a torque wrench is used in conjunction with a socket type of spanner the nut and torque
wrench square drive will coincide and the torque applied to the nut may be read directly
from the wrench scale. However, in some cases an extension spanner or adaptor may have
to be used in conjunction with a torque wrench and the torque applied to the nut will be
different from the torque shown on the torque wrench scale.

The illustration shows a typical flexible dial measuring type torque wrench which has an
extension spanner attached. If this combination is used to torque load a fastener, then the
following formula must be used to calculate the torque wrench scale reading which
corresponds to the specified torque value.

Scale Reading = Specified Torque x

L = Distance between drive and centre of handle

X = Length of extension spanner between centres

Example:

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 The specified torque to be applied to a particular bolt is 200 lbs. ins. The torque wrench is
12 in. long between the centre of the handle and the drive and is used with a 3 in.
extension. What must the reading be on the torque wrench scale?

When using a torque wrench where it is necessary to diverge by more than 15 degrees
from a straight line, then the direct distance (D) between the nut and the wrench handle
must be substituted for (L + X) in the formula;

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 Pre-Load Indicating Washers

Precision Torque Loading

The value of the pre-load applied to a fastener by means of a torque wrench may vary
considerably and, because of this, specified torque loadings are usually low compared with
the actual strength of the fastener. In certain critical bolted joints the manufacturer may
consider that more accurate clamping is required and specify the use of Pre-Load Indicating
(PLI) washers.

Pre-Load Indicating Washers

PLI washers consist of concentric inner and outer rings and two highstrength steel washers
as shown. The outer ring is thinner than the inner ring and has a series of radial holes
drilled through it.

A stiff wire tool is inserted in holes in the outer ring and used to check whether the ring is
free to rotate. As the nut is tightened the inner ring is compressed until, at a predetermined
pre-load, the outer ring is nipped between the washers; at this point the outer ring can no
longer be rotated and tightening is complete.

PLI washers are unaffected by thread or nut friction, or by lubrication and provide a means
of pre-loading a bolt which is more consistent than torque loading. The pre-load applied to
the particular size of bolt can be varied to suit its application by changes in the material or
dimensions of the inner ring. However, since the inner ring is compressed during tightening
it can only be used once and if slackened must be replaced.

Due to the method of tightening, PLI washers can only be used with selflocking nuts.

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 Fastener Systems

British Fastener Standards

Fasteners used on aircraft and aeronautical equipment constructed in Britain usually
conform to one of two national standards. These are the British Standards (BS) “A” Series
of Aircraft Materials and Components, and the Society of British Aerospace Companies
(SBAC) “AS” Series of specifications. The older Aircraft General Standards (AGS) system
has been superseded by these, however the term “AGS” is commonly used when referring
to aircraft Standard Parts even when they are of American origin.

Threads
Historically, British fasteners had either British Association (BA) British Standard Whitworth
(BSW) or British Standard Fine (BSF) threads although more recently the standard Unified
thread forms Unified Fine (UNF) and Unified Coarse (UNC) have become the international
industry standard. All modern commercial aircraft are constructed with fasteners having a
Unified thread form, the older British threads rarely being encountered.

Part Numbers
Parts conforming to the British Standards system have part numbers starting with the letter
'A' followed by a three digit code which describes the physical shape, material, finish,
thread form and size range. This is followed by a dash (-) and for bolts a number
representing the grip length then a letter indicating the shank diameter. The letter code
used is common across the British specification Systems. For screws the dash number and
letter are reversed.

The units in which the grip length is measured vary and may be 1/10, 1/16 or 1/32 inch
increments depending on the fastener type and size.

Examples:
A102-10E
A102 = Bolt, Hex Head, High Tensile Steel, Cad Plate, Unified 2A thread
size
440 UNC to 1 inch UNF.
10 = Grip Length in 1/10 inch = 1 inch,
E = 1/4-28UNF.

A206-B 16
A206 = Screw, 1000 csk. Head, Corrosion Resistant Steel, Natural
Finish,
Unified 2A thread, size 440 UNC to 10- 32 UNF.
B = 6-32UNC.
16 = Nominal length in 1/32 inch = 1/2 inch

SBAC
The SBAC Aircraft Standards system offers a supplementary range of fastener designs
using different head styles and special materials. Some AS parts are coded in a similar

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 manner to the BS “A” series with the “AS” number defining the style, material, thread form
and size range, followed by a dash number and letter for grip length and diameter.

Example:
AS2-5E
AS2 = Bolt, 1000 csk. Head, Titanium, Natural Finish, Unified Thread.
5 = Grip Length in 1/10 inch = 1/2 inch.
E = 1/4 -28UNF.

Others however, have a range of numbers allocated to a particular fastener style, each
number within that range describing a different diameter and grip length.

Example:
AS22450
Falls into the range 22400-22799 and is a close tolerance, Bi-Hex bolt made from material
conforming to spec. DTD 5066 with a shank diameter and thread form from 10-32 to 3/8-24
UNF. The actual size of the item would have to be found from the specification Data Sheet
tables.

Mating Parts
Unified British nuts usually conform to the British Standard, or SBAC specification Systems
and are numbered in a similar manner to the fasteners. The letter indicating thread size
may be followed by a further letter, added to indicate the nut style (P = Plain, T = Thin, S =
Slotted, C = Castellated) when this is not included in the basic specification.

Example:
A105PC
A105 = Nut, Corrosion Resistant Steel, Natural Finish, Size range 4-40
UNC
to 1 inch UNF.
P = 9/16 UNF.
C = Castellated.

Washers, split pins and other common standard parts will conform to the British Standards,
SBAC or AGS specification systems.

British Standards parts generally start with the prefix “SP” followed by a number defining
the part and the letter code for the size. Further letters may be added for information about
materials, surface finish, another dimension etc.

Example:
SP90C8
SP90 = Split Pin, Corrosion Resistant Steel.
C = Diameter 1/16 inch.
8 = Length in 1/16 inch increments = 1/2 inch.

AGS washers and standard parts, although intended for use with the older British fasteners
(BA, BSW and BSF), may also be compatible with Unified components but should only be
used where specified.

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 Markings
Where possible, fasteners will carry some form of identification marking, such as part or all
of the components Part Number or an identification code. Smaller parts, however, will
usually have no markings and can only be identified from their release documentation or by
measurement and careful comparison with the standards tables.

Many British parts with Unified threads have markings to differentiate them from similar
parts with British thread forms. These markings may be contiguous circles stamped onto
the bolt head or nut (A and B), a recess in the bolt head (C) or an extended shank or “Dog”
point on the end of the threaded portion (D).

Extensive information on the British Systems can be found in CAAIP's. Leaflets 3-3 and 3-4.

Substitution
Alternative parts may be substituted as indicated in the Structural Repair Manual for the
aircraft concerned or under the authority of the Technical Services department. It is
common practice within many organisations to replace British bolts with their American
equivalents when required as they are cheaper and more readily available.

The identification of bolts and screws located on aircraft may not always be an easy task
since not all are marked to show the standard to which they conform. We set out to show
the features from which positive identification may be made, but it should be understood

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 that items exist, which although identical in appearance, may not be interchangeable. It is
also important to understand the direction of stress in a particular bolt since a ‘shear’ bolt
must not be used to replace a ‘tension’ bolt. If any doubt exists as to the identity of a
particular item the appropriate Parts Catalogue should be consulted; replacement of an
incorrect part may lead to failure in service.

It will be found that a number of specifications are either obsolete or obsolescent, in some
instances due to the standardisation of a countersunk head of 100° included angle. The
replacements are indicated in the tables.

Information on the identification of nuts of British manufacture are provided later in these
notes.

British Standards
Here we are concerned with the identification of bolts and screws complying with the British
Standards ‘Aircraft’ (A) series..

Bolts and Screws Having Unified Threads

The table opposite gives a list of current and obsolescent bolts and screws in the Unified
range. The diagram also illustrates the type of head used in this range and also shows the
general ‘Unified’ symbols, including (H) the cylindrical extension (dog point) sometimes
used on parts not having hexagon shaped heads.

It will be noticed that there are several styles of hexagon head; these are alternative
methods of manufacture and do not necessarily provide a means of identification, although
A108 and A111 bolts, which have close tolerance shanks, have a cylindrical extension on
top of the head and shear bolts always have thin heads.

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 British Standard Fasteners with Unified Threads

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 Bolts and screws of similar shape may be further identified by the material; aluminium alloy
is dyed green, high tensile steel is cadmium plated and corrosion resistant steel or brass
are normally uncoated. When the British Standard number is not marked on the bolt head,
identification should be made as follows.

Identify the head, for example (g). Reference to the table shows that the bolt could be an
A113, A114 or A170. Complete identification is possible in this example from the type of
finish; in other instances it may be derived from further information, such as diameter or
thread length, contained in the table.

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 Code System for Unified Bolts and Screws
The code system used for the identification of the bolts and screws listed in the previous
table consists of the Standard number followed by the part number of the particular bolt.
The diameter code shown in the table (below) is used on all parts but the measurement of
length varies with different Standards as follows:

Code Diameter Code Diameter

Y 0-80 UNF J 3/8" UNF (UNJF)
Z 2-64 UNF L 7/16" UNF (UNJF)
A 4-40 UNC N 1/2" UNF (UNJF)
B 6-32 UNC P 9/16" UNF (UNJF)
C 8-32 UNC Q 5/8" UNF (UNJF)
D 10-32 UNF UNJF) S 3/4" UNF (UNJF)
E 1/4" UNF (UNJF) U 7/8" UNF (UNJF)
G 5/16" UNF (UNJF) W 1" UNF (UNJF)

 All bolts from A102 to A212 inclusive, nominal length in tenths of an inch followed
by the diameter, e.g. an A102, 10-32 UNF bolt with plain length of one inch =
A102-10D.

Note: Some bolts are also supplied in lengths of 0.05 inch in some specifications, e.g. an
A170-1/2D bolt has a plain length of 0.05 inch.

 All screws from A204 to A221 inclusive, diameter followed by length in thirty
seconds of an inch, e.g. a 4-40 UNC A2l7 screw 1 inch long = A217-A32.
 All bolts from A226 to A232 inclusive, diameter followed by nominal length in
sixteenths of an inch, e.g. a 1/4 inch UNJF A229 bolt with plain length of one inch
= A229-E16.

Note: The position at which the nominal length of bolts is measured is shown opposite and
does not include the thread run-out.

Extent or Marking
The markings actually applied to a bolt depend on the particular specification and whether
marking is practical. Adding the code ‘A17-Z32’ to the head of a 2-64 UNF pan head screw
(head diameter 0.155 to 0.167 in), for example, would be very difficult, and having raised
characters on a countersunk head bolt would, in certain circumstances, defeat the object of
using that shape of head.

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 ‘Unified’ Marking
Most bolts, and screws 4-40 UNC and larger, are marked with a symbol to show that they
have ‘Unified’ threads. The markings consist of contiguous circles (hexagon headed bolts
only), a recessed head or shank dog point as illustrated previously.

Note: At some future date, yet to be agreed, the ‘Unified’ marking of screws will be
discontinued and identification of these items will be solely from the label on the
package.

Code Markings
Most hexagon head bolts 10-32 UNF and larger are marked with the full code, i.e. Standard
plus size code, but pan and mushroom head bolts may only be marked with the bolt length
and countersunk head bolts are not usually marked at all. The code is not applied to
screws, or bolts smaller than 10-32 UNF.

‘AS’ Bolts and Screws

This paragraph is concerned with the identification of bolts and screws complying with the
Society of British Aerospace Companies (SBAC) ‘AS’ series of specifications. The
specifications provide a range of bolts and screws in sizes, materials and head shapes not
found in British Standards specifications. The following are examples of this range.

This table shows the AS specifications for ‘round head’ bolts with a locking flat and Unified
threads. These bolts are manufactured from high tensile steel and are cadmium plated.

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 Double Hexagon Head Bolts
This table shows the AS specifications for double hexagon head bolts manufactured from
heat resistant steel and having UNS (Unified Special) or UNJF threads. Requirements for
protective treatment vary between specifications, some bolts being silver plated while
others have a natural finish.

Note: The UNS bolts listed in the table have reduced diameter threads for use in high
temperature applications and should be fitted with nuts complying with specifications
AS20620 to AS20639.

For purposes of standardisation a further series of heat resistant bolts with UNJF threads is
being introduced to replace those with UNS threads.

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 BA and BSF Bolts
Note: In the earlier UK system (which may be encountered on older, or home-constructed,
light aircraft), bolts more than ¼ inch diameter are normally BSF, whilst bolts less than ¼
inch diameter (and most screws) are BA. Both of these items also use a number to
represent their nominal length and a letter code (as can be seen in Table 5.3) to identify
their diameter.

Other bolts of this era may have nicks at the corners of the head (High Tensile Steel) or a
raised ring on the bolt head (Cold Rolled) to assist differentiation of their particular
designations.

Code Size Code Size

A 6 BA P 9/16" BSF
B 4 BA Q 5/8” BSF
C 2 BA S 3/4" BSF
E 1/4” BSF U 7/8" BSF
G 5/16" BSF W 1" BSF
J 3/ 8" BSF X 12 BA
L 7/16" BSF Y 10 BA
N 1/2" BSF Z 8 BA
Examples of BA And BSF Bolt and Screw Codes

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 Nuts of British Manufacture

Introduction
This section provides guidance on the identification of nuts complying with British
Standards ‘A’ Series of Aircraft Materials and Components, with Aircraft General Standards
(AGS) Specifications and with certain specifications in the Society of British Aerospace
Companies ‘AS’ Series.

Failure of a fastener through the use of an incorrect nut could cause malfunction and in
certain circumstances, lead to the jamming of controls. It is most important therefore, that
engineers and inspectors should be acquainted with the features by which any particular
type of nut may be identified. A nut may have the correct type of thread but it may be
unsuitable for some other reasons such as material, temperature classification or length of
thread; it is also possible to fit a nut of incorrect size, e.g. a 10- 32 UNF nut may fit an 8-32
UNC screw. These dangers may be minimised by constant vigilance during servicing
operations.

British Standards Nuts Having Unified Threads

The table opposite gives a list of the BS ordinary hexagon nuts and overleaf, the Standards
applicable to stiffnuts of various types.

Identification
Nuts with Unified threads may be identified by their shape, type of finish and thread size.
Additionally, all nuts other than anchor nuts, 8-32 UNC and larger, are marked with the
‘Unified’ symbol of contiguous circles. The identification of smaller nuts may be more
difficult, for example, an A222, 2-64 UNF nut is similar to an old A47, 8 BA nut, and it may
be necessary to try the nut on a bolt of known thread to achieve positive identification.

Nuts listed, larger than 3/8 inch diameter, are marked with the British Standard number.

Note: Shear nuts (E) and (F) are 0.2 inch thick in all sizes.

Code System
The code system used for the identification of nuts having Unified threads consists of the
British Standard number followed by a letter indicating the size of thread , followed, when
appropriate, by a letter indicating the type of nut, i.e. P (Plain nut), S (Slotted nut), C
(Castellated nut) and T (Thin nut). These letters are not, however, applied to the nut. For
example, the complete part number used on drawings or when ordering a 7/16 inch UNF
ordinary A107 nut is A107LP but the nut is only marked ‘A107’. Where stiffnuts are
concerned, the part number is not marked on nuts of any size, but over 3/8 inch diameter a
letter indicating thread size is applied.

Left-Hand Threads
Left-hand threads in nuts are indicated by the use of the suffix letter ‘L’. Thus the reference
number for a 4-40 UNC ordinary brass nut complying with BS A210 would be A210 APL,
i.e. the Standard number + the diameter letter + the nut type + left-hand thread. The letter
‘L’ is also applied to one of the hexagon faces of the nut. There is no provision made for
left-hand threads in the specifications relating to stiffnuts.

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 Stiffnuts of British Manufacture
Stiffnuts ¼ inch UNF and larger which are manufactured from corrosion resistant steel, are
marked with the letter ‘Z’, either on one flat or on the base plate; when the nut is also silver
plated, the letter ‘X’ is added to or replaces the ‘Z’. Brass anchor nuts are marked with the
letter ‘B’ and all hexagon brass stiffnuts have a washer face.

Note: The shape of the friction element on a stiffnut should not be taken as an identification
feature. These are usually patented devices and depend on the design favoured by the
particular manufacturer. Nut specifications normally only quote the maximum dimensions of
the friction element and the frictional unscrewing torque required.

Manuals for older types of aircraft may be found to contain only special torque loading
requirements and a single table applicable to non selflocking nuts, in these cases the
frictional torque of a stiffnut must be added to the torque quoted for the type and size of
thread.

Anchor Nuts
As previously mentioned, hexagon, clinch and strip stiffnuts are marked with a ‘Unified’
symbol to show the type of thread used. Anchor nuts are not marked as Unified because
the shape of the base plate is considered to be adequate for recognition purposes; these
are much smaller and less angular than those fitted to similar stiffnuts with the older thread
forms in the AGS range of specifications.

Clinch Nuts, A122 to A124

A similar coding system to that described above is used, followed by a number indicating
the length of spigot required. A choice of three spigot lengths is specified for each size of
nut, depending on the thickness of material through which the nut is to be clinched.

When it is necessary to differentiate on the drawing or order between metallic and non-
metallic friction element stiffnuts in the steel and corrosion-resistant steel ranges, the suffix
‘/66’ or ‘/77’ respectively is added to the part reference. For example, the complete part
reference for a 1/4 inch UNF steel nut with a metallic friction element is A125 E/66, and for a
nut of the same size with a non-metallic friction element A125 E/77. A part reference
without such a suffix indicates that either type of nut may be used.

Stiffnuts complying with British Standards A180, A181, A186, A187, A192, A193, A200 and
A201 may be supplied unplated for use in that condition, or for subsequent plating by the
user for applications where plating other than silver is required. When ordering such nuts,
‘/UP’ should be added to the reference number. For example a 5/16 inch UNF corrosion-
resisting steel, thin, double-lug, floating anchor nut unplated, is A193 G/UP.

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 Double Hexagon Stiffnuts
A range of double-hexagon stiffnuts manufactured from heat resistant steel and having
UNJF threads, is provided in the SBAC, AS series 20623 to 20630, representing thread
sizes 8-36 UNJF to 9/16 -18 UNJF. These nuts are specified for use on the AS series of heat
resistant bolts with UNJF threads, and may be identified from the AS number marked on
the extended washer portion of the nut. They are illustrated here.

No markings are applied to the nuts but they are quite different from either the BS or AGS
stiffnuts and may be identified purely from their shape. For storage and ordering purposes
the nuts are identified by the AS number, followed by a size code letter as shown
previously.

Ordinary and Anchor Stiffnuts

A series of AS specifications for lightweight hexagon and anchor stiffnuts has been
produced in the range AS 8600 to 8661. These nuts are manufactured from high tensile
steel and are considerably lighter than conventional nuts; all are now manufactured with
UNJ threads.

A further code is necessary for ordering strip nuts, and this consists of a number
representing the distance between nut centres in eighths of an inch, followed by an
additional number representing the number of nuts required in a strip. A 10-32 UNF strip
nut with 0.75 inch nut spacing and having 10 nuts would therefore be, AS 8612FD/6/10.

As with the BS and AGS stiffnuts, the shape of the friction device is optional, the
specification merely stating the maximum or minimum limits as appropriate. A further
stipulation with this series of nuts is the maximum permissible weight per 100 units (and
weight per inch for strip nut channels).

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 American Fastener Standards

Standards
Aircraft of American manufacture are considered with fasteners, parts and materials
conforming to one of several Standards or Specifications Systems. These include:

 Army Air Corps (AC),

 Air Force/Navy Specifications (AN),
 American Society of Mechanical Engineers (ASME),
 American Standards Association (ASA),
 Federal Specifications (various codes),
 Military Standards (MS or Mil),
 National Aerospace Standards (NAS),
 Naval Aircraft Factory (NAF),
 Society of Automotive Engineers (SAE),
 Aeronautical Material Division of SAE (AMS),
 USA Standard (USAS).

Those most commonly encountered for fasteners in modern commercial aircraft are the AN,
MS and NAS systems. In addition to these, airframe and equipment constructors often use
their own specification Systems for both common and special fasteners. Some of these are
listed below.

Boeing Aircraft Company Specifications

 BAC
Lockheed Specifications
 LS
McDonald Douglas Specifications
 Codes Vary

Specifications
The specifications for the individual parts are drawn up by the Standards organisations or
bodies and recorded on Specification Data Sheets which are available to the approved
manufacturers and other user organisations from the National Standards Association.

The Data Sheets contain all the information required to manufacture the part including a
drawing of the item with a full description of it, a list of the dimensions and their tolerances
in all the nominal sizes in the components range, details of the materials, plating and any
special processes used. It will also contain details of how the part number is constructed
and a reference to a Procurement Specification.

The Procurement Specification gives details of the sampling and testing procedures to be
used during manufacture as well as storage, packing and shipment procedures. A
Procurement Specification may cover a wide range of similar parts.

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 Part Numbers
Parts which are common to more than one aircraft type, such as fasteners and their mating
parts (nuts, collars and washers etc.), are often referred to as Standard Parts. The Part
Number which describes a standard part usually contains the code of the Standard or
Specification system to which it conforms (e.g. AN, MS or NAS) and encoded information
about the item style. It will also contain information about the component’s size and thread
form etc., either as a number of increments or as a code which enables the information to
be found from a table on the components Data Sheet.

Identification
Many larger fasteners have all or part of the Part Number marked on them and some
smaller ones have markings which can be used to identify them (refer CAAIP's section 3-5
and the relevant Standards documentation). Nuts, washers and small fasteners, however,
can only be positively identified by referring to their release documentation or measuring
and comparing them to their specification tables and drawings.

Manufacturers Codes
Fasteners are not normally made by the organisation or body which lays down the
Standards and Specifications and many will be marked with the manufacturers Part No or
identification code. For example a Hi-Lok fastener ordered to a Boeing Specification with
the part number BACB30MY8K6 may have the marking HL10V stamped on the head. This
indicates that it was made by the Hi-Shear Corporation to it’s own specification with the full
part number HL10V8-6. These two specifications are interchangeable.

Part Number Breakdown

For identification purposes the ‘AN’ number is used to indicate the type of bolt and its
diameter. In addition a code is used to indicate the material, length and presence of a split
pin or locking wire hole as follows:
 Diameter: The last figure, or last two figures, of the ‘AN’ number indicates thread
diameter, 1 = No. 6, 2 = No.8, 3 = No.10, and 4 = ¼” with subsequent numbers
indicating the diameter in 1/16” increments.
Thus an AN4 is a hexagon headed bolt of ¼” diameter and an AN14 is a
hexagon headed bolt of 7/8” (14/16”) diameter.

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  Lengths: The length of a bolt, in the case of a hexagonal headed bolt, is
measured from under the head to the first full thread (see to figure 5.13) and is
quoted in 1/8” increments as a dash number.
The last figure of the dash number represents eighths and the first figure inches,
so that an AN4 – 12 is a ¼” diameter hexagon headed bolt, 1½ ” long.

 Position of Drilled Hole: Bolts are normally supplied with a hole drilled in the
threaded part of the shank, but different arrangements may be obtained:

Drilled shank = normal coding e.g. AN24 – 15

Un-drilled shank = A added after dash No. e.g. AN24 – 15A

Drilled head only = H added before dash No.

(replacing dash) A added e.g. AN25H15A
after dash No.

Drilled head and shank = H added before dash No. e.g. AN25H15

 Material: The standard coding applies to a non-corrosion-resistant, cadmium-

plated steel bolt. Where the bolt is supplied in other materials, letters are placed
after the AN number as follows:
C = Corrosion Resistance Steel C.R.S. e.g. AN25C15
DD = Aluminium Alloy e.g. AN25DD15

 Thread: Where the bolt is supplied as either UNF or UNC threads, a UNC thread
is indicated by placing an A in place of the dash, e.g. AN24A15

There are several classes of ‘AN’ bolts, and in some instances their part numbers reveal
slightly different types of information. However, most ‘AN’ numbers contain the same type
of information. Figure 5.15 shows a breakdown of a typical ‘AN’ bolt part number. It starts
with the letters AN. Next, notice that a number follows the letters. This number usually
consists of two digits. The first digit (or absence of it) shows the class of the bolt. For
instance, if series number has only one digit, the absence of one digit shows that this part
number represents a general-purpose hex-head bolt. However, the part numbers for some
bolts of this class have two digits. In fact, general-purpose hex-head bolts include all part
numbers beginning with AN3, AN4, and so on, through AN20. Other series numbers and
the classes of bolts that they represent are as follows:

 AN21 through AN36 - clevis bolts

 AN42 through AN49 - eyebolts

The following pages give examples of fastener Part Numbers from the four most commonly
encountered Standards systems and the information carried in those numbers. More
guidance is contained in CAAIP 3-5. Full details can be found in the Standards Data Sheets

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 for each part, and the Boeing Corporate Standards manuals which are a collection of data
sheets. The Boeing Illustrated Fastener Reference Manual is a quick and easy to use book
for identifying the most common parts used on their aircraft.

Air Force/Navy (AN)

The AN system covers a wide range of standard aircraft parts Although it is described as
obsolescent and as being replaced by the Military Standards (MS) and National Aerospace
Standards (NAS) systems, fasteners and mating parts with AN part numbers are still in
common use and are still being fitted to new aircraft such as the B747-400 and B767 at
manufacture.

Fasteners
AN bolts and screws can be divided into Early and Late series Part Numbers.

Early series Part Numbers contain encoded information about the shape, size and material
of the part as shown in the example below.

Late series numbers have a six digit number which cannot be decoded without reference to
the appropriate specification tables.

Nuts
AN nuts are again split into Early and Late series Part Numbers. Early series numbers have
a three digit number to describe the style then a dash number to indicate the thread size. A
letter replacing the dash indicates a material other than plain steel, e.g.

AN315C4R - AN315 = Nut, PIain size range #6 - 11/4 UNF. C = Corrosion Resistant Steel. 4
= 4/16 inch or ¼-28 UNF. R = Right Hand Thread Late series nuts have a six digit number
which cannot be decoded without reference to the applicable standards table.

Washers
AN washers are available in four main types, AN935 Spring Washers, AN936 Shake Proof
Washers, AN960 Plain Washers and AN970 Large Area (Penny) Washers. Information is
encoded as shown in the example below.

Military Standards (MS)

The MS system is intended to replace the separate standards systems used by the
American armed services (AC, AN, NAF etc.). It covers a wide range of standard aircraft
parts which are also used in the construction of commercial aircraft.

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 Fasteners
MS fasteners are allocated a four or five digit Part Number followed by a dash number. In
some cases the diameter of the fastener is included in the basic Part Number while the
dash number represents the length. In others, however, the dash number includes both the
diameter and the length. In either case it is often not possible to determine the size of the
fastener without reference to the standards tables as the dash numbers do not always
represent any particular increments.

Nuts
MS nuts are coded with a four digit number for style and material followed
by a dash number for thread size. e.g.

-04 = #4-40 UNC,

-06 = #6-32 UNC,
-08 = #8-32 UNC,
-09 = #10-32 UNF,
-10 = 1/4-28 UNF,
-11 = 5/16-24 UNF,
- 12 = 3/8 - 24 UNF etc.

Washers
MS washers are coded by a five digit number for style and material followed by a dash
number for size. The dash number must be obtained from the standards tables.

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 National Aerospace Standards (NAS)
The NAS system provides a range of design and process standards, as well as material
and parts specifications. The design standards cover information such as fastener head
markings, plating and locking requirements. The parts specifications include a wide range
of fasteners and a few washers and nuts. NAS fasteners are often used with mating parts
from the manufacturers standards.

Fasteners
NAS fasteners are coded with either a three or four digit number. Some part numbers
include the diameter as the last two digits e.g.

NAS6604, 04 = 1/4-28 UNF

00 = 4-40,
01 = 6-32,
02 = 8-32,
03 = 10-32,
04 = 1/4-28,
05 = 5/16-24,
06 = 3/8-24,
etc.

Other part numbers carry the diameter as a dash number. e.g.

NASS17-03-10 = 3/16 inch diameter, 10/16 (5/8) inch long.

The length is always carried as a dash number and is generally in increments of 1/16 inch for
standard fasteners.

The Part Number may also include one or more letters giving additional information about it.
Common ones include

Plating: (No letter) = Cadmium plated alloy steel, U = Unplated, A = Aluminium

Coating.
Locking: D = Drilled Shank, H = Drilled Head, L = Nylon Strip Locking Element
Head: (Recessed) T = Torq-Set, H = Hi-Torque, P or R = Philips (Cruciform)
Material (If more than one is specified in standard): CR = CRS 125000 Ibf\in2, C = CRS
140 000 Ibf/in2, E=CRS 160000
Ibf\in2, V = Titanium Alloy

Nuts and Washers

These are less common in the NAS system but follow a similar pattern to the fasteners.

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 Boeing Airplane Company (BAC)
The Boeing Standards system gives specifications for a wide range of standard parts used
in the manufacture of their aircraft. The Part Numbers are all produced in a common format
which Contains a code indicating the type of component and includes as many fields as are
needed to describe the component. The format for a fastener code is:

BAC B30 ZZ 4 - 12 A
1 2 3 4 5 6 7

1 Boeing Airplane Company

2 Component Type e.g. B28 = Bearing, B30 = Bolt, N10 = Nut, W10 = Washer etc.
3 Specification Code including physical shape, material, finish etc.
4 Shank Diameter/Thread size, in 1/32 inch increments for ‘permanent’ fasteners and 1/16
inch increments for removable fasteners. For nuts and washers it reflects the size of bolt
they will fit.
5 Dash, may be replaced by a letter e.g. H = Drilled Head,
D = Drilled Shank.
6 Length, in 1/16 inch increments for all fastener types. Indicates length of plain shank
for bolts and total length for fully threaded fasteners.
7 Letter used when applicable to carry extra information e.g.

P = Patch Type Locking,

X = 1/64 inch oversize Shank Diameter,
Y = 1/32 inch oversize.

Typical examples of this Part Numbering System are shown below.

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 Special Bolts
The hexagon headed aircraft bolt AN3 – AN20 (refer to Fig.45), is an all purpose structural
bolt used for applications involving tension or shear loads where a light drive fit is
permissible.

Alloy steel bolts, smaller than 3/16” diameter, and aluminium alloy bolts smaller than ¼” are
not used on primary structure. Other bolts may be used as follows:
 Close Tolerance Bolts: These bolts are machined more accurately than the
standard bolt. They may be hexagon headed (AN173 – AN186) or have a 100º
countersunk head (NAS80 – NAS86). They are used in applications where a tight
drive fit is required (the bolt requires the use of a 340g - 400g (12oz – 14 oz) hammer
to drive it into position.
 Internal Wrenching Bolts: (MS 20024 or NAS 495) these are fabricated from high-
strength steel and are suitable for tensile or shear applications. The head is recessed
to allow the insertion of a hexagonal key used for installing or removing the bolt. In
Dural-type material, a heat-treated washer must be used to provide an adequate
bearing surface for the head.
 Clevis Bolts: The head of a clevis bolt is round and either slotted, for a standard
screwdriver, or recessed, for a cross-pointed screwdriver. This type of bolt is used
only for shear loads and never in tension. It is often inserted as a mechanical pin in a
control system.
 Eyebolt: The eye is designed for the attachment of cable shackles or turnbuckles and
the bolt is used for tensile loads. The threaded end may be drilled for ‘safetying’.

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 Seven additional types of bolt heads are shown in figure 5.15. Notice that view A shows an
eyebolt, often used in flight control systems.

View B shows a countersunk-head, close-tolerance bolt.

View C shows an internal-wrenching bolt. Both the countersunk-head bolt and the internal-
wrenching bolt have hexagonal recesses (six-sided holes) in their heads. They are
tightened and loosened by use of appropriate sized Allen wrenches.

View D shows a clevis bolt with its characteristic round head. This head may be slotted, as
shown, to receive a common screwdriver or recessed to receive a Reed-and-Prince or a
Phillips screwdriver.

View E shows a torque-set wrenching recess that has four driving wings, each one offset
from the one opposite it. There is no taper in the walls of the recess. This permits higher
torque to be applied with less tendency for the driver to slip or cam out of the slots.

View F shows an external-wrenching head that has a washer face under the head to
provide an increased bearing surface. The 12-point head gives a greater wrench gripping
surface.

View G shows a hi-torque style driving slot. This single slot is narrower at the centre than at
the outer portions. This and the centre dimple provide the slot with a bow tie appearance.
The recess is also undercut in a taper from the centre to the outer ends, producing an
inverted keystone shape. These bolts must be installed with a special hi-torque driver
adapter. They must also be driven with some type of torque-limiting or torque-measuring
device.

Each diameter of bolt requires the proper size of driver for that particular bolt. The bolts are
available in standard and reduced 100-degree flush heads. The reduced head requires a
driver one size smaller than the standard head.

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 Screws
Screws are probably the most commonly used threaded fastener in aircraft construction.
They differ from bolts in that they are generally made from lower-strength materials. They
can be fastened by a variety of tools, including screwdrivers, spanners and Allen keys. Most
screws are threaded along their complete length, whilst some have a plain portion for part
of their length.

There are a number of different types of screw, which, can be used for a wide range of
tasks. It is common sense that great care must be taken to replace screws with the correct
items, by using the markings on the screw, the IPC and any other systems in current use
within the supply department, to protect against incorrect screws being installed.

Another point, requiring care, is the difference in terminology between the British and
American names for screw heads. What the British refer to as a ‘countersunk -headed’
screw, the Americans call a ‘flat-head’ or ‘flush’ screw. Similarly, ‘mushroom-headed’
screws are known as ‘truss-heads’ in the USA.

Machine Screws
Machine screws (refer to figure 5.21) are used extensively for attaching fairings, inspection
plates, fluid line clamps and other light structural parts. The main difference between
aircraft bolts and machine screws, is that the threads of a machine screw usually run the
length of the shank, whereas bolts usually have an unthreaded grip length.

The most common machine screw used in aviation is the fillister-head screw, which can be
wire-locked using the drilled hole in the head. The flat-head (countersunk-head) screw is
available with single or cross-point slotted heads. The round-head screw and the truss-
head (mushroom-head) screw, provide good holding properties on thin metal sheets.

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 The commonly used machine screws are the flush-head, round-head, fillister-head, socket-
head, pan-head and truss-head types.

 Flush-Head - Flush-head machine screws are used in countersunk holes where a

flush finish is desired. These screws are available in 82 and 100 degrees of head
angle, and have various types of recesses and slots for driving.
 Round-Head - Round-head machine screws are frequently used in assembling
highly stressed aircraft components.
 Fillister-Head - Fillister-head machine screws are used as general-purpose screws.
They may also be used as cap screws in light applications such as the attachment of
cast aluminium gearbox cover plates.
 Socket-Head - Socket-head machine screws are designed to be screwed into
tapped holes by internal wrenching. They are used in applications that require high-
strength precision products, compactness of the assembled parts, or sinking of the
head into holes.
 Pan- and Truss-Head - Pan-head and truss- head screws are general-purpose
screws used where head height is unimportant. These screws are available with
cross-recessed heads only.

Structural Screws
Structural screws are used for assembling
structural parts. They are made of alloy steel
and are heat treated. Structural screws have
a definite grip length and the same shear and
tensile strengths as the equivalent size bolt.
They differ from structural bolts only in the
type of head. These screws are available in
round-head, countersunk-head, and brazier-
head types, either slotted or recessed for the
various types of screwdrivers.

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 Self-Tapping Screws
Self-tapping screws have coarse threads and are used to hold thin sheets of metal, plastic
and plywood together. The type A screw has a gimlet (sharp) point, and the type B has a
blunt point with threads that are slightly finer than the type A.

There are four types of head in normal use:

 round head
 countersunk oval-head
 truss or mushroom-head
 flat countersunk-head.

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 6.5.3 Locking Devices
The purpose of this section is to provide guidance and advice on the methods of locking
screw-threaded components and the retention or location of circular parts in various
assemblies. Regulations require that an approved means of locking must be provided on all
connecting elements in the primary structure, fluid systems, controls and other mechanical
systems essential to the safe operation of an aircraft.

Purpose
The purpose of a locking device is to prevent loosening or disengagement of mating
components under varying conditions of stress, vibration and temperature as its
effectiveness may be of the utmost importance to the safety of an aircraft. Locking devices
should be fitted in such a way as to prevent the possibility of fretting, distortion,
displacement or uneven stressing of the locked parts.

During inspection of the assembly, it is necessary to ascertain that all locking or retaining
devices are of the type and material specified in the relevant drawings or the appropriate
publication and that the locking or fitting operation has been correctly performed with the
appropriate tools.

Split Pins
Split pins (sometimes referred to as Cotter Pins in the UK) are manufactured from corrosion
resisting steel and are used in conjunction with drilled bolts and slotted or castellated nuts.
The pins should be a reasonably close fit in the nut and bolt/stud assembly. The table
indicates the diameters and length of standard pins normally used in conjunction with
bolts/studs up to 1 inch diameter.

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 Note: It will be seen that British and American practice differs with regard to split pin
diameters for different thread sizes and care must be taken to ensure that the
correct pin is selected for any particular drilled bolt. The size of the split pin
hole in the bolt should be checked before fitting the nut.

The legs of split pins should be turned as indicated on the design drawings, but when the
method is not specified it is recommended that one of the methods illustrated below should
be used.

If necessary, pins should be cut to a suitable length to prevent pick-up in clothing, cleaning
cloths, etc., and the surplus ends accounted for to prevent their becoming a loose article
hazard.

After turning and closing the legs to the nut faces, an inspection should be made to ensure
that cracking or cutting has not occurred at the bends. The most common methods of split
pinning are illustrated by (A) and (B). The method shown in (C) is used where clearances
are critical. #For bolted joints, one pair of slots must be in alignment with the hole in the bolt
when the specified degree of tightness has been obtained. Undrilled bolts should be
prepared for drilling by tightening the nut to the specified torque loading and marking the
hole position. The nut should be removed and the split pin hole drilled with the aid of a
drilling jig. Burrs should then be removed, the nut fitted and tightened to the required torque
loading and the correct size of split pin fitted.

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 Rollpins
The Rollpin (or Spring pin) is a pressed-fit parallel pin with chamfered ends. It is tubular in
shape and is slotted the full length of the tube. The pin is inserted with hand tools and is
compressed as it is driven into place. Pressure exerted by the rollpin against the hole walls
keeps it in place, until deliberately removed with a Pin Punch. It may be used with a drilled
bolt and slotted or castellated nut or with a nut drilled for the purpose.

Rollpins must be used only once.

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 Locking Washers
There are several types of locking washers in general use consisting of spring washers, cup
washers, shakeproof washers, crinkle washers and tab washers. They are described by
various specification systems.

Spring Washers
These washers are available in two forms, i.e. as a single coil or as a double coil.

In some instances, particularly with light alloy assemblies, spring washers are assembled
with plain facing washers between the spring washer and the component, to prevent
damage to the surface of the component or the protective treatment when the spring
washer is compressed. Often, however, particularly in steel assemblies, plain washers are
not specified.

It is good practice to renew spring washers during overhaul or repair. This is essential in
engines and engine components, and units with reciprocating parts, such as compressors
or pumps.

Crinkle Washers
These washers, made of copper alloy or corrosion resisting steel, are often used in lightly
loaded applications in instrument and electrical installations.

Cup Washers
These washers are manufactured in spring steel and are dished to form a spring of high
rating; assembly should be in accordance with the manufacturer’s instructions.

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 Shakeproof Washers
Flat washers of this type, made of steel or phosphor bronze, are sometimes used instead of
spring washers and in certain circumstances, conical shakeproof washers are used for
locking countersunk screws. Either the internal diameter or external diameter is serrated,
the serrations being set to bite into the component and nut to prevent rotation. Shakeproof
washers should only be used once.

Note: These washers will not normally be specified in assemblies where anti-corrosion
treatment of components has been carried out.

Tab Washers
Tab washers are manufactured from thin metallic sheet materials, to standard or proprietary
specifications, and have one or more tabs projecting from the external diameter; they may
also be ganged for locking two or more nuts. When the washer is fitted, one tab (usually
pre-formed) is anchored against the component or fitted into a hole provided for that
purpose, whilst another tab (or tabs) is bent against a flat or flats of the nut, after the nut
has been correctly torqued. The component tab should not be bent against a curved
surface or across the junction of two faces, since this would permit movement of the nut or
bolt.

Before bending the second tab, an examination should be made of the tab already fixed to
ensure that it is not disturbed, sheared or distorted as a result of the washer turning with the
nut. When the second tab has been bent, this too should be examined for cracks.

In some assemblies, washers having a tab projecting from the inside diameter are used.
The tab fits into a key slot machined in the male thread, whilst an external tab is bent up
against the nut flat to lock it.

Tabs must not be bent more than once. Multiple tab washers may be reused after removing
the used tab, dressing sharp edges, and carefully inspecting the remaining tabs for cracks
or scoring.

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 Locknuts and Locking Plates

Locknuts
Generally, locknuts (also called "jam nuts" in the UK and "check nuts" in the US) are thin
plain nuts which are tightened against ordinary plain nuts or against components into which
male threaded items are fitted, although proprietary locknuts are available which are formed
from sheet material. Control rods, swaged-end cables and jack ram eye-end fittings are
common examples of the use of locknuts, but in some instances wire or tab locking is also
specified. To ensure efficient locking, the bearing surface of the nuts and the component
must bed together evenly and the correct degree of tightness must be obtained by applying
the stipulated torque loading. It is emphasised that the locknut should not be overtightened,
since this will result in the stripping of the nut threads or overstressing of the male
component. In cases where rotation can occur, the plain nut must be held stationary whilst
the locknut is tightened.

Locking Plates
Locking plates are usually manufactured from steel. They are placed over hexagonal or bi-
hex nuts or bolt heads after these items have been tightened down, and secured, usually by
a screw, to an adjacent part of the structure. A typical application is shown here.

Locking plates may be used repeatedly provided they remain a good fit around the nut or
bolt head.

In certain instances, particularly where vibration is likely, locking plate screws are fitted with
spring or shakeproof washers. Some plates may be located by countersunk screws, which
may be locked by peening (right). Plates may also be provided with a retaining screw slot
which permits a limited amount of angular adjustment to suit the position of the nut.

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 Wire Locking

General
Wire Locking (also known as Lock Wiring and Safety Wiring) is one of the most commonly
used methods of preventing threaded elements from loosening.

Corrosion resisting steel and heat resisting nickel alloy are the materials normally
recommended for locking wire. Care should be taken to ensure that the wire used is to the
correct specification.

Attention should be paid to the following when using locking wire:

 Use wire of the correct specification and gauge.

 The wires must be twisted together so that each wire is twisted around the other.
 The locking wire should be taut and there should be no untwisted lengths in
excess of 3/8 in. and lengths of unsupported wire should not exceed 3 inches.
 The lay of the wire should always be such as to resist any tendency of the locked
parts to come loose.
 The angle of approach of the wire should not be less than 45° to the rotational
axis of the component to be locked. The line of approach should be tangential to
the parts being locked.
 Finish each run of locking wire with approximately five complete twists of wire, cut
and double back to avoid fouling and injury to personnel.
 When locking tabs are used, they should be fitted in such a way that the tabs and
the wire are in complete alignment.
 Locking wire is used only once.
 Sometimes controls or switches are wire locked into their normal operating
position using thin copper wire. Selection of an emergency position necessitates
physically breaking the wire.
 The wire must be adequately tensioned; over-tensioning may lead to fracture of
the wire, or of the metal around the locking hole.
 Sharp edges of locking holes must be removed and there must be no obstruction
by the locking wire of any moving parts, controls, etc.
 All off-cuts and used locking wire must be removed from the aircraft or component
and disposed of safely.

In the normal twisting method of wire locking, a suitable length of wire should be cut from
the coil and passed through the hole provided for the purpose in the component. The wire
should be twisted over the length required to reach the locking point, through which one
end of the wire should be passed, and then twisted for not less than a further ½ inch (13
mm) whilst being pulled taut.

It is necessary to pull the wire taut to ensure that the final twists are close to the locking
hole, but neither this nor the twisting should be too severe. After surplus wire has been
removed, the twisted ends should be bent in such a manner as to prevent their catching in

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 clothing, cleaning cloths, etc. There should be no untwisted lengths in excess of 3/8 inch (9.5
mm) and lengths of unsupported wire should not normally exceed 3 inches (76 mm).

The angle of approach of the wire should not be less than 45° to the rotational axis of the
component to be locked (see below left) whilst the radial line of approach should be
tangential (90°) to the parts being locked (see below right).

The lay of the wire must always be such as to resist any tendency of the locked part or
parts to become loose, and for this reason it is essential to ascertain whether the parts have
left or right hand threads before fitting the wire.

Wire Locking Procedure

In the double twisting method, a suitable length of wire should be cut from the coil passed
through the hole provided for the purpose of the component to be locked.

The wire should be twisted over the length required to reach the locking point through which
one end of the wire should be passed and then twisted for not less than half an inch whilst
being pulled taut, it is then cut and made safe by forming an open loop.

Note: When using pliers to pull or twist the locking wire great care must be taken to avoid
damage to the wire. Any wire damaged during installation will be weakened and
must be replaced.

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 Some wire locking is done with a single strand of the specified wire, particularly in instances
of a complete ring or similar formations of lightly loaded nuts or bolts such as those which
retain a data plate. The wire is passed in sequence through the nut slots and bolt/stud holes
around the formation until the wire ends meet. The ends are cut to suit and twisted together
to tension the loop. The wire direction through all nuts must be such that any loosening of a
nut will further tension the wire.

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 Locking Tabs
In instances where the method of wire locking is not indicated on the drawing, great care is
necessary when deciding on a locking method to ensure that there is no possibility of the
parts becoming loose. For example, when adaptors are used in pipe joints, it is essential
that the adaptor is secured to each union nut by separate locking wires to adjacent corners
of the adaptor nut, with the approach angle shown previously. It may be specified that the
adaptor is locked additionally to some external point.

When locking tabs are used, they should be fitted in such a way that the tabs and the wire
are in complete alignment. Examples of correct and incorrect use of locking tabs are shown
below. Whenever possible, the closed end of the wire should be in the tab and the open
end at the component to be locked.

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 Examples of Wire Locking

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 Wire Sealing (Tell-Tale Wire)
In some instances flight deck controls or switches are wire locked into their normal
operating position and selection of an emergency position necessitates a conscious
decision and the physical breaking of the wire. A thin, frangible copper wire is usually
specified for this purpose. The method of installing this type of locking, usually known as
‘wire sealing’, is normally detailed in the appropriate Maintenance Manual.

Items requiring wire sealing may include:

 CSD or IDG Disconnect switches

 Passenger Oxygen switch
 Equipment Cooling / Ditching switch

It is also common practice for certain items of safety or emergency equipment to be wire
sealed or 'tamper-proofed' with special frangible locking wire.

This is done to alert persons that the item has been used or interfered with and will require
inspection, replenishment or replacement.

Typical examples include:

 Hand held Fire Extinguishers

 First Aid kits
 Portable Oxygen bottle regulators

Wire Sealing MUST be accomplished with the locking wire specified in the AMM. This is
usually a thin copper based wire such Lewcosol or Bicosol.

WARNING USE OF NORMAL STAINLESS STEEL LOCKING WIRE WILL RENDER THE
SWITCH OR EQUIPMENT INOPERABLE AND MAY ENDANGER THE
SAFETY OF THE AIRCRAFTAND THE LIVES OF THE PASSENGERS AND
CREW.

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 Peening and Grub Screws

Peening
The peening of bolts for locking purposes should only be carried out when specified in the
drawing, or the relevant manual, as the operation prevents re-use of the nut and bolt and
may cause difficulty in dismantling. About 1½ threads of the bolt should be projecting and
the peening carried down to the nut to prevent it slackening.

Adequate support should be given to the bolt during the peening operation and care taken
to prevent damage to the part by misdirected blows with the hammer. Countersunk screws
may be locked by the method illustrated below when the thread is inaccessible. Protective
treatment damaged by the peening operation must be restored.

Grub Screws
These are used as a method of locking two threaded components together. In one method
the outer component only is drilled and threaded and the grub screw may be machined at
the inner end to a tapered point or a parallel plain shank to fit either a conical recess or
parallel hole in the inner component. Other grub screws may be fitted into a single hole
drilled and threaded in both inner and outer components. Grub screws may be locked by
peening, by a wire type locking ring or by means of a nylon insert or adhesive patch in
either the male or female thread.

Grub screws are also used, with the variations already mentioned, in non-threaded
assemblies to retain the parts and ensure correct alignment. They may be fitted as
additional or precautionary locking devices in assemblies with interference fits or bonded
joints, or, in some cases, they may be the only means of retention. In these cases,
however, several grub screws may be fitted around the component and these may be
locked by lock nuts or clamping type lock rings.

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 Locking by Adhesives
Many small components, particularly those in instruments, valves, switches, etc., may be
locked by the application of Shellac, Araldite or similar materials to DTD 900 specifications.
The adhesive is applied to the outside of the nut face and protruding screw thread, or the
component and screw head, after tightening, and prevents movement between the two
parts.

When using Araldite it is good practice to mix a separate sample under similar conditions,
to check that it hardens within the specified time period. Threaded metal fasteners may also
be locked using a liquid sealant such as Loctite. This is an approved proprietary material
(DTD 900 Approval No.4588) which hardens in the screw threads after assembly and is
supplied in various grades to give a predetermined locking torque in a variety of
applications from stud locking to retaining bearings in housings. In using Loctite it is
advisable to have the parts free from grease to achieve maximum strength. It is possible,
however, to use Loctite on threaded parts which have not been degreased but retain the
original lubrication applied by the manufacturer. In these cases a 15% decrease in the
strength of locking usually occurs. Loctite should only be used when specified by the
approved drawings or instructions, and applied in accordance with the manufacturer’s
instructions

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 Pins

General
Taper pins with taper of 1 in 48 and parallel pins, are used on both tubular and solid
sections, to secure control levers to torque shafts and forked ends to control rods, etc. Most
taper pins, and parallel pins, are locked by peening into a countersunk recess or by forming
reaction rivet heads. To avoid slackness, the pins are usually assembled in reamed holes,
the head being supported during the locking process. Careful inspection is required after
fitment of pins through hollow tubes, to ensure that undue force during the peening
operation has not bent the pins, and thus impaired the security of the fittings.

To fit a taper pin, a hole less than the small diameter is drilled in the tube. It is then
enlarged by the correct size taper pin reamer so that the small end of the taper pin, when
pushed through the hole, is flush with the surface. The taper pin is then driven into position,
ensuring that the component is adequately supported.

To avoid excessive work with the taper reamer when fitting pins to solid circular sections a
stepped hole may be drilled. Care being taken not to extend the second hole to a depth
greater than the diameter of the taper pin.

Some taper pins are bifurcated so that the legs are spread for locking, the pin protrudes
through the hole and the legs are spread forming an included angle of 60 degrees. Other
pins are solid and may be peened for locking, care being taken to support large end of pin
during this operation to prevent slackening.

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 Clevis Pins
Clevis Pins are flat headed parallel pins which are drilled at the end of the shank to
accommodate a retention device. Made of high tensile or stainless steel, they are usually
used in conjunction with split pins, lock pins or safety retaining pins as illustrated.

As their name suggests, they are often used in a 'clevis', a forked fitting which allows a
degree of rotation. They may be used in cable end fittings, as hinges for non-structural
items such as stay rods, and as temporary restraints.

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 “Pip” Quick Release Pins
“Pip” pins are designed to take non-structural loads in shear only. In many cases they can
take the place of a nut and bolt in circumstances where constant and speedy disconnection
is required. The holes that these pins are fitted in need to be reamed to a close fit to
prevent chafing due to vibration in service. The pin is held in place by two small steel balls
at the end of its shank. These balls are held out in the locked position by a spring loaded
plunger running through the centre of the pin.

To allow the balls to collapse into the pin and so allow the pin to be withdrawn the plunger
must be kept depressed, or in the case of the type that has a ring fitted pulling on the ring
will allow the pin to be withdrawn.

Pip pins are sometimes used as hinge pins on removable doors located inside the aircraft.

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 Circlips and Locking Rings
Many of these locking devices are standard parts manufactured from spring steel wire,
sheet or plate, but they may also be specially designed for a particular application. All are
hardened and tempered to give inward or outward spring for locking screwed parts
together, for locking grub screws, or for locating components within bores or housings.

Wire circlips have both ends bent whilst other types have drilled ends which facilitate
expansion or contraction for fitting into position.

Generally, wire locking rings have one bent end which is inserted into a radial hole drilled
through the outer or inner component, depending on whether it is an external or internal
type. Locking rings of sheet or plate are seldom provided with a bent end, and the fitting of
these entails the use of special expanding/contracting tools and protecting sleeves.

Grooves for circlips and locking rings are semi-circular for wire types and of rectangular
section for others. Before fitting, precautions should be taken to ensure that these are free
from deformation, burring or dirt.

The installation of circlips is usually accomplished with circlip pliers as shown below. These
are produced as both internal and external models and also reversible dual-purpose tools.
They are available in different sizes and some have interchangeable nibs. It is important to
select the correct size of tool and nib for your own safety and to prevent damage to the
circlip.

Inspection should ensure that all of these devices are bedding correctly and that the locking
end of locking rings is correctly engaged.

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 Identification of these devices is difficult and every care should be taken to ensure that the
correct items are fitted. Items should be obtained by part numbers and not identified by
comparing the old and new, since the diameters of the old are likely to differ considerably
from those of new items. Part numbers of the correct part to be fitted should be verified
from the appropriate drawings, Overhaul or Repair Manuals or Parts Catalogue.

Some manufacturers stipulate that circlips and locking rings must not be used more than
once. However, in some instances, it is specified that the gap between the ends of a circlip
or locking ring should, after fitting, be within prescribed limits and as such individual
selection may be necessary, the radial position of the gap may also be specified.

The designs of non-standard lockrings and pins are many and varied. The example shown
here is a door stop assembly lock pin. To install it, the stop is screwed in or out of the door
fitting to achieve the correct position in relation to a striker plate on the door frame. The stop
is then rotated to align the slot with one of four slots in the door fitting and the rigging re-
checked. The lockpin is then inserted into the aligned slots, pushed until fully engaged and
then rotated so that the ring portion clips in a groove on the door fitting.

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 Keys and Keyways
These items can be found where chain-wheels or pulleys are located on shafts.

A key, with its associated keyways (the name given to the channel, which is cut into the
respective components, to receive the key), is used to transmit the driving force from one
part to the other.

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 Quick Release Fasteners
General
In addition to rivets, nuts and bolts there are many other forms of fastener used within the
structure of an aircraft.

Where access is required for minor servicing, a door or access panel is fitted either hinged
or detachable, fastened to the structure by various individual types of quick release
fastener. Panels provide access for oil and air servicing and cowlings give access to the
engines.

The location where these panels are provided determine which type of fastener is used.
Some of the factors that are taken into consideration are:

 Pressurisation
 Temperature
 Contour
 Speed and ease of operation

Some quick release fasteners need special tools to open and close them whilst others need
only a screwdriver. Many others are operated manually.

There are many types of quick release fastener to be found on a modern aircraft and total
inclusion would be beyond these notes. The most common quick release fasteners are:

 Dzus
 Universal
 Trigger action
 Hook latch
 Pin latch
 Sealed latch
 Pip pin
 Oddie
 Camloc

Note: Many fasteners are known by the name of their original manufacturer. Similar
designs are available from different manufacturers, however, the original
name is still commonly used to refer to them. All fasteners should be identified
by part number from the IPC or other authoritative source

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 Dzus Fasteners
There are several types of Dzus fastener in use on aircraft. Most have a ¼ turn fast acting
bayonet action whilst others have a multi-start screw thread. Some bayonet action
fasteners need a special tool to turn them whilst others can be turned by hand.

The special tools are called Dzus keys. Two types of key are provided one marked ‘A’ for all
dome head fasteners and the other ‘F’ for all flush head fasteners. It is important that the
correct key is used to prevent damage to fastener slots and the panel surface.

Dzus fasteners that can be turned by hand employ wings, wire rings or knurled heads.

The 'Standard Line' types of Dzus fasteners consist of a fastener and a spring, the main
variations being in the type of head and size. The fastener has a pair of cam slots machined
into the body and is held in position in the panel or cowling by a light alloy, steel or stainless
steel grommet. The spring is riveted to the underside of the aircraft structure. The cam slots
engage with the centre portion of the spring, drawing it up when the catch is turned in a
clockwise direction. An over-centre arrangement prevents the fastener loosening and spring
tension holds the panel shut. The fastener is released by a quarter turn anti-clockwise.

Where a more positive locking and tighter clamping is required the 'Universal Line' type of
fastener is used. This is comprised of a stud which has a four-start thread and engages into
a self-locking receptacle, riveted to the structure, in little more than one turn. The stud is
retained in the panel by a swaged retaining grommet. The threaded portion of the
receptacle is slotted and deformed inward, and is encircled by a coil spring. As the stud is
screwed into the receptacle, the spring is expanded producing pressure on the thread and
so locking the stud to the nut.

Universal fasteners are sometimes used for securing de-mountable doors, panels and
covers requiring a strong, durable, quick acting fastener in areas where tensile and shear
loads are present.

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 Camloc Fasteners
The Camloc fastener consists of a spring loaded stud assembly and a receptacle. The stud
assembly consists of the stud and it's cross pin located in a spring housing and is fitted to
the detachable panel and held in place by a retaining ring. The receptacle, which provides a
socket for the stud and has cam faces which act as a bayonet for the cross pin, is riveted to
the airframe structure. The fastener is locked by pushing the stud against its spring with a
screwdriver, and turning it clockwise. This causes the cross pin on the stud to ride up the
cam in the receptacle drawing the two components together. Finally, the stud spring pulls
the cross pin into a locking groove at the end of the cam.

The fastener is unlocked by a quarter turn anti-clockwise, when the stud spring causes the
stud to move outwards.

Various styles, materials and finishers are available. These include flush, protruding,
knurled and wing headed studs, open, sealed and special receptacles made of plain,
corrosion resistant and stainless steels.

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 Oddie Fasteners
This fastener has a central stud which is held in position in the panel by a rubber washer or
a coil spring. A two-legged spring clip is riveted to the underside of the structure at the point
where the fastening is to be made.

The stud is bullet shaped and has two recesses diametrically opposite each other at the
pointed end. The fastener is locked by positioning the recesses in line with the legs of the
spring and then pressing the stud home. There should be a definite click as the fastener
engages.

The fastener is unlocked by giving the stud a quarter turn in either direction, turning the
recesses out of engagement with the spring legs.

This type of fastener is usually used for internal panels and trims.

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 Latches
Trigger Action Latch
Trigger action (or Hartwell type) latches are found on many types of aircraft. They are used
where hinged panels are employed. The panels are not load bearing and are usually
sources of access.

Trigger action latches are operated by hand. To open, the release button is pushed allowing
the latch arm the pop out under spring force. To close, the latch arm is pushed in until it
clicks under the release button.

In service the most common faults of this latch are; the spring to become stretched, the
hinge pins becoming worn and the striker plate wearing. In the first two cases the complete
latch is replaced, in the last only the striker plate needs to be renewed.

On installation the hinge of this type of panel is placed upstream to the airflow.

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 Hook Latch
This type of latch is used mainly on contoured surfaces such as engine cowlings. On these
surfaces or panels a 'drawing' action is required to pull the panels together. This drawing
action is needed to ensure that panels or cowlings are held very firmly in the correct
contour. Unlike the panels fitted with Trigger Action Fasteners cowling hinge pins are not
normally upstream to the airflow and consequently should a latch fail the airflow would rip
the cowling off.

To increase security this latch design incorporates a double action release mechanism. To
close the latch, the cowlings are pushed together, ensuring the U-bolt enters it's mating slot,
dowel pins may be installed to assist alignment. The hook is then engaged with the U-bolt
and the latch lever pushed to the flush position, as the hook and lever have separate pivot
points the hook is drawn in until it over-centres. The release button is then pushed to the
flush position which engages the hook latch with a cross pin on the hook shaft preventing
accidental disengagement of the hook.

Unlatching is the reverse of this procedure, although a GS screwdriver or special tool may
be required to move the latch lever to the over-centre position, and it may be necessary to
push the cowlings back together to disengage the hook from the U-bolt.

Specific values are given in the AMM for latch lever closure force and cowling gap.
Adjustment to both of these is achieved by altering the position of the U-bolt using the
adjustment nuts. Hook latches are usually made of stainless steel.

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 Pin Latch
Pin latches are used mainly in pressurised areas where the door or panels and the
surrounds have to take pressure differential loads. With this latch a metal pin protrudes and
enters a bushed hole or fitting in the surrounding structure when the latch is closed.

The latch, latch pin and surrounding structure is designed to take shear loads. This type of
latch is found on the fuselage on some cargo doors. They are flush fitting to reduce drag.

To open this type of latch, the spring loaded release button is pressed which disengages
the lever latch from pins in the latch body. The lever can then be pulled out by sliding a
finger into the gap the button and the lever, a linkage attached to this draws the pin into the
latch body. To latch, with the panel in the closed position the lever and release button are
pushed to the flush condition, an audible click indicates that the lever latch has engaged.

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 Sealed Latch
The sealed latch is similar in application to the trigger action latch but the difference here is
that because they are sealed they can be used in pressurised areas. The latch arm is
spring loaded to the open position, while the release arm is spring loaded closed.

To open the release button is pressed allowing the latch arm to swing out of its sealed
orifice. To close the latch button is pushed in until the release mechanism clicks into place.
Some versions incorporate an over-centre geometrical lock and require leverage from a
screwdriver to open and close them.

There are many designs and below is a selection of some of them.

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 6.5.4 Aircraft Rivets

Solid Rivets

General
Rivets are a permanent form of fastening device used extensively on aircraft to hold
together structures built up from sheet metal and formed components. They are used to
form liquid and airtight joints and are cheaper, lighter and are more rapidly fastened than
nuts and bolts. Rivets are classed as permanent because they must be destroyed to
remove them.

Rivets are designed to be strong in shear and less so in tension, therefore should not be
subjected to large tensile loads.

Solid-shank rivets are generally used in manufacture and structural repair work. They are
classified by the kind of material of which they are made, their head type, size of shank, and
the temper condition. The designation of the solid-shank rivet head type, such as universal
head, roundhead, flathead, countersunk head, brazier, snap and mushroom head, depends
on the cross sectional shape of the head. Each type has its own properties and uses.

Since the correct rivets may not always be available, it is sometimes necessary to carry out
repairs using alternative rivets. Rivet substitution may only be made with reference to an
approved source of information.

British and American rivets are not manufactured to identical specifications nor from
identical materials. Both are identified by head or shank end markings except where a
material is easily identified by its natural colour or weight. Certain British rivets are also
coloured all over to enable them to be more readily distinguished.

Some aircraft manufacturers specify rivets made to the standards of their own and may also
use a different colour identification for standard rivets.

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 As British material specifications have a different shear strength to their American
counterparts, the total number or diameter of rivets used to make a joint of equal strength
will also differ.

However, it should be borne in mind that an increase in the size of the rivets does not
necessarily increase the strength of a joint; indeed, if the rivet sizes are increased beyond a
certain amount, a reduction in strength will result. The aircraft designers and originators of
the approved repair schemes will be responsible for these decisions.

The chart gives a comparison between British and American material specifications. 1100
rivets and L36 rivets (not included in the chart) are made of 99.45% pure aluminium, are
very soft. They are used for riveting the softer aluminium alloys such as 1100, 3003 and
5052 materials which are used for non-structural parts. The riveting of map cases is a good
example of where a rivet of 1100 aluminium alloy may be used.

2117-T and L86 known as the field rivet, are used more than any other for riveting
aluminium alloy structures. The field rivets are in wide demand because they are ready for
use as received and need no further heat treatment (solution). They also have a high
resistance to corrosion.

2017-T and L37 rivets are used in aluminium alloy structures where more strength is
needed than is obtainable with the same size 2117-T or L86 rivet. These rivets are solution
treated and must be kept refrigerated until they are to be driven. The 2017-T rivet should be
driven within approximately 1 hour and the 2024-T rivet within 10 to 20 minutes after
removal from refrigeration.

The 5056 rivet is used for riveting magnesium alloy structures because of its corrosion-
resistant qualities in combination with magnesium. Monel rivets are used for riveting nickel-
steel alloys. They can be substituted for those made of corrosion- resistant steel in some
cases.

The cross substitution of British and American rivets must not be made without design
authority.

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 Heat Treatment of Rivets
Metal temper is an important factor in the riveting process, especially with aluminium alloy
rivets. Aluminium alloy rivets have the same heat-treatment characteristics as aluminium
alloy sheet stock. They can be hardened and softened in the same manner as sheet
aluminium. The rivet must be soft, or comparatively soft, before a good head can be
formed.

The process of solution treating rivets is much the same as that for sheet stock. Either an
electric air furnace, a salt bath, or a hot oil bath is needed. The heat treating temperature
range, depends on the alloy. For convenient handling, rivets are heated in a tray or wire
basket. They are quenched in cold water (70°F, 21°C) immediately after heat treating.

Rivets which have been heated in a salt bath must be thoroughly washed after quenching
to remove all traces of salt.

The 2017-T, 2024-T and L37 rivets, which are heat- treatable rivets, begin to age-harden
within a few minutes after being exposed to room temperature. Therefore, they must be
used immediately after quenching or else be placed in cold storage. The most commonly
used means for holding heat-treatable rivets at low temperature (below 32°F, 0°C) is to
keep them in a deep freeze. Under this storage condition, they will remain soft enough for
driving for periods 2 days to 2 weeks depending on material. Any rivets not used within that
time should be removed for re-heat treating.

Freezer (or "Ice Box") rivets attain about one-half their maximum strength in approximately
1 hour after driving and full strength in about 4 days. When 2017-T rivets are exposed to
room temperature for 1 hour or longer, they must be subject to re-heat treatment. This also
applies to L37 rivets which must be used within 2 hours of removal from cold storage and
2024-T rivets exposed to room temperature for a period exceeding 10 minutes.

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 Once a freezer rivet has been taken from the refrigerator, it should not be mixed with the
rivets still in cold storage. If more rivets are removed from the freezer than can be used in
15 minutes, they should be placed in a separate container and stored for re-heat treatment.
Solution treatment of rivets may be repeated up to three times as further heat treatments
would increase the grain size and result in low strength even after ageing. Examples of
heating times and temperatures are shown in the table at the bottom of this page.

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 Compatibility of Rivets and Metals
Most metals and therefore aircraft rivet stock, are subject to corrosion. Corrosion may be
the result of local environmental conditions during fabrication or use. It is reduced to a
minimum by using metals which are highly resistant to corrosion and possess the correct
strength-to-weight ratio.

If a copper rivet is inserted into an aluminium alloy structure, two dissimilar metals are
brought in contact with each other. Remember, all metals possess a small electrical
potential. Dissimilar metals in contact with each other in the presence of moisture cause an
electrical current to flow between them and chemical by-products to be formed. Principally,
this results in the deterioration of one of the metals.

Certain aluminium alloys react to each other and, therefore, must be thought of as
dissimilar metals. The commonly used aluminium alloys may be divided into the two groups
shown below.

Members within either Group A or Group B can be considered as similar to each other and
will not react to others within the same group. A corroding action will take place, however, if
any metal of Group A comes in contact with a metal in Group B in the presence of moisture.

The use of dissimilar metals must be avoided whenever possible. Their incompatibility is a
factor which was considered when the rivet Standards were adopted. To comply with
Standards, the manufacturers must put a protective surface coating on the rivets. This may
be a chemical coating, metal spray, or an anodised finish.

The protective coating on a rivet is identified by its colour. A rivet coated with zinc chromate
is yellow, an anodised surface may be pearl grey, green or purple and the metal sprayed
rivet is identified by a silver-grey colour.

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 Rivet Types
Rivets are classified as either protruding head or flush head types. Protruding head styles
include round head, flat head, mushroom and universal headed rivets, while flush heads
are provided by the various styles of countersunk rivet.

Protruding Head
Round or snap head rivets are used in the interior of the aircraft, except where clearance is
required for adjacent members. These rivets have a deep, rounded head which offers some
resistance to tension loads. The heads contact area strengthens the sheet around the hole.

The flat or pan head rivet, like the roundhead rivet, is used on interior structures. It is used
where maximum strength is needed and where there isn’t sufficient clearance to use a
roundhead rivet. It is seldom, if ever, used on external surfaces.

The brazier or mushroom head rivets, have heads of large diameter, which makes them
particularly suitable for riveting thin sheet stock (skin) and composite materials. These rivets
offer reduced resistance to the airflow, and because of this factor, they are sometimes used
for riveting skin on exterior surfaces, especially on aft sections of the fuselage and
empennage. However, due to the shallow head, they have little tensile strength.

The universal head rivet is a modified mushroom head with greater tensile strength due to
its depth but still with reduced drag. Many manufacturers now use it as the standard
protruding head rivet. It is used in aircraft construction and repair in both interior and
exterior locations. When replacement is necessary for round-head, flathead, or brazier
head, they can usually be replaced by universal head rivets.

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 Flush Head
The flush or countersunk head rivet is flat topped and bevelled toward the shank so that it
fits into a countersunk or dimpled hole and is flush with the materials surface.

The angle at which the head slopes may vary from 78° to 120°. The 100° rivet is the most
commonly used type. These rivets are used to fasten sheets over which other sheets must
fit. They are also used on exterior surfaces of the aircraft because they offer only slight
resistance to the slipstream and help to minimise turbulent airflow.

120° heads are often used in soft materials such as fibre glass and composite structure in
aerodynamically sensitive areas. Examples are fairings and flight control skins.

Countersunk rivets are also available with reduced head diameter (and thus reduced head
thickness) for use in shear load only applications. They can thus be used in thinner material
than would otherwise be the case.

Several special forms of countersunk rivet are available. These include radiused lead-in
and double angle countersinks which are used in areas where a liquid tight seal is required,
and the "Briles" type rivet.

With the Briles type the hole is prepared with a small counterbored section at the top of the
countersink and when the rivet is formed a raised ring on the manufactured head is
deformed into the counterbore effectively swaging the rivet head into the skin for improved
fatigue resistance in highly stressed areas.

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 Rivet Identification
The markings on the heads of rivets, indicate the material from which they are made and,
therefore, their strength. The following chart shows some common American aluminium
rivet head markings and the materials indicated by them. The markings may be comprised
of raised dots, dimples, raised dashes, a raised cross, a raised triangle, letters or numbers,
and some heads have no markings. There are three materials indicated by a plain head, it
is possible to distinguish their difference by colour. The 1100 is aluminium colour; the mild
steel is a typical steel colour; and the copper rivet is a copper colour. Any head marking can
appear on any head style of the same material although sometime raised markings will be
indented. On some rivets, such as Briles type and slug rivets, the marking is on the shank
end.

As explained previously, the rivets may have different colours to identify the protective
surface coating used by the manufacturers.

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 American Specifications
Each type of rivet is identified by a part number so that the user can select the correct rivet
for the job. The type of rivet head is identified by AN, MS or NAS standard numbers. The
numbers selected are in series and each series represents a particular type of head. The
most common numbers and the types of heads they represent are:

AN426, MS20426 or NAS 1241 - countersunk head rivets (100°)

AN430 or MS20430 - roundhead rivets.
AN441 - flathead rivets.
AN456 - brazier head rivets.
AN470, MS20470 or NAS 1242 - universal head rivets.

There are also letters and numbers added to a part number. The letters designate alloy
content: the numbers, rivet diameter and length. The letters in common use for alloy
designation are:

A - Aluminium alloy, 1100 or 3003 composition.

AD - Aluminium alloy, 2117-T composition.
D - Aluminium alloy, 2017-T composition.
DD - Aluminium alloy, 2024-T composition.
B - Aluminium alloy, 5056 composition.
KE - Aluminium alloy, 7050/7075 composition.
C - Copper.
M - Monel.
T - Titanium

The absence of a letter following the AN standard number indicates a rivet manufactured
from mild steel.

The first number following the material composition letters expresses the diameter of the
rivet shank in 32nds of an inch.

Examples: 3, 3/32nds : 6, 3/16ths etc.,

The last number(s), separated by a dash from the preceding number, expresses the length
of the rivet shank in l6ths of an inch.

Examples: 3, 3/16ths, 7, 7/16ths, 10, 5/8ths etc

An example of identification marking of a rivet is:

AN470AD3-5 - complete part number.

AN - Air Force-Navy standard number.
470 - universal head rivet.
AD - 2117-T aluminium alloy.
3 -3/32 nd in diameter.
5 - 5/16 th in length.

Note: The AN Standard system is obsolete and is being replaced by the MS system.

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 Airframe manufacturers may have their own specification systems such as Boeing's BAC
Standards, Lockheed's LS Specifications and Airbus' specification system.

British Rivet Identification

Standards for British rivets are issued by the Society of British Aerospace Companies
(SBAC 'AS' series) and the British Standards Institute ('SP' series). These series overlap
and the obsolete AS rivets are being replaced by the SP equivalents.

Rivets are identified by a standard number and a part number. The Standard number
identifies the head shape, material and finish, and the part number indicates the size in
terms of shank diameter (thirty seconds of an inch or millimetres X 10) and length (in
sixteenths of an inch or millimetres).

Material Spec. Material Type Identification Finish

Marks
L37 Dural ‘D’ on shank end Natural
L58 Al. Alloy (5% Mg.) ‘X’ on shank end Dyed or Anodised Green
L86 Hiduminium ‘S’ on shank end Dyed Violet
DTD 204 Monel ‘M’ on shank end Natural or Cadmium Plated
Material Identification of ‘AS’ Rivets

Material Snap Mush 90º Csk 100º Csk 120º Csk 90º Close
Spec. Tol.
L37 AS156 AS158 AS161 - AS164 AS2918
L58 AS157 AS159 AS162 AS4716 AS165 -
L86 AS2227 AS2228 AS229 - AS2230 AS3362
DTD204 - - AS5462 - AS465 -
Typical Specification Numbers of ‘AS’ Rivets

For example:

SP 80/408 - complete part number

SP 80 - L86 aluminium alloy, snap head
4 - 4/32 or 1/8" in diameter
08 - 8/16 or 1/2" in length

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 SP160-40-16 - complete part number
SP160 - L58 aluminium alloy, universal head
-40 - 40/10 = 4mm in diameter
-16 - 16mm in length

The rivets are identified by a letter or number on the end of the shank or a system of
dimples, dots and dashes on the head.

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 Intentionally Blank

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 Riveting
Introduction
In the construction of metal airframe structure, the majority of permanent joints are made
with either rivets or bolts. These hold the structural components together, the contact areas
being referred to as “faying surfaces”. To securely attach faying surfaces together, rivets
are cheaper, lighter and more rapidly fastened than nuts and bolts.

The use of bolts instead of rivets to secure permanent joints is mainly employed in bolting
together skin plating and other highly stressed structures, such as mainplane spar root
ends and attachment points, undercarriage main retraction sections and built up sections in
engine bays and engine mounting pylons.

The extensive use of rivets has enabled the manufacturers to standardise rivet design to
ensure that, for a given type of metal airframe structure, the required type and size of rivet
is readily available for assembly work. Rivets for repairs are usually supplied with one head
formed and ready to insert into the rivet hole, the opposite end being formed into a head
manually or by using special tools. Some manufacturing processes involve machine riveting
where a headless “slug” rivet has both ends formed simultaneously.

In repair work the size and type of rivets to be used and the spacing to be employed for a
particular repair is specified in an approved repair scheme for a particular aircraft type.
Unless otherwise stated, the repair should follow the system of riveting used elsewhere on
the aircraft in similar locations. In carrying out any repair of major structural components,
such as pressurised cabins and integral fuel tanks, the same type of riveting and a
comparable quality of riveted assembly are vital to the integrity of the structure.

Provided that the approved repair scheme is followed in every detail and that drilling and
riveting techniques are of a high standard, the integrity of the structure will not be degraded.

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 Types of Riveted Joints

Lap Joint
Used in places where stress is not particularly high and where flush surfaces are not
required. Often used in longitudinal aircraft skin joints.

Joggled Lap Joint

The under plate is joggled to preserve the continuity of the upper surface. This provides a
flush surface and can be used in radial or longitudinal skin joints.

Butt Joint

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 Single strap, used on flush surfaces where high stress is encountered, requiring the use of
heavy gauge plate. Can be used in radial skin joints.

Double Strap Butt Joint

Double strap, used in places of very high stress, where strength is more important than
streamlining such as internal structures.

Flange Joints

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 Used on internal structural members, such as ribs, frames, etc. where loads are chiefly
compression.

Rivet Clearance
The clearance is the difference between the size of the hole and the rivet diameter; rivet
holes are normally drilled 0.003 in oversize. Clearance is necessary, particularly with light
alloys to prevent puckering of the sheet owing to the metal spreading when the rivet head is
formed.

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 Rivet Allowances
When fitting a rivet, sufficient shank must be left protruding above the plate to take up the
clearance and form the head. Failure to observe this precaution leads to many riveting
faults. The allowance for rivet heads are expressed in terms of the diameter of the rivet
shank and are dependent on the material specification of the rivet and gauge of sheet being
riveted.

Typical values of allowance are:

 Snap Head 1.5D

 Countersunk 0.75D
 Reaction 1.5D

Rivet Grip
This is the length of rivet shank taken up by the combined thickness of the sheets being
joined.

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 To determine the length of rivet to be used add the rivet allowance to the rivet grip length.
Have a trial on scrap metal of the same thickness and specification.

Strength of Joints
The factors that govern the strength of a joint are:

• Plate Specification;
This will be of such a material and gauge as to successfully withstand tensile and
bearing loads.
• Rivet Specification;
This will be selected to withstand shear loads. In cases where the specification of
the rivet is not given, use a rivet of the same material as the plate, with a
diameter of 2½ T where T is the thickness of the plate.
• Rivet Spacing;
This will be determined to give the joint optimum strength characteristics.

Rivet Sphere of Influence

The sphere of influence of a rivet is the area in which the closed rivet maintains the plates
in close proximity and this is approximately five times the diameter of the fastener or 5D.
When the pitch of rivets is 4D, the sphere of influence of each rivet overlaps, providing a
fluid-tight joint.

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 Rivet Positions
The position of the rivets relative to one another and the edge of the sheet material is
important. They must not be too close together as the excessive number of holes will
weaken the joint. If they are too far apart there would be too few to take the load and in
pressurised areas this would cause leakage.

They must not be too near the edge of the sheet as they will tear through the material when
the joint is under load. These conditions, modified for practical reasons, determine the rivet
spacing and pattern. Typical MINIMUM distances are:

Pitch - The distance between rivets in a row measured from centre to centre. 3D
min.
Land - The distance between the rivet centre and the edge of the material. 2D min.
Spacing - The distance between adjacent rows of rivets 3-4D min.

where D = rivet shank diameter.

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 Pitch Circle Diameter (PCD)
The diameter of a circle which is dictated by the pitch of a number of rivets of a given size.
This is used to determine the diameter of circular repairs.

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 Rivet Layout

Single Chain
Used chiefly on attachment and lightly stressed joints.

Multiple Chain
Used on watertight joints and in places of high stress where thick gauge plate is used.

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 Staggered Riveting
Used as an alternative to Multiple Chain in watertight joints, circular patches etc.

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 Rivet Selection
The rivets to be used for maintenance or repair will be specified by Part Number in
Approved Technical Publications (ATP) such as the Illustrated Parts Catalogue and
Structural Repair Manual or on the Repair scheme or Service Bulletin.

As a general guide, the strength of the rivets must be similar to that of the material in which
they are used. The size, number and spacing of rivets is calculated from the tensile strength
and bearing strength of the sheet material and the shear strength of the rivets. The rivet
diameter should be approximately three times the thickness of a single sheet of the material
being joined, for example 1/8 inch diameter rivets should normally be used with 20 SWG
(0.036 inch) sheet and 5/32 inch diameter rivets with 16 SWG (0.048 inch) sheet, but this
may be unsuitable when the holes are cut countersunk.

Rivet Allowance
While the rivet Part Number is normally specified it is often the responsibility of the installer
to select the correct length of rivet.

When fitting a rivet, the correct length of shank must be left protruding above the sheet to
take up the clearance and form the second head. The allowance for forming the rivet head
is expressed as so many times D, where D equals the diameter of the rivet. The rivet
allowance depends on the material of the rivet, the type of head being formed and the
thickness of the sheet being joined. Typical values are :

The formed reaction head should be 0.5 D high.

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 Hole Preparation
The size of the rivet holes has a positive bearing on the strength of a riveted joint. A
clearance must exist between the rivet and the hole in which it is fitted to accommodate
expansion of the shank during forming. If the clearance is too small the rivet's protective
coating may be scratched when it is installed and the sheets will also tend to buckle. If the
clearance is too large, the rivet will not fill the hole completely, separation of the sheets may
occur, the reaction head formed may be under-sized and the joint will not develop its full
strength.

The recommended hole sizes vary according to the gauge of the materials being joined and
the size, form, length and material of the rivets being used. In general the harder and longer
the rivet the smaller the clearance, but close tolerance holes and interference fits are
sometimes a requirement.

If countersinking is required, the thickness of the metal will dictate the method used. If
dimpling is required, keep hammer blows or dimpling pressures to a minimum so that no
undue work-hardening occurs in the surrounding area.

Drilling
To make a rivet hole of the correct size, first drill a hole slightly undersize. This is known as
pre-drilling, and the hole is called a pilot hole. Open the pilot hole with a twist drill of the
correct size to get the required clearance dimension. Typical pilot and final drill sizes are
shown in chart below but you should always refer to the Approved Technical Publications
(ATPs) for that aircraft type for specific details. Final hole sizes are often specified as Letter
and Number drills, but as these systems have largely disappeared metric sizes are used in
their place. The recommended clearance for rivet holes is usually from 0.002 to 0.004 ins.
(0.05 to 0.1 mm).

When drilling hard metals the twist drill should have an included angle of 118° and should
be operated at low speeds; but for soft metals, use a twist drill with an included angle of 90°
operated at higher speeds. Thin sheets of aluminium alloy are drilled with greater accuracy
by a drill having an included angle of 118° because the large angle of the drill has less
tendency to tear or elongate the hole.

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 Locations for rivet holes should be centre punched before beginning the actual drilling. The
centre punch mark acts as a guide and prevents the drill tip from wandering and damaging
the surface. It also lets the drill grip or bite into the metal with greater ease. Make the centre
punch mark large enough to prevent the drill from slipping out of position, but punch lightly
enough not to dent the surrounding material. Hold a hard, smooth, wooden backing block
securely in position behind the hole locations when drilling.

Drilling is usually done with a hand drill or with a light power drill. Hold the power drill firmly
with both hands. Extend the fingers of one hand against the metal to act as a guide in
starting a hole, and as a snubber or brake when the drill goes through the material. Before
beginning to drill, always test the inserted twist drill for trueness and vibration by spinning
the hand drill or running the motor freely and watching the drill end. If the drill wobbles, it
may be because of burrs on its shank or because the drill is bent or incorrectly chucked. A
drill that wobbles or is slightly bent must not be used because it causes enlarged holes.

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 Always hold the drill at right angles to the work, regardless of the position of the hole or the
curvature of the material. Use an angle drill or drill extensions and adapters when access is
difficult with a straight drill. Never tip the drill sideways when drilling or when withdrawing
from the material because this causes elongation of the hole.

When holes are drilled through sheet metal, small burrs are formed around the edge of the
hole, particularly on the rear surface where the drill bursts through. This is especially true
when using a hand drill since the drill speed is slow and there is a tendency to apply more
pressure per drill revolution. All burrs must be removed with a de-burring tool before
riveting. Particular attention must be paid to the de-burring of hole edges between plates.

The de-burring process will leave a small chamfer or radius at the edge of the hole which
helps prevent cracking, but should not be deep enough to affect the strength of the material
or the shape of the formed rivet.

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 Locating Holes
Where repairs are joined to the aircraft structure, existing hole positions must be transferred
to the new material. As far as possible this should be done by “back-drilling”, although care
must be taken to ensure the existing hole is not damaged. This may be achieved by using a
drill guide or bush which fits securely in the existing hole and allows a pilot hole to be
transferred to the new material.

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 Where access to the back of the repair area is restricted, it may be necessary to use a hole
finder for laying out fastener patterns from original structure. Many variations of hole finders
have been devised. The diagram, left, illustrates a suggested hole finder that is easy to
make and easy to use. This type of hole finder requires a separate finder for each rivet
diameter.

Another method is to use a clear acetate sheet onto which the hole positions are
transferred. Holes should be marked onto new material using a centre punch as the drill
may “wander” if the acetate is used as a guide.

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 Cleco Clamps and Pliers
Cleco clamps are used to align parts prior to being re-riveted to an aircraft. The clamps are
installed with Cleco pliers (Error! Reference source not found.). The colour of the Cleco
clamp indicates the diameter of the rivet it is to be used with. Four commonly used sizes
are 3/32 of an inch (silver), 1/8 of an inch (copper), 5/32 of an inch (black), and 3/16 of an
inch (brass, gold).inch (copper), 5/32 of inch (copper), 5/32 of an inch (black), and 3/16 of
an inch (brass, gold).

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 Aerodynamic Smoothness
Aircraft require an aerodynamically clean shape and a smooth exterior surface for high
performance, however, some areas are more critical than others.

The use of countersunk rivets in skin joins and repairs helps maintain the smooth surface
and reduce drag, but to ensure optimum performance the protrusion or flushness of the
rivet heads is controlled. The diagram illustrates the critical areas of a large aircraft and
shows typical protrusion limits for a two particular types of solid rivet. The Structural Repair
Manual details the flushness requirements for all the types of fastener used during
manufacture and repair.

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 Countersinking
Installing countersunk rivets leaves the smooth surface which is essential to satisfy the
aerodynamic requirements of modern aircraft.

Countersunk rivets normally have an included angle of 100°. Rivets with 82°, 90° and 120°
countersunk heads are available to repair existing aircraft which use these types of
countersunk rivets.

Holes for countersunk-headed rivets must be either “cut” or "form" countersunk to receive
the rivet head, depending on the thickness of the metal and the diameter of the rivet. Form
countersinking or dimpling can be used on thin material although thicker sheet will tend to
crack, while if a cut countersink is too deep in relation to the skin thickness, the resultant
knife-edge hole is prone to cracking and the strength of the joint is also reduced.

The method to be used will be specified in the aircraft repair scheme, but as a general
guide, sheet metal 20 SWG (0.036 in.) and under is dimpled, while sheet metal 18 SWG.
(0.048 in.) and thicker is cut countersunk.

Before preparing a countersunk or dimpled hole always check the head size of the specified
fastener as rivets of the same shank diameter and head angle can have different sized
heads due to tension resistance requirements.

Cut Countersinking
For single fasteners a simple countersink cutter of the correct angle may be used in a hand
drill, however for large repairs special countersinking equipment like the Micro-stop tool
should be used for speed and consistency.

As mentioned, aircraft manufacturers usually specify a tolerance on head protrusion after

riveting, and this is usually of the order of 0.000-0.005 inch above the skin surface but will
vary. The rivet head should always be slightly proud of the work before rivet forming is
started.

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 Micro-Stop Countersink
The micro-stop countersink tool, fitted with a removable cutter, has proved to be the most
efficient countersinking tool for repetitive use with portable equipment.

The shaft of the tool rotates in a bearing inside an adjustable locking sleeve and foot piece
assembly. The foot piece (or “stop” ) threads onto the bearing housing, enabling depth
adjustments to be made.

Markings, indicating depth differentials in 0.001 inch increments, on the circumference of

the locking sleeve aid depth adjustment.

Adjustment is made by pulling the sleeve back and turning the stop, to deepen or shallow
the cut. The sleeve is then spring loaded back into position to effect a lock.

Note: Make sure that the locking splines intermesh: only then is the adjustment
securely locked.

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 A pilot pin guides the spinning cutter as it cuts into the material. The pilot pin should be
approximately 0.002 inch smaller in diameter than the hole. This allows cutter to spin
without binding. Cutter-pilots, which are smaller than this will allow the cutter to wobble, and
result in lopsided countersink.

Pilot pins may be removable to ease cutter sharpening and allow "oversize" pins to be
installed.

Cutters are available in a variety of cutting angles. l00° cutters are frequently used. 82°
countersinks are used for NACA type heads of fluid tight rivets. The cutting angle is marked
on each cutter.

CAUTION: MAKE SURE THE CUTTER IS TIGHTENED IN THE COUNTERSUNK

SHAFT BEFORE USING THE STOP COUNTERSINK.

The micro-stop countersink should be set up and adjusted on a piece of scrap metal of the
same material and thickness as the part to be countersunk. The procedure is as follows;

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  Be sure the adjustable foot piece is extended far enough to ensure that the
cut will not be too deep.
 Gradually increase the depth adjustment until the depth and diameter of the
hole are the same as the size of the fastener head.

In operation, always hold the locking sleeve and foot piece assembly firmly to prevent
rotation and damage to the metal surface.

When the micro-stop countersinking tool is used, it should be held as shown. Keep the
following rules in mind when using it:

 Before using, check countersink cutter for cutter angle, pilot size, sharpness,
and true running.
 Check set-up on scrap material.
 Hold countersink at a 90° angle to material.
 Take full depth of cut each time.
 Apply pressure directly behind countersink.
 The face on the micro-stop countersink tool must be highly polished to
prevent marring the material.
 Select the size and length of fastener to be installed and use it to judge depth
of countersink.
 Do not allow the micro-stop countersink tool to spin on the material.

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 Dimpling
This is a process for indenting thin sheet material (not normally thicker than 18 SWG, 0.048
in.) around a drilled hole to accommodate a countersunk rivet. If correctly performed,
dimpling has a beneficial effect on the strength of a joint as the material is not thinned, but
the method of dimpling must be related to the ductility of the material to prevent over-
stressing and cracking.

Dimpling Characteristics
The aluminium alloy skin panels commonly used for stressed skin structures are either
solution treated and naturally aged or solution treated and artificially aged. The naturally
aged materials and some of the artificially aged clad materials may be satisfactorily dimpled
at room temperature, although if dimples of 90° or less are required, hot dimpling may be
specified. Carefully controlled skin dimpling processes are considered suitable for 2024-T4
type aluminium material and stainless steel, but hot dimpling should be used for the
stronger but less ductile 2014-T6 and 7075-T6 type aluminium alloys, and for titanium.

Control tests for dimpled sheet

Before dimpling any aircraft material of which the dimpling characteristics are uncertain,
either because of lack of familiarity with the material itself or because of the use of a new
dimpling technique or tool, tests should be made on sample material of the same gauge,
specification and heat treatment condition.

Punch Dimpling
This is the simplest method of dimpling but is generally only suitable for minor repairs in
sheet steel or soft aluminium alloys. The type of tool used is similar to a centrepunch but
has a spigot which engages in a female tool of the same form. The hole should first be
drilled to the spigot size and then the male die should be driven, squeezed or drawn into the
female die to form the dimple. A refinement is the "spring back" type where the die faces
are slightly curved, allowing the dimple to spring back to an accurate shape. The hole may
then be opened to rivet clearance diameter and inspected.

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 Spin Dimpling
This is the most widely used method of cold-dimpling. The sheet is first pre-drilled and
backed by a female die as for punch dimpling, then a rotating male die is pressed into the
hole. The metal around the rivet hole is stretched over the edge of the female die and, if the
material is clad, the aluminium cladding is spread by the spinning action. The cladding may
form a ridge around the outside of the dimple but this will only be slight, and should not be
removed.

Hot Dimpling
There are basically two methods of hot dimpling. In the first method, sometimes known as
‘coin dimpling’, electrically heated dies are used; in the second, the sheet is heated by its
resistance to the passage of an electric current. Each material has a different rate of
conducting heat, or a different electrical resistance, and the applied current or time and
temperature will be different for different materials and gauges. These details are normally
found by experiment and the instructions given by the aircraft manufacturer should be
followed.

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 Note: In order to obtain consistent results during aircraft construction, large static
machines with automatically controlled temperature, current and tool pressure
are often used but for repair work portable hot squeeze-dimpling tools are
generally satisfactory.

Dimpling Technique
To ensure that rows of dimples fit satisfactorily together, the pilot holes should be drilled
with the structure fully assembled. The structure may then be disassembled and the
individual components deburred and dimpled separately. However, if sheets are to be
bonded together, it may be recommended that dimpling is carried out after bonding.

 To produce dimples that are free from cracks around the holes it is essential
that the pilot holes are free from burrs or other defects and that the correct
lubricant is used. The ideal procedure is to drill the holes under-size, ream to
suit the size of dimpling tool spigot, then deburr on both sides before dimpling.
For maximum shear strength the hole should be finally drilled or reamed to
give a hole with parallel sides and ideal rivet clearance. This second drilling
should start from the dimpled side so that any burrs are on the raised edge
and easily removed with a deburring tool.
 When countersunk rivets are used to join several thin sheets of material there
are two ways in which dimples may be formed. If the same tools are used for
successive sheets the dimples will be identical, but will not nest satisfactorily.
This may be acceptable when joining two sheets of ductile material but, for
stiffer materials and when joining more than two sheets, the dimples may be
overstressed by the riveting action.

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 Intentionally Blank

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 Riveting Procedure
Solid rivets can be closed by hand using appropriate snaps, sets and dollies. This
technique is usually confined to bench work. On aircraft structures reaction riveting using
pneumatic riveting guns is normally performed.

Solid Riveting Tools

• Set - this is a hollow punch used to draw the metal sheets together and bring
the pre-formed rivet head against the metal surface.
• Snap - a form of punch with a recess at one end, the same shape as the rivet
pre-formed head.
• Dolly - this is a metal block with a recess the same shape as the preformed
head of the rivet. It is used to support the pre-formed rivet head while forming the
rivet. The pre-formed rivet head should fit squarely into the dolly.

Riveting tools are available in different sizes and shapes to accommodate the various rivet
sizes and head forms.

When the appropriate actions of drilling, countersinking, dimpling, deburring, cleaning and
adjustment have been completed, the work to be riveted should be assembled, sealant
applied, and mating surfaces brought tightly into contact by use of skin grips or clips, care
being taken not to damage the skin surface. It is important that no gaps are present
between layers, as this will prevent the correct forming of the rivet and reduce shear
strength. Riveting may stretch thin sheets slightly, particularly with minimum rivet
clearances, and this should not be allowed to accumulate by riveting, for example, straight
along a line of rivets. The correct sequence of closing rivets can only be obtained by
experience, and with each type of joint the order of riveting may vary slightly.

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 Hand Riveting
If the job is small or can be done away from the aircraft, hand riveting may be convenient.

When solid rivets are closed with a hand hammer, the pre-formed head should be
supported in a dolly and a hollow set or draw tool used to ensure the sheets drawn
together. The tail is then driven using a flat snap to form a reaction head with a thickness of
0.5D. If a round or snap head is required on the shank end, the tail should first be partly
formed with a flat snap, then finished with a suitably shaped snap. The rivet should never
be hit directly with the hammer.

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 Pneumatic Rivet Guns
Aircraft solid rivets are often driven with pneumatic rivet hammers or guns. They use
compressed air to drive a piston back and forward applying a hammering action to the rivet
snap. The air pressure required to operate the hammers is around 80 lb/sq in.

The rivet snaps are held in the gun with a spiral retaining spring made of heavy gauge steel
wire. This type of spring allows the snap to have the full travel required, yet prevents the
snap being driven out of the gun. It is extremely important that anyone operating a rivet gun
be aware of the dangers associated with compressed air and pneumatic tools. Careless
use of a rivet gun can result in a snap being driven from the gun with such force that it can
inflict serious injury to persons or damage equipment. Retaining springs have been known
to fail to hold the snap, so the rule is;

CAUTION : DO NOT PLAY WITH RIVET GUNS

It is important that a rivet be driven with as few blows as possible, to minimise the work
hardening of the rivet but not over drive it which results in an unacceptable tail. For this
reason and because of the inaccessibility of many rivets, there are a number of types of
rivet gun available.

For the larger rivets that are relatively accessible, a slow, hard-hitting, long stroke gun is
required. Some of these guns hit only one blow each time the trigger is pulled. For work
with small rivets in thin skins, a light, fast-hitting rivet gun is often most suitable.

When a suitable rivet gun has

been chosen, the proper snap is
placed in the gun and the
retaining spring fitted. The speed
or force of the rivet gun can be
adjusted with the regulator screw
in the handle of the gun. By
placing the snap against a scrap
piece of wood and pulling the
trigger full on, the regulator can be
adjusted until the snap dents the
wood but does not shatter it. The
correct setting of rivet guns comes
with experience. When closing a
rivet, the trigger should be
squeezed gradually so that the
rivet head is progressively formed
without damaging the sheet metal
and using the minimum number of
blows.

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 Rivet Snaps
Sometimes referred to as “sets”, snaps are available in a variety of sizes and styles. Always
select the correct type for the rivet gun you are using and the rivet you are installing. Using
the wrong type will damage the rivet head, the aircraft skin or both.

Before use, ensure that the portion of the snap which contacts the rivet head or aircraft skin
is free from sealant, jointing compound and swarf as this will cause damage.

Cut-away, Off-set and Gooseneck snaps are available for use where access is restricted.

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 Bucking Bars
To form the rivet tail a bucking bar or dolly must be used to react against the rivet gun
blows. They should also be used to block the skin when the rivet is inserted to ensure the
sheets are closed together.

Bucking bars are available in a variety of shapes, sizes and weights, and are made of steel.
When selecting one for use in areas of restricted access, choose one in which the centre of
gravity is as close as possible over the rivet being formed. Always ensure the face of the
block is presented square to the rivet.

Using a bucking bar which is too light means that the gun must deliver more blows and may
result in premature hardening of the rivet or damage to the skin surface. A bar which is too
heavy will cause an over formed reaction head which may result in a loose rivet, a
damaged hole, or cracks to the rivet.

As with the snap, ensure that the face which contacts the rivet is clean.

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 Pneumatic or Air Drill Motors
While electric drills may be used for drilling aircraft sheet metal in workshops, the most
universally used drill in the hangar is the pneumatic type often referred to as a “windy drill”.
The main advantage of a pneumatic or air drill, over an electric drill is its safety. Most
electric motors produce sparks and heat which are hazardous in areas where there may be
fuel or other flammable vapours. It is also much less hazardous to have air hoses in an
aircraft structure than to have electric cables. The use of non-approved electrical equipment
in aircraft maintenance areas is prohibited.

Another advantage is the speed control offered by air drills. By varying the trigger pressure
it is possible to make them run at slow, intermediate, or high speed, and adequate torque is
always available. Air drills do
not overheat regardless of the
amount they are used and are
available in a number of
shapes that allow access to
difficult locations.

Many air drills are straight, with

a chuck at one and an air
connection at the other. The
exhaust is usually arranged to
exit from the back of the drill
and may be ducted away by a
tube to avoid blowing swarf
around. Another popular type is
the pistol grip drill with various
sized drill chucks. For drilling
holes where the structure
interferes, a right angled drill or
45° angle drill is available. The
drill bits are retained in the
angled drills by using collets
which grip the drill shanks;
some types use drills with
threaded shanks. Flexible
shafts are also available with a
right angled drill attachment at
one end and which can be
attached to the pneumatic drill
chuck. The flexible drive shaft can be passed through lightening holes and around corners
etc.

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 Pneumatic drills are operated by compressed air at approximately 80-100 lbs/sq in. Each
tool is connected to the air supply hose by a quick release coupling. The air motor unit
consists of a vaned rotor turning in a housing. When the lever or button control on the tool
is depressed, the compressed air enters the motor and turns the rotor at high speed by
acting on the vanes. The vanes, which slide freely in radial slots, are maintained in contact
with the bore of the housing by centrifugal force. As the rotor turns, the air is finally expelled
to atmosphere through an exhaust system which is designed to both deflect it away from
the user and to reduce the noise to an acceptable level.

Reduction gearing is fitted between the motor and the chuck. The gearbox is packed with
grease and sealed from the air motor.

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 Rivet Cutters
Rivet cutters are used to cut rivets to size prior to driving. The rivet cutter has a stack of
thickness gauges which are used to determine the correct rivet length by measuring the
space between the rivet head and the cutting. When rivet cutters are not available, the
rivets can be cut to size using a pair of diagonal cutting pliers. The rivet is cut by squeezing
together the two rotating plates connected to the cutter handles.

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 Rivet Miller or Shaver
This tool is used for rapid and accurate removal of the protruding portion of the mandrels of
Avdel rivets, or the protruding formed heads in NACA type countersunk riveting, leaving
them perfectly flush with the surrounding surface. The motor of the rivet miller is similar to
that used in the air drills. Instead of a drill, a cutter is held in a collect type chuck and
surrounded by a shroud which forms a depth stop. Some rivet millers are fitted with a
micrometer adjustment, which enables the depth of the cut to be altered by increments of
0.00025 in.

To give stability and prevent movement when milling, the tool is fitted with spring loaded
telescopic legs fitted with rubber friction pads. The speed of rotation of the cutter is
approximately 18000 rpm.

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 Maintenance of Air Tools
All air tools must be kept clean and well lubricated. Lubrication is essential to prevent
seizure of the moving parts. A few drops of light machine oil introduced into the air hose
quick release adapter several times a day will help to keep the air tools serviceable. As the
air stream through the tool quickly sweeps away the lubricant, it is better to lubricate several
times a day by small applications rather than to lubricate the tool thoroughly once a week.
Alternatively oiling equipment can be installed in the compressed air supply lines. This will
ensure sufficient lubrication for the air tools using the air supply.

The speed and power produced by air tools is dependent on the pressure and flow rate
(pounds per minute) of the supply. The more tools in use on a supply circuit, the less airflow
is available at each one. This should be remembered for operations which are speed or
power critical such as riveting.

Another factor is the length of the airline or hose. A long and/or coiled hose will reduce the
airflow and should be avoided as far as possible.

General safety rules:

• Always disconnect when not in use

• Use safety goggles during all drilling, cutting and sanding operations
• Hold all power tools securely
• Ensure your own security e.g. footing, balance etc.
• Hold tool in such a way that if dropped or wrenched from grip, it will fall clear
without injury.
• Keep fingers away from bits, blades and cutters (including reverse of job)
• Replace dull or damaged bits, blades and cutters immediately
• Always disconnect when changing or adjusting bits or cutters
• Ensure bits, blades and cutters are secure and tight (and chuck keys removed)
before use
• Never operate with inoperative safety features (guards, springs etc.)
• Avoid inhaling air tool exhaust

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 Riveting Procedure
After the hole has been prepared, riveting on the job can commence.

The following is a guide to the procedure you should follow:

4. Install proper rivet snap in gun and attach rivet snap retaining spring, if
possible (certain flush snaps have no provision for a retaining spring).
5. Connect air hose to gun.
6. Adjust air regulator, which controls the pressure or hitting power of the rivet
gun, by holding the rivet set against a block of wood while pulling the trigger.
7. Test the rivet gun on scrap material with specified rivets. The operator should
time the gun to form the head in one “burst” if possible (3-7 seconds).
8. Insert proper rivet in hole.
9. Hold or wait for bucker to hold bucking bar on shank of rivet. The gun operator
should “feel” the pressure being applied by the bucker and try to equalise this
pressure.
10. Pull gun trigger to release a short burst of blows. The rivet should now be
properly driven, if the timing was correct, and provided the bucking bar and
gun were held firmly and perpendicular (square) with the work.

Rivet gun operators should always be familiar with the type of structure beneath the skin
being riveted and must realise the problems of the bucker.

CAUTION: ALWAYS WEAR EAR DEFENDERS WHEN RIVETING OR BUCKING

CAUTION: NEVER OPERATE A RIVET GUN ON A RIVET UNLESS IT IS BEING

BUCKED. THE BUCKER SHOULD ALWAYS WAIT FOR THE GUN
OPERATOR TO STOP BEFORE GETTING OFF A RIVET.

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 NACA Method of Flush Riveting
The National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics (NACA - forerunner of NASA) devised
the following method for low drag countersunk fastener installation. The hole, is drilled and
countersunk in the normal way. The rivet is installed from the inside of the structure so that
the shank protrudes from the countersunk hole. When the rivet is closed the shank fills the
countersunk hole. When all the rivets are driven, a milling machine is used to shave the
formed shanks flush with the skin. This type of riveting produces the maximum smoothness
and uniformity of the surface.

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 Rivet Squeezers
As an alternative to reaction riveting, rivet squeezing provides a practical option which
offers a high degree of control over the force applied. It also has the advantage that the
force is applied steadily and the rivet is formed in one action.

Either manually operated or powered, they consist of a pair of jaws and handles or an
actuator. One jaw contains an interchangeable snap or die, with a recess in the shape of
the manufactured head, the other is flat to deform the tail.

The degree of squeeze applied can be varied by adding or removing spacers under the
snap or adjusting the pressure applied.

Large floor mounted pneumatic or hydraulic squeezers can be used in manufacturing

facilities and are frequently used with slug rivets where both heads are formed
simultaneously. These systems may be automated and computer controlled for large
assemblies.

Hand portable units are available in workshops and hangars. Their main limitation is the
need for the tool to have access to both sides of the work.

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 Rivet Inspection
After the rivets have been closed they should be inspected to ensure that they are tight and
fully formed. Rivet heads must not be deformed or cracked, and the surrounding area
should be free from distortion and undamaged by the riveting tools. Rivets which are
obviously not performing their function should be replaced, but replacement of rivets which
are found to be only slightly below standard might do more harm than leaving them in
position, particularly in thin materials. Before rejecting such rivets, the strength
requirements of the particular joint and the effectiveness of the rivets in question, should be
considered. When a flushness tolerance is specified for countersunk rivets, this is normally
checked before riveting is commenced; however, the milling of solid rivet heads may
sometimes be permitted after riveting to obtain a uniform protrusion. In this case protective
treatments must be re-applied after milling.

The illustrations show some of the faults which may be found with solid rivets. Any cracks in
the rivet head are not normally acceptable. If snap heads are formed on the tail of the rivet
a number of further faults may occur. These include a ‘flash’ round the rivet head if the
shank was too long, and a small head, possible accompanied by snap marks on the skin, if
the shank was too short.

If the holes are not square to each other or are misaligned the rivet may be formed with a
gap under the head. This may cause stress in the joint and harbour corrosive agents.

If one or more of the holes is oversize the rivet will swell into it when formed and an under-
size driven head will result.

If the rivet allowance is to large flash will form round a driven snap head.

If the bucking bar is too light or is not held firmly against the rivet the driven head will
become Bell shaped and the structure may be damaged.

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 Diagonal cracks on the driven head are usually the result of over-driving.

Gaps between parts are often caused by foreign material such as swarf or burrs around
holes. Always ensure that holes are de-burred and swarf removed prior to assembly.

If the parts are not tightly clamped before riveting a shanked rivet may result. Care must be
taken to avoid this condition.

If the parts are not held tightly together when drilled, or are not drilled squarely, the holes
will not align or the skin may buckle during riveting.

If the rivet becomes work hardened before it is fully formed, cracks may develop in either
the manufactured or driven head.

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 If the bucking bar is not held square to the rivet or not aligned, the driven head will be
dragged sideways or stepped.

If the rivet snap is too large or of the wrong shape, a flat will be formed on the manufactured
head and the edges of the snap may cut into the surface of the structure.

If the rivet snap is too small or of the wrong shape, the edges of the snap will cut into the
manufactured head.

If the rivet snap is not held squarely on the manufactured head during riveting it will cut into
the head and may also damage the surrounding structure.

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 Module 6.5 Fasteners
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 Rivet Removal
Whether a rivet is damaged or distorted or has to be removed as part of a repair, great care
must be taken to avoid damage to the existing holes and surrounding structure.
The correct procedure is:

1. Carefully centre punch the manufactured rivet head. Protruding heads may
require a small flat area filed on them. It may be necessary to remove paint or
other protective coatings from countersunk rivets either by mechanical or
chemical means. Exercise caution using power tools or paint stripper.
2. Drill the depth of the head only, with a drill bit the same size or slightly smaller
than the fastener shank.
3. Using a pin punch the same size as the drilled hole, carefully snap off the rivet
head. Note; Certain styles of rivet head such as “Briles” type rivets swage
themselves into the hole counterbore and must not be removed in this way,
punch out the rivet as described below then carefully prise out the head.
4. Block or support the structure adjacent to the rivet tail with a bucking bar and
drive out the remainder of the rivet using a punch one size smaller than the
rivet shank.

Rivets in dimpled holes may need to be drilled through with an under-size drill before
punching out.

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 Never:

• attempt to chisel off a rivet head or tail.

• attempt to drill through a rivet without checking for clearance behind it.
• attempt to punch out a rivet without blocking the structure behind it.
• attempt to drill the rivet tail/reaction head, it may not be concentric with the rivet
shank.

If the existing holes become damaged it may be possible to fit oversize repair fasteners.
However, if this exceeds pitch or edge margin limitations a repair which replaces the
damaged component will be required.

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 Hollow Rivets

General
There are many types of hollow rivets used on aircraft and aircraft equipment. Hollow rivets
are broadly classified into two main groups, some being closed by pulling a mandrel
through the bore of the rivet and others having to be closed by hammering, using special
punches. Hollow rivets that have to be closed by hammering are known as tubular rivets
and are not often used in modern aircraft. It is therefore not considered necessary to
include them in these notes.

Hollow rivets that are closed by mandrels are also known as ‘blind’ rivets. Blind rivets are
used in situations where only one side of the job is accessible sometimes during
manufacture but more usually for repair. These rivets may only be used as a substitute for
solid rivets where authorised by a repair scheme or special concession.

These notes will cover the more common types that will be encountered in general terms
only, they are:

British:
• Tucker ‘Pop’
• Chobert
• Avdel

American:
• Self Plugging (Friction Lock) similar to Avdel
• Pull-through, similar to Chobert
• Cherrylock
• Cherrymax
• Imex
• Huck

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 ‘Pop’ Rivets
Although 'Pop' is a registered trademark of Emhart Teknologies (formerly Tucker
Fasteners) 'pop rivet' has become a generic term for similar blind fasteners from many
manufacturers. 'Pop' rivets are not used for load bearing joints on aircraft but may be used
to attach decorative trim and non-structural components.

Tucker ‘pop’ rivets are supplied with either raised or countersunk heads and are
manufactured in Monel metal, steel or aluminium alloy. They are hollow rivets with a
mandrel fitted in the bore. They are closed by gripping the mandrel in a riveting tool and
pulling it so that it forms a head on the tail end of the rivet, clamping the sheets together
and expanding the rivet in the hole, and then breaks off.

There are two types of rivet , break-head and break-stem. The break-head type leaves a
light weight hollow rivet. The break-stem leaves a plugged rivet, however the stem does not
improve the shear strength of the rivet.

In structures from which the mandrel heads cannot be recovered the break-stem type
should always be used in preference.

Pop rivets are removed by drilling off the head in a similar manner to solid rivets. In cases
where part of the stem is left in the rivet, it may be necessary to drive this out with a punch
prior to drilling.

Although pop rivets were originally intended for blind riveting, they are now used
extensively for general riveting in place of solid rivets. However, it must not be assumed
that pop rivets may replace solid rivets unless specific instructions in the relevant airframe
repair manual indicate that the use of pop rivets is fully approved.

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 Material
The mandrels on which pop rivets are assembled are of high tensile steel the rivets are
manufactured from aluminium alloy or monel metal.

Rivet Sizes
Supplied in lengths suitable for riveting material up to 0.62 in. in thickness. Rivet diameter
range from 3/32" to 3/16".

It is important to use rivets of the correct length. This is particularly important in the case of
break-stem rivets as correct retention of the mandrel head is dependent upon sufficient
projection of the rivet through the assembled material. The grip ranges for pop rivets may
be found in the repair manual. Rivet lengths for pop rivets are measured from under the
head both domed and countersunk.

Fitting Tools
Pop rivets are normally fitted using Lazy Tongs (shown below) or riveting pliers.

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 Chobert Rivets
Chobert rivets date back to the 1930s and are still being manufactured although they are
not commonly encountered on modern commercial aircraft. They are manufactured with
either snap or countersunk heads and are normally supplied in tubes for ease of assembly
on to a mandrel. The action of closing a Chobert rivet is shown.

It should be noticed that the rivet itself has a tapered bore and is threaded onto a re-usable
hardened steel mandrel. The mandrel, with the rivets mounted on to it, is fed into a Chobert
riveting gun. Each rivet is offered to the job and the gun is operated pulling the mandrel
through. It can be seen in the diagram that as the mandrel is pulled through it forces the tail
of the rivet outwards and at the same time expanding the rivet shank to fill the hole.

Sealing pins may be fitted if required. When fitted they increase both the weight, and the
shear strength of the rivet and also prevent ingress of dirt and water. Sealing pins are
hammered into the bore of the rivet after the mandrel has accurately sized the bore by a
broaching action.

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 Identification.
The identification coding of a Chobert rivet consist of an AGS number followed by a Part
Number. The last two figures of the Part Number represent the length of the rivet in
increments of 1/32 in., the remaining figure or figures indicate the rivet shank diameter in
increments of 1/32 in.
 AGS 2040/410. Is a steel snap-head Chobert rivet, 1/8 in. dia, 5/16 in. long.
 AGS 2044/619. Is a duralumin 120° csk head Chobert rivet, 3/16 in. dia, 19/32 in.
long.

Chobert Sealing Pins

The identification coding of a Chobert sealing pin consists of an AGS number followed by a
Part Number. This Part Number does not relate directly to the sealing pin but to the rivet for
which the pin is intended. For example, AGS 2042/4 10 is a steel sealing pin for use with
rivet AGS 2040/4 10. A snap head Chobert rivet is longer overall than a csk head rivet with
the same size code. For this reason a pin for a csk head rivet is a 1/16 in. shorter than that
indicated by the rivet size code.

i.e. AGS 2044/5O8 Csk head (120°) an AGS 2047/5O6 pin would be used.

Grip Range
Prior to fitting the Chobert rivet, the range of total material thickness must be determined in
order to select a suitable length rivet.

Chobert Hand Riveting Pliers Type JB

The type JB riveting pliers are used for placing Chobert rivets of 3/32 in. to 3/16 in. diameter
inclusive. Prior to threading a rivet on for broaching, the appropriate size jaw assembly and
mandrel must be used and the mandrel head lightly lubricated.

Chobert Repetition Riveter Type 715

The type 715 repetition riveter is pneumatically operated from a pressure supply of 5.5 bar
(80 lbf/in2) and is used for placing Chobert rivets of up to 3/16 in. diameter.

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 Chobert type 715 repetition riveter

Jaws, Cursor Spring and Mandrel

The purpose and description of these items are as follows:

• Tail and Front Jaws. The tall jaw, when tightened fully in a clockwise
direction, holds the mandrel stationary. The front jaw assembly is available in
three sizes (1/8 in., 5/ 32 in., 3/16 in.) in order to accommodate a rivet of a
different diameter. When the tool is operated, the front jaw assembly is moved
outwards by air pressure, due to the mandrel held in a stationary position, the
front jaw continues to extend and forces the first rivet over the belled end of
the mandrel. When the operating trigger is released, the sliding barrel retracts
and another rivet is introduced outside of the front nose piece.

• Cursor. The cursor assembly applies pressure to the mandrel spring and the
cursor to the barrel ensure that the spring-loaded portion of the cursor faces
forward.

Checking and setting the Chobert riveter

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 • Mandrel Spring. The mandrel spring is mounted on the mandrel between the
front of the cursor assembly and the head of the rearmost rivet. It maintains a
pressure on the stock of rivets. The spring for the 1/8 in. dia. rivet is tapered at
one end and this must butt against the last rivet head. The springs for 5/32
and 3/16 dia rivets are parallel.

• Mandrel. The mandrel is available in three diameters to suit a rivet of a

different diameter. Rivets to a total length of 12 inches can be accommodated
on the long mandrel in one loading. An essential requirement for producing
properly set rivets with any type of Chobert riveting tool is a serviceable
mandrel. It must be checked before use to ensure that the bulbed head is
smooth and unscored and that a rivet can slide freely along the stem. The
size of the head must also be checked with the mandrel head gauge which is
supplied with each riveting tool. This gauge is of the go - no-go type. If the
mandrel head is within size limits it will pass through the appropriate diameter
top limit hole but not through the bottom limit hole. The mandrels can be
polished with metal polish as they are liable to become scarred and worn
while in use. The heads of the mandrels must not be reduced by more than
0.002 in. below its size. The mandrel should be checked periodically with a
micrometer. Prior to loading the rivets the mandrel must be lubricated to
ensure the bores of the rivets are thoroughly lubricated.

Chobert Rivet Mandrel Gauge

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 Preparation for Use
On selection of the correct size front jaw assembly, spring and mandrel, the loaded mandrel
should be inserted into the noses of the jaw until all but the first rivet of the stock have
entered. The jaws should close on the second rivet of the stack leaving 3mm (1/ 8 in.) of
this rivet exposed. Once connected to the compressed air supply the stroke of the riveter
can be checked. Depress the operating button and the sliding barrel should extend for
25mm (1 in.). Release the button and the exhaust of air from the riveter should be audible.
At this stage the tail jaw assembly can be fully tightened in a clockwise direction which then
holds the mandrel stationary ready for use.

Faults on Fitted Chobert Rivet Assemblies

The common faults in Chobert rivet assemblies are:

• Gap Between Head of Rivet and Surface of Material. Usually caused by

allowing the riveter to recoil.

• Split Shank on the Rivet. Usually caused by not deburring the hole to a
satisfactory standard.

• Using a sealing pin which is too long or too short.

• Rivet Loose in Hole. Usually caused by careless drilling or using an oversize

drill. The radial expansion of a Chobert rivet is relatively small therefore a hole
of the correct size is important.

Removal of Chobert Rivets

In order to remove a Chobert rivet the sealing pin is driven out using a pin punch of the
appropriate size. The resulting hole acts as a drill guide and a twist drill, the same diameter
as the rivet shank, should be used.

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 Avdel Rivets
Avdel (Aviation Developments) rivets are a range of British blind fasteners which, when
specified, may be used for manufacture and repair of structural components. Similar
fasteners may be encountered on American built equipment.

Avdel rivets are manufactured with either snap or countersunk heads. They are hollow
rivets which are closed by a broaching process, each rivet being threaded on a mandrel of
the break stem type, the head of which applies a squeezing force, whilst the shank expands
the rivets to fill the rivet hole.

On application of a force by the rivet gun the shank of the mandrel is pulled into the bore of
the rivet and the mandrel then breaks so that part of its shank remains in the rivet bore and
thus plugs the rivet and improves its shear strength. The protruding length of the mandrel is
then cut off and milled flush with the skin surface.

The firmness of the mandrel should be tested with an Avdel Pin Tester, which has a spring
loaded retractable pin which is pre-set to 15 lbf.

There should be no movement of the mandrel. Avdel rivets are lubricated by the
manufacturer to facilitate forming the rivet and so should never be cleaned in any type of
solvent.

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 Avdel part numbers consist of eight figures.

• First four figures - Product Code, defines the fastener type, head form, material
and surface treatment.
• Next two figures - Diameter Code, defines shank diameter in 32nd ins.
• Last two figures - Length Code, defines rivet total length (P) in 32nd ins.

Example:

4002-0510
4002 = Avdel self-lugging rivet snaphead Al Alloy L86 anodised
-05 = 5/32" diameter
10 = 5/16" long

The total length (P) determines the clearance required behind the fastener for installation.
The grip length range is dictated by the shank length (L) and the length of the mandrel
broach section and can be found by reference to the manufacturers product data tables.

Avdel Type Riveter

There are two types of Avdel riveting pliers in use: the type JA which is designed for one
stroke operation and the type H which has a ratchet operation so that it can be used in
confined spaces where only small, repeated handle movements are possible.

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 Avdel Type JA and H riveting pliers

The type H also has long handles to permit riveting in locations which are remote from the
nearest available operating position. Both rivet pliers are capable, when fitted with the
appropriate size jaw and nosepiece assemblies, of setting aluminium alloy Avdel rivets of
3/16 in. diameter and smaller.

Avdel Hydro-Pneumatic Pull Tool Type 734 Series

The Avdel Hydro-Pneumatic Tool Type 734 is a robust, high production tool developed for
the easy and rapid installation of up to and including 3/16” Avdel rivets. A compressed air
supply of between 70 PSI and 100 PSI is required for placing rivets, however a minimum of
85 PSI is required to place rivets of 5/32” and above.

Avdel Hydro-Pneumatic Pull Tool Type 734 Series

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 Specific points to be observed are:

 The air pressure applied to this tool shall not exceed 100 PSI.
 The tool shall not be operated without either a stem catcher assembly or an
undamaged pintail deflector fitted.
 Always disconnect the airline from the tool inlet before attempting to adjust, add nose
equipment or dismantle.
 Do not operate the tool without a nose casing fitted.
 Ensure that vent holes do not become blocked or covered.

Preparing for Operation

Before using,

 Check the tool for any damage

 Ensure the tool is equipped with the correct nose equipment to fit the rivet being
placed.
 pour a small quantity of clean, light, lubricating oil into the air inlet of the tool.

Operation
To place rivets with Pull Tool Type 734, ensure the correct nose piece is fitted for the size
of rivet to be placed, insert the rivet body into the prepared hole in the application, apply the
pull tool to the protruding rivet Stem and actuate the trigger. The tool cycle will ensure the
rivet is placed.

Alternatively, the rivet stem may be inserted onto the nose piece of the tool and the pull tool
and rivet then offered to the application. Again, actuation of the trigger will then operate the
tool setting

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 Malfunction Cause
Several pulls required to set rivet 1. Check airline pressure at the tool.
(70-100psi required)
2. Tool requires lubrication at air inlet.
3. Worn jaws or build up of dirt m
jaws.
4. Broken jaws.
5. Tool requires Re-priming.
Jaws will not grip rivet stem 1. Worn jaws or build up of dirt in
jaws.
2. Jaw housing loose. Tighten against
nylon locking ring.
3. Weak or broken jaw spreader
spring
4. Incorrect nose equipment fitted -
replace as necessary.
5. Dirty, bent or broken mandrel
causing distortion of jaw spreader
tube not permitting it to move
forward.
Jaws will not release spent rivet stem. 1. Dirty jaws/jaw housing. Clean and
re-lubricate.
2. Jaw housing, nose tip or nose
casing not properly seated, Tighten
nose equipment.
3. Weak or broken spring around jaw
spreader assembly.
4. Tool over primed. re-prime as per
instructions.
Slow stroking tool 1. Lubricate tool through air inlet.
2. Check air pressure at the tool.
Spent rivet stem jamming in tool. 1. Incorrect jaw spreader fitted.
2. Bent or dirty jaw spreader tube.
Avdel Hydro-Pneumatic Pull Tool Type 734 Series malfunctions

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 Mandrel Cropping Tool
The air operated cropping tool is used on Avdel rivets after they have been placed to cut off
the protruding mandrel stem.

Avdel Mandrel cropping tools

Operating the Cropping Tool. Before connecting an air supply to the tool check its jaws
for security and ensure that they are not damaged. Hold the tool with the handle uppermost
and introduce about six drops of oil into the air inlet connection. Once the cropping tool is
connected to the air supply keep clear of the cutting jaws.

Rivet Miller
The rivet miller is air operated and used mainly for milling down the protruding portions of
Avdel rivet mandrels after most of the excess material has been removed with a pneumatic
cropper or with end-cutting pliers. It should be lubricated prior to use with 10-12 drops of
OM13 oil.

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 To give the tool stability during milling, it has two spring-loaded, telescopic legs each fitted
with a rubber pad for providing a frictional grip on the work. The micrometer adjuster is used
to move the nosepiece mounting assembly in or out relative to the cutter to adjust the depth
of act of the miller. Adjustments can be made in increments of 0.00025 in., each increment
being indicated by one division on the scale inscribed around the adjuster.

Operating the Rivet Miller. Any adjustments of its depth of cut should be made during trial
cuttings on a test piece. The test piece should be made from similar components to those of
the work. When using the miller it must be held very firmly and the cut applied gradually and
smoothly, otherwise the tool will tend to be thrown away from the work. Particular care
should be taken when milling the mandrels of dome-headed Avdel rivets, not to mill into
rivet head. The Miller can be used to mill flush countersunk solid rivets

Warning: The milling cutter revolves at 18,000 rpm and can cause severe injuries

Avdel Pin Tester

The pin tester is provided to enable proof loading of the mandrels of fitted rivets. Such tests
are important to prove that the mandrel will stand a pressure of not less than 15 lbf proof
load without becoming loosened within the rivet. The device consists of a capped body,
enclosing a spring-loaded plunger, set to resist up to 15 lbf proof load. By application of
hand pressure to the cap (while the plunger is seated on the mandrel under test) until the
plunger retract the test may be satisfied. A visual examination of the security of the mandrel
is then carried out. If a rivet or rivet mandrel is loose or disturbed the rivet must be replaced.

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 Avdel pin tester

Removal of Avdel Rivets. To remove an Avdel rivet the mandrel is driven out using a pin
punch of the appropriate size. The resulting hole acts as a drill guide for the drill which
should be of the same diameter as the rivet shank. Drill off the head of the rivet then punch
out the rivet shank. Bear in mind that all of the resultant FOD must be collected.

Disposal of Rivet Mandrels. Both Avdel and Tucker pop rivets once formed leave spend
mandrels which become a FOD hazard. These mandrels must be therefore collected and
disposed of.

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 American Blind Rivets

Self-Plugging (Friction Lock) Rivets

These are very similar to the Avdel rivet. They are manufactured in two parts. A rivet head
with a hollow shank and a stem that extends through the shank.

Several events, in their proper sequence, occur when a pulling force is applied to the stem
of the rivet.

 The stem is pulled into the rivet shank.

 The mandrel portion of the stem forces the rivet shank to expand.
 When the pulling action pressure becomes too great it will cause the stem to
snap at a break-notch groove on the mandrel.

The plug portion of the mandrel is retained in the shank of the rivet giving the rivet a much
greater shear strength than could be obtained from a hollow rivet.

The stem of the self-plugging (friction lock) rivet may have a knob on the upper portion, or it
may have a serrated portion.

For a smooth or aerodynamically clean surface the protruding portion of the stem may be
milled flush with the rivet head.

Self-Plugging (Friction Lock) Rivet

Inspection
The inspection of installed self-plugging
(friction lock) rivets is very limited. Often
the only inspection that can be made is
on the manufactured head of the rivet. It
should fit tightly against the metal. The
stem of the rivet should be trimmed flush
with the head of the rivet whether it is a
protruding head or a countersunk head.

If you can see the shop formed head side

of the installed rivet, inspect it for the
requirements illustrated. When the rivet
head is considered unsatisfactory,
remove the rivet and install another in its
place.

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 Pull Through Rivets
This type of mechanically expanded rivet is similar to the Chobert and is used as a tacking
rivet to attach assemblies to hollow tubes, and as a grommet. It differs from most other
blind rivets in that the stem pulls completely through the sleeve of the rivet during
installation.

Pull-through rivets are structurally weak because of the hollow centre after installation is
completed. The Figure below illustrates a typical pull through rivet before and after
installation.

In closing pull-through rivets the following sequence of events take place:

• The stem is pulled through the rivet shank.
• The mandrel portion of the stem forces the shank to expand forming the blind head
and filling the pre-drilled hole in the job completely.

It is important that the hole drilled to take the rivet is of the correct size.

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 Self-Plugging (Mechanical Lock) Rivets
Self-plugging, mechanical lock rivets are similar to the old British Avdel and American self-
plugging, friction lock rivets, except for the manner in which they are retained in the
material. This type of rivet has a positive mechanical locking feature that resists vibration
that would cause the mandrel of friction lock rivets to loosen and possibly fall out. Also the
mechanical locking type rivet stem breaks off flush with the head and usually does not
require further stem trimming when properly installed. Self-plugging, mechanical lock rivets
display all the strength characteristics of solid shank rivets and in almost all cases can be
substituted rivet for rivet.

They are made by a variety of manufacturers including Huck, Olympic, Avdel and Cherry
Fasteners but each type must be installed using tooling specified by that manufacturer.

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 Cherry Rivets
These are self-plugging mechanical lock rivets manufactured by Textron Fastening
Systems. During the final stages of forming, the locking collar, located in a recess in the
rivet head or mandrel, is forced into a groove in the stem and prevents the stem from
further movement. Alternative types of blind head may be formed by 'wire-draw’ and
‘bulbed’ fasteners. The only practical difference between these types is that the bulbed rivet
stem has a stepped head, and the finished blind head is flatter and broader, while the wire-
draw rivet has better hole filling properties.

After forming, the stem may protrude slightly beyond the rivet head and this excess, plus
part of the locking collar, may be milled off to provide a flush finish.

CherryLOCK rivets are installed using hand or power operated tools, and it is important that
the tools are fitted with the correct type of head for the particular size or type of rivet. Details
are normally supplied by either the aircraft or tool manufacturer.

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 CherryMAX Rivets

General
CherryMAX rivets are the same in principle as CherryLOCKs however they are
manufactured with an anvil washer fitted to the stem adjacent to the head. This anvil is
designed to form the bearing surface between the tool and the fastener head, pushing the
lock ring into place when the rivet is formed. The advantage of this is that the same tool
head can be used for both universal and countersunk rivets.

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 Cherry Rivet Head Styles
Both CherryLOCK and CherryMAX, wire-draw and bulbed rivets are available in a range of
head styles for different applications as shown.

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 Cherry Rivet Specifications
Cherry rivets are identified by a part number derived from either a National Aerospace
Standards (NAS) or Textron Cherry (CR) specification. These specifications are
interchangeable and a conversion table may be used to determine equivalent parts.

In both cases the part number is the specification system code then a four figure number
followed by dash numbers indicating the diameter in thirty seconds of an inch and the
maximum grip length in sixteenths of an inch. Additional letters may be replace the dashes
to carry extra information.

Wire-draw CherryLOCK rivets are available in 1/32" nominal diameter increments of -3 (

3/32 or 0.094), -4, -5, -6 and -8 (1/4 or 0.250), and also 1/64" oversizes for repairs.

Bulbed CherryLOCKs are manufactured 1/64" over nominal size and are available in three
diameters, -4 (0.140); -5 (0.173) and -6(0.201). In most cases the increased bearing area
and high strength stem enables Bulbed CherryLOCKs to replace solid rivets. The oversize
sleeve is also ideal for repair or replacement of nominal blind or non-blind fasteners of all
types.

Both wire-draw and bulbed CherryMAX fasteners are available in diameters of -4 (1/8 or
0.125), -5, -6 and -8 plus 1/64" oversizes.

Example; NAS1738B5-4 (bulbed CherryLOCK)

is equivalent to CR2249-5-4

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 while CR4173-5-04 (wire-draw CherryMAX)

Hole Preparation for Cherry Rivets

As with solid rivets, hole preparation is of the utmost importance. Holes should be drilled
with a sharp, true running bit of the correct size, perpendicular to the surface. Sheets must
be clamped firmly together to prevent the accumulation of swarf between them.

Countersinking must be accurate to ensure proper protrusion and head formation. When
countersinking for oversize repair fasteners and bulbed CherryLOCKs the pilot pin must be
no more than 0.010" smaller than the hole to ensure concentricity. The countersunk sheet
must be at least 0.010" thicker than the head thickness to ensure adequate strength.

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 Cherry Rivet Selection
Grip length refers to the maximum total sheet thickness to be riveted and is measured in
16ths of an inch. This is identified by the second dash number. All Cherrylock Rivets have
their grip length (maximum grip) marked on the rivet head, and have a total grip range of
1/16 of an inch (example : -4 grip rivet has a grip range of 0.188" to 0.250").

To determine the proper grip rivet to use, measure the material thickness with a Cherry
Selector gauge as shown below. Always read to the next higher number.

Alternatively, if the total thickness of the material is known the correct fastener grip length
can be determined from manufacturer furnished tables.

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 Cherry Installation
Cherry rivets may be installed using either hand or power operated tools. It is important to
use the correct tooling for the Cherry rivets being installed.

CherryLOCK rivet power tools, as illustrated right, require a puller and sleeve of the right
head style and size for each type of rivet. The sleeve face must be clean and undamaged
to ensure correct formation

CherryMAX rivets are manufactured with an anvil washer in place so the same tool, shown
below, can be used for all head styles and sizes.

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 The holes in the sheets to be fastened must be of correct size and aligned properly. Do not
force the rivet into the hole.

In limited blind clearance applications, the manufactured head of the standard Cherrylock
can protrude above the top sheet and will pull down to the sheet as the stem is pulled in.
The minimum blind clearance is the “BK” dimension, and is listed on Cherry standards
pages.

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 Cherry Rivet Inspection
As with all blind rivets, inspection of the installed fastener is usually limited to the
manufactured head. Providing the rivet is tight and meets the flushness, protrusion and
seating requirements it may be considered serviceable. These limits are listed in the

Structural Repair Manual.

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 CherryLOCK and CherryMAX Removal
Care must be taken when removing Cherry rivets. If an attempt is made to drill the head off
without removing the lock ring, it will spin in the head and prevent the drill from cutting.

It is usually necessary to drill out part of the pin to relieve the locking feature before
punching it back. The lock ring may then be prized out and the head drilled nearly through
and carefully prized off. The remainder of the rivet can then be punched out.

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 Imex Rivets

Introduction
The Imex blind rivet is similar to the conventional pop rivet but has a permanently sealed
end which completely encloses the mandrel head. When the rivet is set, the rapid radial
expansion of the formed head ensures a joint which is pressure tight up to 34 bar (500
lbf/in2).

Description
Imex rivets are supplied with domed or countersunk heads. The countersunk heads are
normally 120o, but 100o heads are manufactured for a limited range of rivet sizes. Mandrels
are supplied as short break or long break types and mandrel heads remain permanently
captured when formed. When the long break mandrel fractures, it does so outside the rivet
and the protruding portion must be cropped off and sanded to achieve a flush finish.

Not all materials are suitable for use with Imex rivets as the rapid expansion of the formed
head is unsatisfactory in very soft or very brittle materials. For this reason the appropriate
air publication must be consulted.

Imex rivets are manufactured from 5 per cent magnesium aluminium alloy to BS L58.

Identification
The code sequence used for Imex rivets is as follows:

 Material (A for aluminium alloy).

 Type of Head (D for domed-head, K for countersunk-head).
 Rivet Diameter (in 1/32 in increments).
 Rivet grip length (in 1/32 in increments).

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 Type of mandrel (no additional code for short-break, letter R added for reinforced long-
break mandrel).

A typical code reference is Imex rivet AD46R.

AD - Aluminium alloy rivet, domed head.

4 - Rivet diameter 1/8 in.
6 - Rivet grip length 3/16 in.
R - Long break mandrel (reinforced).

Fitting Imex Rivets

The broaching of Imex rivets can be performed using standard pop riveting tools with the
addition of a special nose piece. With the TTIB the letter identification of the Imex nose
pieces are E, F and 0, 1/8 in, 5/32 in and 3/16 in respectively.

Removing Imex Rivets

To remove an Imex rivet, the mandrel is driven out using a pin punch of the appropriate
size. The resulting hole acts as a drill guide for the drill which should be of the same
diameter as the rivet shank. Drill off the head of the rivet and punch out the rivet shank.

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 Huck Blind Rivets

Introduction
Huck rivets are very similar to Cherrylock rivets in that they have mandrels which are also
mechanically locked in position with collars when the rivets are broached.

Description
The Huck rivet comprises three separate items, a sleeve having a pre-formed head, a
mechanical lock collar and a spindle on which the sleeve and lock collar are mounted.
The sleeves are normally supplied in either 1000 countersunk or protruding (snap) head
types.
Annular grooves on the spindle shank provide a secure grip for the puller tool during
setting.

As the rivet is set the spindle is drawn into the sleeve forming the blind head of the rivet.
During the final stages of setting, the mechanical lock collar is pressed into the lock groove
in the spindle, thereby securing the spindle in position. Continued tension on the spindle
causes it to fracture flush with the rivet head

Figure 8.1: Huck blind rivets

Identification of Huck Rivets

The maximum grip length number is stamped on the head of each Huck rivet and its grip
range extends to 1/16 in from the length represented by that number. A typical part number
is as follows:

Identification number: MLS - P - M5 - 6C

ML - Mechanically locked mandrel

S - Self plugging
P - Protruding (domed) head
M - Monel metal
5 - Rivet diameter in increments of 1/32 in. = 5/32 in.
6 - Maximum grip length in increments of 1/16 in. = 3/8 in.
C - Cadmium plated finish

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 Pin Rivets and Lockbolts

General
Pin rivets and lockbolts are structural fasteners which are similar in principle and are
commonly used in aircraft construction.

They are manufactured by several companies such as Huck and Hi- Shear to a variety of
specifications and are often referred to by the manufacturers name (e.g. "Huck Bolts")

The basic fastener is a pin with a head at one end and one or more grooves at the other. It
is used in conjunction with a mating collar. When the fastener is installed, the collar is
swaged into the grooves, locking it in place.

Pin rivets require the head to be held with a bucking bar while a rivet gun fitted with the
collar forming die is used to swage the collar into place.

Lockbolts have a frangible shank at the grooved end of the pin. Once the pin has been
inserted into the prepared hole and the collar is threaded on to it, the installation gun is
applied to the shank. The action of the gun is to pull on the shank and force the collar into
the die on the front of the gun. At a predetermined tension the shank brakes leaving a fully
formed fastener. In some designs the puller cuts excess collar material off.

Their main disadvantage is that they do not have the hole filling properties of solid and blind
rivets.

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 Hi-Shear Fasteners

Introduction
Hi-Shear pins are used to effect a saving in weight while retaining the full shear strength of
an equivalent size bolt. When setting Hi-Shear pins there is also a considerable reduction in
time as opposed to fitting split pinned bolts. Access is required for both sides of the
structure.

Hi-Shear pins and collars

Collars
In production, the collars are impregnated with a special lubricant to ensure satisfactory
closing. Collars are available in only one length for each diameter of pin, any excess length
being trimmed automatically during riveting by the Hi-Shear Set.

Pins
The pins are available with flat or countersunk heads and in a range of diameters and
lengths. Pin lengths for rivets of 3/16 in. diameter and above are supplied in 1/16in.
increments and for diameters below 3/16in. in 1/32in. increments.

Hi-Shear pin length increments

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 As the pin lengths are graduated in 1/16 in. or 1/32 in. increments, depending on diameter,
the material thickness can vary 1/16 in. or 1/32 in. respectively without changing pin
lengths. Adjustment for variations of material thickness in between the pin lengths is made
automatically by trimming the collar to the required length while the rivet is driven as shown.
In this Minimum Grip
example, the collar edge In this Maximum Grip
extends slightly beyond example, the collar edge is
the trimming edge of the well beyond the trimming
pin edge of the pin

Hi-Shear pin grip variations

Variations in Material Thickness

In addition to flat or countersunk-headed pins Hi-Shear dowel pins are manufactured for
application to sloping surfaces. Where the face of the metal on both sides of the joint is out
normal to the centre line of the pin, the collars adapt themselves to the surfaces as the pins
are set.

Hi-Shear collars on sloping surfaces

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 Hi-Shear Pins Fitting
The collars are driven with standard riveting guns or squeezers fitted with a Hi-Shear set.
The set is designed with a hollow centre with a discharge port through which severed
portions of the trimmed collar are ejected. As the collar is swaged into the pin groove, the
pin trimming edge severs that portion of collar which remains above the trimming edge.

H-Shear fastener fitting

Hi-Shear Collar Forming Sequence

When the pin is inserted it should be checked for correct length before driving. After
ensuring that the mating faces of the materials to be pinned are in close contact with each
other check the pin length in the hole for minimum grip, apply the collar over the end of the
pin and ensure that the pin trimming edge does not show above the collar.

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 Hi-Shear Grip Checks

Hi-Shear Pin Removal

There are four methods suitable for the removal of Hi-Shear pins. Whichever removal
method is adopted the aim should be to retain the original hole size without damaging the
structure.

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 Hi-Shear fastener removal

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 Hi-Shear Pin Setting Faults
Faults and methods of correction, when setting Hi-Shear pins are shown.

Pins and collars are produced from a variety of materials depending on the application in
which they will be used.

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 Collar Removal
When removing either type of fastener the collar must be destroyed. This may be done with
a chisel, which is used to split the collar, or the correct size of collar cutter which is fitted
into a pneumatic drill. In both cases, great care must be taken not to damage surrounding
skin and structure.

When these fasteners have been removed for maintenance or repair purposes they are
normally replaced with Hi-Loks or other threaded fasteners.

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 Huckbolts

Introduction
Huckbolt fasteners are designed for use in high strength structural joints where access is
available from both sides of the structure. A Huckbolt is not a bolt in the accepted sense as
it is not threaded; it is really a form of shear pin which is secured by the cold swaging of a
metal collar into annular locking grooves on the stud.

Description
Two types of Huckbolt fasteners are used, a pin type using a long serrated pin for use
where a puller tool can be used, and a stump type having a short serrated pin for use with a
swaging set where operating space is limited. Both types are basically the same except for
the length of the pins and each use the same metal collar. The pin is manufactured of
cadmium plated steel or anodised aluminium alloy with a variety of head styles including
pan, countersunk and crown head.

Collars are produced in anodised aluminium alloy or cadmium-plated mild steel. The
recessed end of the collar is applied to the face of the work. All collars are supplied
lubricated to assist the swaging process.

A Huckbolt can, when required, be applied to work with an interference fit; this makes it
unnecessary for holes to be reamed subsequent to drilling, and ensures fuel and water-
tight joints.

Identification
Huckbolt fasteners, both pin and stump type are manufactured in a range of shank
diameters and grip lengths and can be identified as follows. The basic part number denotes
the type i.e. 1446 for pin type and 1426 for sump type, the dash number indicates the grip
length is 1/16 in (0.0625 in) increments. N after the basic number denotes Nickel-cadmium
plating. M after the basic number denotes a sealant escape groove. For the diameters and
grip ranges, the relevant tables should be consulted.

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 Huckbolt Setting (Pin Type)
These Huckbolts are set by pneumatically or manually-operated pull guns. The pin is
inserted as far as possible and the collar applied. If the pin is an interference fit it may be
necessary to tap the pin into the hole until the shank is gripped by the gun jaws. As the gun
is operated the pin is drawn towards the gun and reaction is applied to the collar by a
swaging anvil in the nose of the gun. The strong clenching action of the operation makes
sheet grippers unnecessary other than for local registration. After the swaging anvil forces
the collar into the pin locking grooves it begins to retract as pressure on the collar is
transferred to a second head within the gun, which eventually fractures the pin at the break
neck, flush with the outer face of the collar.

Huckbolt Setting-Pin Type

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 Huckbolt Setting (Stump Type)
The stump type of Huckbolt is set with a swaging set. The stump (short pin) is inserted into
an interference hole and driven in with a hammer or air hammer. The collar is placed over
the stump and a bucking bar placed against the head of the stump. The swaging set is
placed over the collar and is driven using an air hammer, swaging the collar into the
fastener locking grooves. When the swaging set meets the material being fastened, the
stump and collar are fully locked in a permanent, integral unit.

Huckbolt removal
The simplest test form or removal is to split the collar axially with a narrow-bladed chisel
and drive out the pin with a parallel punch.

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 Blind Bolts

General
In areas where access is restricted but a high strength joint is required various special close
tolerance fasteners can be used. Examples of these fasteners, collectively known as a blind
bolts, are trade name identifiable by names such as:

• Jo-bolt
• Accu-lok
• Visu-Lok

The basic requirements of all blind bolts are that they are high strength, close tolerance,
torque loading controlled blind fasteners which may have the added feature of being
magnetically influenced to assist in FOD pickup in blind area situations.

Generally speaking they are one man, one tool operated. The tool holds the expander nut
head while turning a frangible stem of the core bolt. This drives the sleeve over the
expander nut until it contacts the rear face of the skin. At a pre-determined torque the stem
shears flush with the expander nut head. The tool is calibrated to shear the fastener at the
same torque value every time.

Blind bolts are available as countersunk and protruding head styles, produced in stainless
steel or titanium to give strength without weight. Lightweight aluminium alloy bolts are also
used in honeycomb panel and secondary structural areas. Some are equipped with lock
rings similar to those on Cherry fasteners.

For repair purposes, unless otherwise stated, use of blind bolts is usually restricted to time
limited repairs.

In blind applications, inspection is limited to head seating, stem flushness and lock ring
engagement where applicable.

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 Jo-Bolts

Introduction
Jo-Bolts is the trade name for a fastener which is used where a nut and bolt would normally
be fitted but where access is available from one side only with the additional advantages of
being self-locking at a pre-determined torque and is less weight than a nut and bolt. The Jo-
Bolts are available with a hexagonal or countersunk headed nut.

Driving Tool
Hand ratchet tools are supplied for fitment of Jo-Bolts. One for the 3/16 in. and 1/4 in. both
and one for the 5/16 in. bolts.

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 Installation of Jo-Bolts
As with most blind rivets, the total thickness of the material (Grip Range) must be ascertain
before fitting a Jo-Bolt. Jo-Bolts are supplied pre-lubricated and must not be degreased
before fitment. When a Jo-Bolt is fitted with the driving tool, the ratchet tool nosepiece holds
the head of the nut stationary as the tail end of the Jo-Bolt is rotated. Further rotation of the
tail end causes the sleeve to expand over the taper to clench the sheet metal and form a
head on the blind side of the work. For production work the Jo-Bolt is normally set by a
power operated tool. At a pre-determined torque the tail end fractures.

Jo-Bolt Selection Gauge

The correct length of Jo-bolt fastener can be determined by the use of a Jo-bolt selection
gauge. This tool fits through the drilled hole and indicates the thickness of the material to be
joined, the scale corresponding to the last two digits of the part number (Grip Range) of the
fastener. This tool must not be confused with the Cherry-Max grip selection tool.

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 Jo-Bolt grip measuring tool and Jo-Bolt fitting operation

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 Check for Looseness of Jo-Bolts
After fitting Jo-Bolts, each may be individually checked for looseness. The nosepiece of the
driving tool may be adapted to a torque wrench in order to determine the looseness of the
Jo-Bolt. This torque must be applied in a counter-clockwise direction. A maximum torque
value is applied dependent upon the size of the fastener:

 3/16 in. units-6 lbf in.

 1/4 in. units - l0lbfi n.
 5/16 in. units - 20 lbf in.

Removing Jo-Bolts
In order to remove a Jo-Bolt a certain degree of accuracy and support is needed throughout
the drilling stage due to the hardness of the fastener. In order to enable this requirement to
be met a Jo-Bolt removal tool is used. These are available for all three sizes of countersunk
and hexagon headed Jo-Bolts. Each tool consists of two drill guides that are designed to
engage with the head of the Jo-Bolt. One end of the tool is for use with a pilot drill and the
other for the final drill size.

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 Jo-Bolt Removal Tool

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 Rivnuts
These fasteners were produced to attach rubber de-icing boots to aircraft wing and tail
leading edges. Rivnuts can be either of the countersunk or flat head types and can have
open or sealed ends .

Installation is achieved by drilling a hole into the skin with a small notch made on the edge
of the hole to prevent the Rivnut rotating during installation. The Rivnut is screwed onto the
thread of the pulling tool, and is inserted into the hole, with the key aligned with the notch.

The pulling tool handle is squeezed, closing the nut and gripping the skin. The tool is then
unscrewed from the Rivnut, leaving a threaded hole to accept a screw or bolt of the
appropriate size.

These Rivnuts are available in six grip ranges, the minimum grip Rivnut having a plain head
while the next size has a radial dash mark on the head. Each succeeding grip range is
indicated by an additional radial mark on the head with the largest size having five radial
dash marks.

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 Threaded Pin Fasteners

General
Another class of permanent structural fastener is the threaded pin type. This is a close
tolerance threaded fastener which is secured by a threaded collar or nut. It combines the
best features of a rivet and a bolt and is classed as permanent because one or both
elements must be destroyed on removal and the surviving parts are not reusable. It
provides a light weight, high quality joint and can be quickly installed by a single operator.

The Hi-Lok fastening system is a threaded pin system originally marketed by the Hi-Shear
Corporation. It is used as a transition or interference fit fastener in a drilled and reamed hole
to obtain the maximum fatigue life of the structure.

The Hi-Lok fastener has either a flush or protruding head with no driving facilities (flats,
slots etc). The threaded end, however, has a hexagonal recess into which an Allen key can
be fitted.

The mating part is a threaded collar with an unthreaded recess at one end to accommodate
the fastener shank, and a frangible hexagonal driving section at the other end.

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 Hi-Lok / Hi Tigue Fasteners
Hi-Lok fasteners are available in a range of sizes and styles, manufactured from a variety of
materials including aluminium alloy, corrosion resistant steel and titanium. Depending on
the material, they may be anodised, cadmium plated, aluminium coated or passivated for
corrosion protection. The threads are usually treated with cetyl alcohol lubricant (CAL)
during manufacture and must not be cleaned before use.

The Hi-lok / Hi-tique fastener combines the best features of a rivet and a bolt. The three
main advantages include:

• A controlled pre-load or clamp up which is consistent to within a 10% error.

• Minimum size and weight.
• Simple, quiet and rapid installation, carried out by one man from one side of
the work.

Both protruding and flush headed fasteners are made with 'tension' and reduced diameter
'shear' heads. Both fastener and hole can be measured using a Hi-Lok gauge.

It is sometimes permissible to use grip length adjustment washers under the collar or, when
chamfered, under a protruding head. You should consult the Structural Repair Manual
(SRM) for details of material compatibility and limitations.
Whenever a Hi-Lok is removed, it must be replaced by a fastener with an oversize shank.
After inspection for damage, the hole is reamed to accommodate the new fastener.
Oversize fasteners are available in 1st (1/64"), 2nd (1/32") and 3rd (3/64") oversize above
nominal.

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 Hi-Lok Collars
The mating part is usually a collar, made in matching sizes and materials. The standard
collar with a frangible hexagonal drive is available in both tension and shear forms, the
difference being the diameter and bearing area of the base. The threaded section includes
a locking feature, in the form of thread distortion, to prevent loosening when installed.

Self-sealing collars with a Teflon insert are used in wet areas such as fuel tanks while self-
aligning collars with a radiused under surface and a dished washer are used on tapering
surfaces.

In areas with restricted access it is permissible to use stiff nuts on Hi- Lok pins but this
should be kept to a minimum because of the increased weight and reduced strength of the
assembly.

It is important that the correct combination of fastener and collar is used to ensure optimum
strength, weight and corrosion resistance. Particular care must be taken when fitting
oversize fasteners as standard collars will not accommodate the larger shank diameter.

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 Hi-Lok Installation
The fastener hole must always be reamed to ensure the correct fit of the Hi-Lok pin. The fit
is determined by the type of material and the hole size is stated in the SRM. It is normally
an interference or transition fit in metals and a slight clearance in composite materials. New
holes will be drilled undersize and then reamed, existing holes will be reamed oversize.
Holes for flush headed fasteners must be countersunk , while those for protruding head
fasteners must be radiused or chamfered to accommodate the small fillet radius where the
shank joins the head.

The fastener is usually installed 'wet' with sealant and is inserted into the prepared hole and
seated. This may require a tap with a hammer and a soft drift, the collar must not be used
to draw or pull the fastener through the hole. Fastener protrusion may be checked with
protrusion gauges, as shown below, before the collar is installed.

The collar is then fitted onto the thread and hand tightened until the locking feature begins
to engage. Further tightening is accomplished with tooling. While the collar is torqued, the
fastener is prevented from spinning by a key in the hex slot. When the pre-determined
torque loading is reached the hexagonal portion shears off of the collar. The hex portion
must always be removed from the aircraft structure.

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 During manufacture powered tooling is usually used, but for repair, hand tools are often
more appropriate. The collar can be tightened using a socket and special ratchet with a
hole to accommodate the Allen key. In areas of restricted access, a spanner and Allen key
can be used.

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 Hi-Lok Removal
To disassemble a Hi-Lok fastener the collar must be removed. This may be done in several
ways.

If there is adequate clearance the collar can sometimes be unscrewed with pliers or an
eccentric cam type toothed Hi-Lok Removal tool. If there is end-on access, a collar cutter
fitted in a drill can be used to remove the threaded portion. Another method is to use a
chisel to split the collar taking care not to damage the structure. Once the collar is removed
the bolt can be driven out with a punch and both parts discarded.

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 Other Threaded Pin Fasteners
There are several developments of the threaded pin system in common use. These include
the Hi-Lite, Radius Lead-In and Eddie Bolt.

The Hi-Lite is essentially a Hi-Lok pin with the transition area between the threaded portion
and the shank reduced in depth to save weight. They must be used with Hi-Lite collars
which are similar to Hi-Loc ones but are designed to accommodate the shorter screw
thread.

The Radius Lead-In fastener is similar to the Hi-Lok but has a radiused shank transition
portion and an oversized shank. It is manufactured under trade names such as Hi-Tigue. It
is fitted into a reamed interference hole and, as it is driven in, the radiused section broaches
the hole, cold working the surrounding material. This improves the fatigue characteristics of
the joint. Collars are similar to, but not interchangeable with, Hi-Lok collars.

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 Another fastener similar to the Hi-Lok is the Swage Locking/Fluted Shank collar and pin
sometimes known as the 'Eddie' bolt. The pin has a radiused transition similar to the Hi-
Tigue, and flutes at the end of the threaded portion, while the mating collar has three lobes
on the outside.

The collar may be hand tightened until fully seated and is then torqued using a special
installation socket. When a predetermined torque is reached, the socket deforms the lobes,
forcing collar material into the flutes. This acts as the locking device and has the advantage
that no debris is produced.

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 Tapered Shank Fasteners
Tapered shank fasteners such as Taper-Loks are used because they provide a much
greater fatigue life than most other fasteners. This is particularly important in wing
structures which require high strength as well as flexibility. They also provide a fluid tight
seal. They are an interference fit fastener, the fit being achieved by driving the tapered
fastener shank into a tapered hole. The close tolerance dimensions of the hole are
controlled by the use of a special reaming tool. Forcing the fastener into the hole cold works
the surrounding material.

Manufactured in flush and protruding head styles from various materials, they have no
driving or holding facilities, relying on the taper fit to prevent rotation during tightening.

The taper ratio is 1:48 or 0.25 inches of diameter for each foot of shank length and the
fasteners are specified by grip length and nominal thread diameter because of the variation
in shank diameter. This also means that head size varies with grip length so countersink
diameters must be carefully controlled.

The mating part is usually a hexagonal or bi-hexagonal nut with an integral washer which
must be torque loaded. Self-aligning nuts are also available.

The hole is normally prepared with a combined drill/reamer/countersink tool installed in an

adjustable micro-stop type holder. It is set up by testing on scrap material to ensure correct
taper and countersink diameter. Stepped protrusion gauges are used to check the head
protrusion when the fastener is installed with finger pressure. It may then be driven flush
and the nut installed and torqued.

When they are removed they are normally replaced with an oversized fastener of the same
type, however occasionally a Hi-Lok or Radius Lead-In fastener may be substituted in
accordance with the SRM.

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 Fastener Inspection
All threaded pin fasteners must be subjected to inspection after installation. Heads must be
checked for seating, and in the case of flush heads, protrusion. Collars must be checked for
seating and thread protrusion. Details of the limits to be applied to these inspections are
found in the Structural Repair Manual.

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European Aviation Safety Agency (EASA)

Module 6
Licence Category A, B1 and B2

Materials and Hardware

6.6 Pipes and Unions

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 Copyright Notice
© Copyright. All worldwide rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced,
stored in a retrieval system or transmitted in any form by any other means whatsoever: i.e.
photocopy, electronic, mechanical recording or otherwise without the prior written
permission of Turkish Technic Inc.

Knowledge Levels — Category A, B1, B2, B3 and C Aircraft

Maintenance Licence
Basic knowledge for categories A, B1, B2 and B3 are indicated by the allocation of knowledge levels
indicators (1, 2 or 3) against each applicable subject. Category C applicants must meet either the category B1
or the category B2 basic knowledge levels.
The knowledge level indicators are defined as follows:

LEVEL 1
 A familiarisation with the principal elements of the subject.
Objectives: The applicant should be familiar with the basic elements of the subject.
 The applicant should be able to give a simple description of the whole subject, using common words
and examples.
 The applicant should be able to use typical terms.

LEVEL 2
 A general knowledge of the theoretical and practical aspects of the subject.
 An ability to apply that knowledge.
Objectives: The applicant should be able to understand the theoretical fundamentals of the subject.
 The applicant should be able to give a general description of the subject using, as appropriate, typical
examples.
 The applicant should be able to use mathematical formulae in conjunction with physical laws
describing the subject.
 The applicant should be able to read and understand sketches, drawings and schematics describing
the subject.
 The applicant should be able to apply his knowledge in a practical manner using detailed procedures.

LEVEL 3
 A detailed knowledge of the theoretical and practical aspects of the subject.
 A capacity to combine and apply the separate elements of knowledge in a logical and comprehensive
manner.
Objectives: The applicant should know the theory of the subject and interrelationships with other subjects.
 The applicant should be able to give a detailed description of the subject using theoretical
fundamentals and specific examples.
 The applicant should understand and be able to use mathematical formulae related to the subject.
 The applicant should be able to read, understand and prepare sketches, simple drawings and
schematics describing the subject.
 The applicant should be able to apply his knowledge in a practical manner using manufacturer's
instructions.
 The applicant should be able to interpret results from various sources and measurements and apply
corrective action where appropriate.

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 Table of Contents

6.6 Pipes and Unions________________________________________________________ 9

General _________________________________________________________________ 9
Safety _________________________________________________________________ 10
Rigid Pipes _____________________________________________________________ 11
Pipe Couplings _________________________________________________________ 12
Flaring _______________________________________________________________ 15
Flareless Coupling ______________________________________________________ 18
Brazed Nipple Coupling __________________________________________________ 22
Low Pressure Couplings__________________________________________________ 23
Fabrication, Repair and Installation of Fluid Lines ______________________________ 24
Bending ______________________________________________________________ 26
Testing of Rigid Pipes____________________________________________________ 29
Installation and inspection of Rigid Pipes _____________________________________ 30
Pressure Testing of Pipes ________________________________________________ 31
Plumbing Installation ____________________________________________________ 32
Flexible Hoses __________________________________________________________ 34
General_______________________________________________________________ 34
Low-Pressure Hoses ____________________________________________________ 34
Medium-Pressure Hoses _________________________________________________ 34
High-Pressure Hoses ____________________________________________________ 35
End Couplings _________________________________________________________ 36
Maintenance Practices for Aircraft Hose _____________________________________ 44
Inspection of Fluid Line Systems ___________________________________________ 46
British Standard Pipe and Hose Marking Scheme _____________________________ 47
Pipe and Hose Unions ____________________________________________________ 51
General_______________________________________________________________ 51
Aircraft General Standards (AGS) __________________________________________ 52
Airforce and Navy (AN)___________________________________________________ 52
Military Standard (MS) ___________________________________________________ 52
Other Standards ________________________________________________________ 52
Quick-Release Couplings _________________________________________________ 53
Banjo Coupling _________________________________________________________ 54

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 Module 6.6 Enabling Objectives and Certification Statement
Certification Statement
These Study Notes comply with the syllabus of EASA Regulation (EU) No. 1321/2014
Annex III (Part-66) Appendix I, and the associated Knowledge Levels as specified below:

Part 66 Licence Category

Objective
Reference A B1 B2 B3
Pipes and Unions 6.6
Identification of, and types of rigid and flexible (a) 2 2 2 2
pipes and their connectors used in aircraft

Standard unions for aircraft hydraulic, fuel, oil, (b) 2 2 1 2

pneumatic and air system pipes

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 6.6 Pipes and Unions

General
Pipes and hoses can be called upon to carry a wide variety of different fluids within an
aircraft, including fuel, hydraulic and engine oils, de-icing fluids, pitot and static air.

The pressure within these pipes can vary from ambient to 400 MPa (400 bar or 6000 PSI).
All pipes and hoses must be manufactured, installed and connected so that no leaks occur
in service, because a leak in a very low-pressure pitot air tube can be just as dangerous as
a leak in an extremely high- pressure hydraulic line.

Rigid pipelines are, generally, made from stainless steel, Tungum (Trade name for a high-
tensile, copper alloy) and aluminium alloy. Replacement pipelines are, usually, supplied by
the manufacturer, ready for installation, with the pipe bent to the correct curvature and the
pipe ends flared and provided with the appropriate end fittings.

In certain circumstances, it may be permissible to manufacture new pipelines from lengths

of pipe. A new pipeline will be made, by cutting the basic pipe to the correct length,
attaching the correct couplings and expanding the ends by the use of a flaring tool.

Requests for the basic pipe material will require details of the:

 Metal specification (DTD, BS, AN etc.)

 Outside diameter (OD)
 Gauge of the wall thickness (SWG)
 Length of pipe required.

Flexible hoses are obtained from the aircraft manufacturer using the aircraft’s Illustrated
Parts Catalogue (IPC). It is possible that, in certain circumstances, a replacement hose can
be manufactured in a workshop or hose bay. Approval to manufacture the replacement
hose must be sought from the aircraft’s manufacturer.

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 Safety
Before commencing any work on installed pipes and hoses it is essential that adequate
safety measures are taken.

Most large aircraft hydraulic systems operate at a pressure of around 2000 PSI while the
Airbus A380 operates at 5000 PSI These pressures can cause serious or fatal injury if the
correct precautions are not taken. Even pressurised air and water can be harmful.

Hydraulic fluids and fuels are irritants which can cause moderate to severe damage to
sensitive skin and particularly the eyes.

Spilt oil and fuel which is not cleaned up produces a slip hazard on the ramp or hangar
floor, while there is also a fire hazard associated with both under certain circumstances.

Any contamination which enters a system's pipework can cause damage and premature
failure, possibly with catastrophic consequences.

Therefore:

 Always ensure sources of pressure are isolated and control switches or levers are
clearly placarded before disassembly.
 Allow residual pressure to dissipate and exercise extreme caution when loosening
couplings.
 Always wear eye protection when disassembling connections, working near
pressurised systems and leak checking after reconnections.
 Wear suitable protective gloves and barrier creams when working with fluids.
 Spillages should always be cleaned up. Large spillages may require specialist
assistance from the fire brigade.
 Blank all connections when pipes are removed. If it is possible that the system will be
operated before a replacement pipe is installed, fit pressure blanks and torque
tighten them.

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 Rigid Pipes
Rigid pipes are manufactured from aluminium alloys, carbon steel, corrosion resistant or
stainless steel and titanium. Stainless steel tubing is used extensively on gas turbine engine
fuel systems and high pressure hydraulic systems, particularly undercarriage systems
which are exposed to debris thrown up by the wheels. Aluminium alloys are often used for
lower temperature air and hydraulic return lines in protected areas. Titanium is used for
high pressure, high temperature applications.

The tubing used is generally of the seamless type and is specified by material, outside
diameter and wall thickness.

Pipes are manufactured as complete assemblies and are formed in jigs to ensure that the
pipe will fit accurately in accordance with a particular drawing.

Because of the wide range of materials used and the problems of heat treatments that may
be applicable before/after bending and flaring, it is not generally permissible to manufacture
or repair a rigid pipe outside a specialist workshop.

However, some field repairs can be carried out when the necessary approvals have been
issued. Always consult the relevant manual.

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 Pipe Couplings
Where pipes are required to join together, or to system components couplings or unions are
used. The various types of coupling include;

High pressure types:

 Flared coupling
 Flareless coupling
 Brazed nipple coupling
Low pressure types:
 Rubber hose coupling
 Low pressure coupling

Flared Couplings
This was the most common type of coupling but is less popular on newer aircraft. The pipe
is flared during manufacture and is used with a nipple and collar to enable connection with
a plain union . It is sometimes used without a nipple when connected to a cone union. A
nipple with two cones is used on pipe to pipe connections.

The angle of flare on a rigid pipe will depend on the origin of the pipe, as follows:

Pipes manufactured to the British AGS specifications have an included flare angle of 32
degrees.

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 Pipes manufactured to American AN specifications have an included flare angle of 74
degrees.

Pipes manufactured to Society of Automotive Engineers (SAE) specifications have an

included angle of 90 degrees. This flare angle must not be used on aircraft pipes.

Note: Flaring leaves the pipe in a stressed condition and since the flare carries the load in
a fitting, it is the flare that is most likely to fail.

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 Flaring
The purpose of a flare on the end of a tube is twofold. First, it provides a flange that is
gripped between the sleeve or flare nut and the body of a fitting. This prevents the end of
the tube from slipping out of the fitting. Second, the flare provides a large contact area
between the pipe and the cone of the fitting, thus providing a fluid tight seal. The flare must
be nearly perfect because minute cracks or irregularities would permit leakage.

The flare must be neither too long nor too short. A flare that is too long will bear against the
threads of the fitting and may cause damage to both the flare and the threads. A flare that is
too short will not have enough material for a good metal to metal contact. A fluid tight seal is
marginal under either condition. A definition of maximum and minimum flare lengths is
presented below.

Before beginning the flare, the sleeve and the nut should be slipped on the tubing, since it
may be impossible to install them after the flare is formed.

It is not possible to make a satisfactory flare without the aid of a good tool. Several types of
flaring tools are available at reasonable cost, but the technician must make sure that the
tool selected will produce a suitable flare without damaging the tubing.

A practical hand flaring tool, shown below, consists of parallel bars between which are split
blocks with holes of various sizes. The blocks are split so that they can be separated for the
insertion and removal of tubing. The holes are slightly less than the outside diameter of the
tubing so that they will grip the tubing firmly when the clamping screw is tightened. A yoke,
which carries the flaring cone, slides over the entire assembly.

To produce a flare with this tool the clamping screw at the end of the tool is loosened so
that tubing can be inserted through the correct sized hole. About 1/4 in [0635 cm] of the

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 tubing is extended above the clamping blocks. The clamping screw is then tightened to hold
the tubing in place. Next, the yoke with the correct angle flaring cone is slid over the tool
and positioned so the cone is directly over the end of the tubing. When the flaring cone
screw is turned, the cone is forced into the end of the tubing until the desired amount of
flare is formed.

Projection tolerances

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 Aluminium tubing with outside diameters less than 3/8in [0.952 cm] must have a double
flare. Double flares can usually be made with a slight addition to or alteration of the flaring
tools. The use of an adapter, shown below, will make most of the flaring tools capable of
forming double flares.

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 Flareless Coupling
This is the most common type of coupling used on modern aircraft and equipment, it
employs a sleeve which is pressed into the material of the tube and therefore does not
require a flared end on the pipe. The sleeve is set in position and deformed using a
presetting fitting. It should be examined carefully for correct assembly before the final
connection is made.

A flareless fitting consists of a fitting, a sleeve, and a nut, as illustrated below. When
installed, the pilot edge of the sleeve is embedded in the tubing to which it is attached and
the sleeve is bulged. These form fluid tight seals between the tube and the sleeve and the
sleeve and union body.

The recommended method for installing a flareless fitting is to use a presetting tool to make
the installation of the sleeve on the tube. These may be powered or manual. In the manual
version the union nut and sleeve are installed on the tube and the tube end inserted into the
presetting tool. The bottom of the counterbore in the tool positions the tubing so the sleeve
will be in the correct place, the taper in the counterbore engages the pilot lip on the end of
the sleeve. The union nut is engaged with the tool and tightened to a pre-determined
torque. This bulges the sleeve and forces its pilot into the tube.

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 Some types can be installed with a steel pipe blank instead of the presetting tool, which
enables field repairs to be made in situ. Damaged sections of pipe can be replaced by
splicing in a new piece.

The following is a typical procedure for installing or presetting a flareless fitting on a tube:

1. See that the end of the tube is properly cut. De-burred, and dressed.
2. Select a presetting tool of the correct size for the tube being used. Mount the
presetting tool in a vice.
3. Select the correct size of sleeve and nut. Slide them onto the end of the tube, the
nut first with the threads out toward the end of the tube, then the sleeve with the
pilot and the cutting edge toward the end of the tube.
4. Select the correct lubricant for the type of system in which the tubing will be
installed. For example, if the tube is being put in a hydraulic system, the lubricant
should be the hydraulic fluid used for the system. A petroleum based oil should be
used for fuel systems. Lubricate the fitting threads, tool seat and shoulder sleeve.
5. Insert the tube end into the presetting tool until it is firmly against the bottom of the
counterbore. Slowly screw the nut on the tool threads until the tube cannot be
turned with the thumb and fingers. At this point the cutting edge of the sleeve is
gripping the tube sufficiently to prevent tube rotation and the fitting is ready for the
final tightening necessary to set the sleeve on the tube.
6. Tighten the nut to the number of turns or torque value specified for the size and
material of tubing involved. The sleeve is now permanently set with the cutting edge
seated into the outer surface of the tube. Sleeves should not be removed from
tubing and reused under any circumstances.

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 Note: Powered presetting tools are always preferred and hand presetting should only be
attempted for field repairs where access is limited.

After the sleeve for a flareless fitting has been seated on the tubing the nut is loosened and
the tube removed from the presetting tool. The sleeve should be inspected to ensure that it
is properly formed. The interior of the tubing should be checked for metal chips, dirt. or
other foreign materials.

The inspection procedures for flareless fittings after they have been preset is generally as
follows:

 Step 1: Cut the tube to the correct length, with the ends perfectly square. Debur the
inside and outside of the tube. Slip the nut, then the sleeve, over the tube.
 Step 2: Lubricate the threads of the fitting and nut with hydraulic fluid. Place the
fitting in a vice, and hold the tubing firmly and squarely on the seat in the fitting.
(Tube must bottom firmly in the fitting). Tighten the nut until the cutting edge of the
sleeve grips the tube. This point is determined by slowly turning the tube back and
forth while tightening the nut. When the tube no longer turns, the nut is ready for final

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 tightening. Final tightening depends upon the tubing. For aluminium alloy tubing up
to and including 1/2 inch outside diameter, tighten the nut from 1 to 1 1/16 turns. For
steel tubing and aluminium alloy tubing over 1/2 inch outside diameter, tighten from 1
1/16 to 1 1/2 turns.
 Step 3: After presetting the sleeve, disconnect the tubing from the fitting and check
the following points. The tube should extend 3/32" to 1/8" beyond the sleeve pilot;
otherwise blow off may occur, The sleeve pilot should contact the tube or have a
maximum clearance of 0.005 inch for aluminium alloy tubing or 0.015 inch for steel
tubing. A slight collapse of the tube at the sleeve cut is permissible. No movement of
the sleeve pilot, except rotation, is permissible.

Notes:
 The cutting edge of the sleeve should be
embedded into the tube’s outside surface
approximately 0.002 to 0.008in depending upon
the size and the material of the tubing. A lip of
material will be raised under the pilot. The pilot of
the sleeve should be in contact with or very close
to the outside surface of the tube. The tube
projection from the pilot of the sleeve to the end
of the tube should conform to the appropriate
specifications.
 The sleeve should be bowed evenly.
 The sleeve may rotate on the tube but with
longitudinal movement of not more 0.005 in.
 The sealing surface of the sleeve which contacts
the 24° angle of the fitting seat should be smooth,
free from scores, and showing no longitudinal or
circumference cracks.
 The minimum internal diameter of the tube at the
point where the sleeve cut is made should be
checked against the specification for the size of
tubing used. The tube assembly should be tested
at a pressure equal to twice the intended working
pressure.

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 Brazed Nipple Coupling
A conical nipple is brazed or silver soldered to the end of the pipe and is held in position by
a union nut which butts against a shoulder on the nipple. The conical face of the nipple
mates with a cone shaped adapter which may also be brazed or silver soldered in position.

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 Low Pressure Couplings

Rubber Hose Coupling

Seldom used on commercial aircraft, this type of coupling employs a length of rubber hose
to connect two rigid pipes. The pipe ends are beaded (expanded radially to form a raised
ring), the hose is secured to the pipes with hose clips.

Low Pressure Coupling

This is a coupling used on certain low pressure lines and vents. It consists of a rubber ring
which is compressed around the pipe when the union nut is tightened. The end of the pipe,
which is not flared, butts against a shoulder in the body of the union.

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 Fabrication, Repair and Installation of Fluid Lines
Most of the plumbing jobs an aircraft technician will called upon to do will be field and
emergency repair or replacement where specialized fabrication equipment may not be
available It is important that the technician knows basic techniques that can be used without
specialized tools or equipment The techniques covered in the text are basic operations that
can be done with tools found at most aviation maintenance facilities

Preparation of Tubing
When a section of tubing is to be replaced it must be replaced with a tube of the identical
material, diameter, and wall thickness. The replacement section should be straight and
round.

The ends of the tube are cut to the correct dimension. It is important to make clean, square
cuts at 90° to the centre line of the tubing. When the technician wants to cut aluminium
tubing or tubing of any comparatively soft metal, a tube cutter similar to that shown should
be used.

The tube cutter will make a clean, right angle cut without leaving burrs or crushing the tube.
A hardened reamer is often included as part of a cutter. The reamer is used to smooth the
inner edge of the cut where the metal has been pressed inward a small amount. If the tube
ends are not properly cleaned and smoothed, the seal will not be satisfactory because any
nick, cut, or scratch will be enlarged in the flaring operation or interfere with the flareless
coupling.

When a section of tubing is to be replaced in an aircraft system, the section being replaced
can be used as a pattern. If this is not possible, a piece of welding rod or stiff wire can be
used.

Short, straight sections of tubing between fixed parts of an aircraft should be avoided
because of the danger of excessive stress when the tube expands or contracts with
temperature changes. It is general practice to make installations with bends in the tubing to
absorb any changes in length.

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 Module 6.6 Pipes and Unions 6.25
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 Bending
Tubing correctly bent will maintain a circular shape and present a smooth. uniform
appearance without kinks or distortion. The figure below, shows a bend which is
acceptable. The other bends exhibit excessive flattening and kinking. A small amount of
flattening in bends is acceptable, but should not exceed an amount such that the small
diameter of the flattened portion is less than 75% of the original outside diameter.

Hand Bending
The wall thickness and the outside diameter govern the minimum permissible bend radius
for tubing, but it is advisable to make the bends as large as the installation will permit. It is
also desirable to make all bends of the same radius in any one line. Minimum bend radii for
aluminium-alloy and stainless steel tubing installations for use on aircraft are provided in the
table below.

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 The radius of the bend is usually measured at the tube centreline, however, sometimes it is
stated at the inner surface of the tubing. Soft tubing of less than a 1/4 in diameter can be
carefully bent by hand without a bender.

Use of Bending Tools

For larger sizes, specialised tools and equipment are needed. Bending tools are divided
into two types: hand benders, which require a different tool for each tube OD and
production benders, which can be used for different tube sizes by changing the
attachments. Production benders may be either manually or power operated. Production
benders are normally only found in pipe manufacture facilities, hand benders being more
common in hangar environments.

The choice of the particular bender to be used depends upon the size and the material of
the tubing to be bent, the kind of benders available and the number of bends to be made. If
only one or two bends are to be made, it is often more economical to use a hand bender
rather than take the time to set up a production bender. The use of a typical hand bender is
shown below and opposite.

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 There are various aids to prevent the collapse of thin walled pipes during the bending
process. These include filling the tube with sand and using special spring assemblies which
are inserted into the tube prior to the bend being made, and extracted when the operation is
complete. Another method is the use of a low melting point bismuth based alloy (70°-124°C
depending on type) poured into the tube when pre-treated with release agent. After the
bend is made the tube is heated and the alloy poured out. The tube must then be
thoroughly flushed to remove all traces of release agent.

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 Testing of Rigid Pipes
Testing should be carried out if the pipe is suspect, or testing is detailed in the maintenance
schedule.

Test equipment should be clean and serviceable, and all relevant safety precautions should
be observed. This is most important when using high pressure air as the test medium.

Pressure Test
For pressure testing use the system fluid or paraffin. Test the pipe at 1.5 times maximum
working pressure.

Bore Test
Pass a ball through the pipe from each end in turn. The ball diameter should be at least
80% of the diameter of the pipe. Flow test may be specified.

Bonding Test
After installation of the pipe, the bonding should be checked between the end couplings, the
maximum resistance should not be greater than 0.05 ohms.

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Training Purpose Only
© Copyright 2016 Rev.01 – 31 March 2016
 Installation and inspection of Rigid Pipes
Inverted ‘U’ bends must not be used in engine bay installations because of the risk of
vapour locks causing malfunction in the system.

It is also a requirement that it must be mechanically impossible to cross connect pipes of

different systems by using different sizes of couplings, or varying the lengths of individual
pipes.

Pipes are supported in groups using multiple pipe clamps. These clamps are made of red
fibre, aluminium alloy, moulded rubber, nylon and other materials. Individual pipes are
usually supported in ‘P’ clips, both types are adjustable by inserting packing to give the
required clearance with the surrounding structure.

Before installation, always check that the pipe is correct for the job. Flush pipe with system
fluid to ensure all traces of contamination or inhibitor are removed. If the pipe is not to be
fitted immediately, BLANK OFF.

It is normally advisable to connect the pipe couplings finger tight, then check the routing of
the pipe. If this is correct, the couplings should be tightened to the specified torque loading,
and the supporting clamps fitted.

A functional test should be carried out and the couplings checked for leaks, followed by a
bonding test.

Pre-Installation Check
Before fitting the pipe, ensure that the pipe is Correct in all respects. Examine the pipe for
the following:

 Corrosion, internally as far as possible and externally

 Scores
 Dents (carry out bore test)
 Flattening
 Kinks
 Condition
 Chafing - particularly where the pipe is clipped or passes through bulkheads
 Position of olive/nipple

Inspection of Installed Pipes

Pipes which are installed should be checked for the above defects as far as possible.
However, additional checks should include the following:

 Check that the pipe is clear of the surrounding structure. The minimum clearances
are as follows:
o From control rods and rigid moving parts - 18 mm (0.75 in)
o From fixed structure - 6 mm (0.25 in)
o From control cables - 25 mm (1.00 in)

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  Leak test - using aircraft power or special test rig, operate system and check for
leaks
 Flow test if specified
 Carry out bonding test
 Check couplings for correct locking

Bore Testing of Pipes

Pipes should be tested to ensure that the bore is clear and dimensionally correct after
forming. One method of satisfying this requirement is to pass a steel ball, or bullet, with a
diameter of 80% of the internal diameter of the pipe, through the pipe in both directions.
When the design or size of the pipe and end fittings, makes this test impractical or when a
more searching test is required, the drawing will normally require a flow test to be
performed.

Pressure Testing of Pipes

Hydraulic Pipes
Hydraulic pressure testing consists of firstly carrying out a flow test. This means a full bore
flow by pumping fluid through the pipe and checking the flow at the open end. If this check
is satisfactory, the open end should be suitably blanked.

Once the flow test has been carried out, the oil pressure should then be built up to that
prescribed on the drawing, usually 1½ times the maximum working pressure. The duration
of the test must give the pipe a chance to show any leaks or other problems.

Pneumatic and Oxygen

These pipes are usually given an initial hydraulic pressure test, using water as the test
medium, followed by a compressed air test that is limited to maximum system pressure.
Using high-pressure air during the test is very dangerous and the pipe(s) under test should
be placed behind a protective screen and/or submerged in water.

Cleaning after Test

After a pipe has been tested, it should normally be flushed out using a suitable solvent,
dried out using a jet of clean, dry air and blanked off, using the approved blanks.

Pipes that will be used in high-pressure air and gaseous or liquid oxygen systems must be
scrupulously clean and free from any possible contamination by oil or grease. It is normal to
recommend that pipes for use in these systems are flushed with Trichloroethane or some

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Training Purpose Only
© Copyright 2016 Rev.01 – 31 March 2016
 other suitable solvent, blown through with double filtered air and blanked-off, with the
approved blanks immediately afterwards.

Plumbing Installation
The proper functioning of the many fluid systems in aircraft is assured by the original design
and manufacture of the systems, continued satisfactory operation depends on the proper
maintenance, service, and installation of replacement parts.

Installation of Tubing
An important step in the installation of tubing is the proper lubrication of the fittings. While
not essential to all fittings, lubrication must be applied to some and is a good practice for
others. In the application of a lubricant, it is important that none of the lubricant enter the
tubing unless the lubricant is the same material that will be used in the system. The figure
below shows the points of lubrication for typical fittings.

The following general rules apply:

 Lubricate nuts and fittings on the outside of the sleeve and on the male threads of
the fittings, except for the starting threads.
 Lubricate coupling nuts and fittings on the outside of the flare, and lubricate the
female threads, except for the starting threads.

Petroleum based lubricant must not be used for the fittings of oxygen systems. A special
lubricant conforming to ANC86 or MILT5542B may be used.

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 Several lubricants may be used on hydraulic fittings, including the fluid to be used in the
system. Straight threads of brass or steel may be left dry or may be lubricated with the
system fluid. If the threads are aluminium alloy, petrolatum (petroleum jelly) may be used.

For pipe threads, the lubricant must be of a type that is not soluble in the fluid being carried
in the system. The lubricant used with a pipe fitting also serves as a seal and fills the space
at the roots of the threads. If a petroleum based lubricant is used on a fuel system carrying
gasoline or jet fuel, the lubricant will be dissolved and a leak will develop.

High temperature air pipe fittings are often coated with an anti-sieze compound which
lubricate the threads and facilitate removal. These are usually metal based pastes with
copper, molybdenum or other materials in a carrier.

Before tubing assemblies are installed, a final inspection should be made. Flares and
sleeves must be concentric and free of cracks. The tubing must not be appreciably dented
or scratched. Each assembly must be in initial alignment with the fitting to which it is to be
attached. A fitting or an assembly must never be forced into position. A section that must be
forced to line up is under initial stress and may fail in operation.

The tubing should be pushed against the fitting snugly and squarely before starting to turn
the coupling nut. The tubing should not be drawn up to the fitting by tightening the nut
because a flare may be easily sheared off, or a flareless sleeve distorted. To make sure
that a snug fit is effected, all nuts should be started by hand.

Tubing installed in aircraft must not be used as a footrest or as a ladder and lamp cords and
other weights should not be suspended from it.

The most important of all operations for tubing installation is that of tightening or torquing
the nuts. The most common mistake is to over tighten the nuts in order to ensure a leak
free union in a pressure system. Over tightening causes damage to the tubing and fittings
and may cause a failure in flight. Correct torque values are given in the table the Aircraft
Maintenance Manual.

To obtain correct torque values when tubing sections are installed, it is essential to use a
torque wrench. Special crowsfoot and obstruction wrenches are available.

Module 6.6 Pipes and Unions 6.33

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Training Purpose Only
© Copyright 2016 Rev.01 – 31 March 2016
 Flexible Hoses
General
Modern hoses are manufactured from either synthetic rubber or Teflon. Synthetic rubber
hoses are reinforced with cotton or metal braid depending on the pressure that the hose
has to withstand, with a rubber sheath on the outside to protect the braiding. Teflon hoses
are made of Tetrafluoroethylene resin which is strengthened and protected by a stainless
steel braiding. Teflon will generally withstand higher temperatures and pressure than
synthetic rubber. Kevlar is also used on aircraft hoses, these can be found in certain areas
of the Boeing 777 aircraft.

Low-Pressure Hoses
An example of the type of construction used in these hoses is where the inner and outer
tubes are made from synthetic rubber, with the inner having a braided cotton reinforcement.
These hoses are used on instrument systems, vacuum systems, autopilots and other low-
pressure systems, usually operating at pressures below 300 PSI (2.07 x 10³ kN/m²).

A typical marking on this type of hose could be a yellow line with the letters ‘LP’ along it.
The line (lay line) is used to ensure that the hose is not assembled with a stress-inducing
twist in it. Other markings could include the hose manufacturer’s code and part number, its
size and the date of manufacture

Medium-Pressure Hoses
Medium-pressure hoses are generally used with fluid pressures up to 1500 PSI (10.34 x10³
kN/m²). Their maximum pressure varies with diameter, so that whilst smaller diameter
hoses will be able to withstand such pressures, larger sizes may be restricted to lower
pressures.

Typical construction of this type of hose could be a seamless inner liner made from different
materials, a layer of cotton braid, a layer of stainless-steel reinforcement and an outer layer
of tough, oil-resistant, rubber-impregnated cotton.

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 High-Pressure Hoses
All high-pressure hoses have a maximum working pressure of at least 1500 to 3000 PSI
(10.34 x 10³ kN/m² to 20.68 x 10³ kN/m²) and use a synthetic rubber liner to carry petroleum
products. The inner liner is usually wrapped with two or more steel braids as reinforcement.
To distinguish high-pressure from medium-pressure hose, the entire hose usually has a
smooth outer cover.

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 End Couplings
The end couplings are made of steel or light alloy depending on the installation. The end
fittings grip the hose including the internal braiding to ensure a leak proof joint and provide
an electrical bond between the ends. Hoses which are located in a fire zone are required to
be fireproof (i.e. engine bay). This requirement is usually met by a cover or sheath made
from a silicon asbestos compound.

The following information is usually stamped on the end fittings or on the hose itself by the
use of tags:

 Date of manufacture
 Date of last test
 Drawing number
 Part number
 Serial number
 Inspector’s stamp

In addition to the above, hoses may have parallel lines running between the end fittings to
show when they are twisted. The number of lines may denote the number of layers of
braiding.

End fittings must be installed on flexible hoses to allow their attachment to system
components. The end fitting must ensure a good pressure seal and provide mechanical
retention. Basically there are two kinds of flexible hose end fittings; detachable and
permanent.

Swaged End Fittings

Swaged end fittings are permanently attached to the hose end by deformation
accomplished using a high pressure press machine in a workshop. This provides both
retention and sealing features. If the hose or end fitting become damaged the whole
assembly must be replaced.

Re-useable End Fittings

The purpose of a re-usable end fitting is to save in the cost of replacing the complete
assembly when only the hose itself is unserviceable. The fitting usually comprises of a
socket with a course left hand thread and a fine right hand thread, a nipple with a right hand
thread and a union nut. The nut and nipple are often pre-assembled at manufacture. In
some versions the sealing function is improved by incorporating a cutting spur or separate
sleeve which splits the inner lining of the hose from the outer which provides the retention
function.

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 Module 6.6 Pipes and Unions 6.37
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 Effective length of hose assemblies

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 Installation Procedure
The hose must be exactly the same specification as the original.
1. Cut hose squarely to correct length with a fine hacksaw. Remove rubber debris.
2. Place socket in the vice and take care not to over tighten. Screw the hose into the
socket until it bottoms (left hand thread). Then back off 1/4 turn.
3. Tighten nipple and union nut on to the assembly tool, if the tool is not available, use
a mating adapter. Two spanners are required.
4. Lubricate the inside of the hose and the nipple threads with oil or petroleum jelly.
5. Screw nipple into the socket (right hand thread) until the union nut is less than 1/16
in. away from the socket, but not touching. Using two spanners, remove the
assembly tool from the union nut and check that the nut is free to turn.
6. Clean and flush the hose with system fluid and carry out a bore test and a pressure
test.

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 Pre-Installation and installation Check

Before fitting a hose the following should be checked:

 Damage
 Corrosion of end fittings
 Cleanliness (internally as far as possible)
 Flush hose with system fluid
 Verify part number and batch no. (if a new hose)
 Pressure test if specified, or if in doubt

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 Installation
Observe the following points when fitting flexible hoses:

 Ensure hose does not come into contact with other parts of the aircraft or engine and
allow for hose flexing. Check for correct routing.
 Do not exceed manufacturer’s minimum bend radius limits.
 Straight hoses must be 3% longer than between the ends of the component.
 If lubricant is used on the threads, ensure that it does not enter the hose.
 Use only approved lubricant for oxygen hose. DO NOT USE OIL OR GREASE WITH
OXYGEN.
 Ensure the hose is not twisted, support hose while tightening.
 Only use the approved hose support guide and clips at the correct intervals. Use
packing between hose and clips.
 Carry out system function and leak test. If it is part of the aircraft fuel system, then a
flow test must be carried out.
 Carry out bonding test.
 Wire lock the hose assembly end fittings.

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 Inspection and Testing of Installed Hose

Inspection
Examine the pipe for obvious;
 Leaks: from the end fittings and particularly where the hose joins the end fitting.
 Blisters: puncture the blister, if fluid emerges, reject the hose, if not, pressure test
and if it leaks under test reject the hose.
 Ageing crack: they consist of very small short cracks. If the cracks join in a
continuous line or the braiding is showing, reject the hose.
 Security: ensure the hose end fittings are locked properly.
 Corrosion: examine the end fittings for corrosion, light corrosion can be removed,
otherwise reject the hose.
 Twisting: any twist will be seen by the line running the length of the hose. If a hose
has a permanent twist, pressure test and if no leaks are visible, consider it
serviceable.
 Cut covers: examine closely for cuts. If any cuts penetrate to the braiding, reject the
hose.
 Chafing: if braiding is showing, reject the hose. If light chafing is present, the hose
should be moved but do not tape it up.
 Kinks: reject the hose.

Testing
Hoses require testing when detailed in the maintenance schedule or if the hose is suspect.

The tests that may be carried out on a hose are:

 Pressure test
 Bore test
 Bonding test

Pressure Test
Flexible hoses are pressure tested to 1½ times the maximum working pressure. Test with
the normal system fluid or paraffin. Air and oxygen hoses to be tested under water for
safety and a visual indication will be shown by the appearances of bubbles. They must also
be tested by using water as a test medium and dried out with a warm air blast. While the
hose is under test flex it 15°. Those which flex while in service should be flexed 15° beyond
their normal range of movement.

Bore Test
Purpose of a bore test is to ensure that the hose will deliver the amount of fluid that it is
designed to deliver. The bore may be checked by one of the following methods; Visually,
Ball test or Flow test.

Visually - View from each end in turn, this method is only suitable for short straight hoses.

Ball Test - Pass a steel ball through the hose from each end in turn. The diameter of the
ball must be at least 90% of the internal diameter of the end fitting. If the ball does not pass

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 through the hose freely, the pipe is unserviceable. On small bore straight hoses a steel rod
may be used instead of a ball.

Flow Test - The flow test consists of passing a fluid through a hose from each end in turn
and timing the flow rate. The figure obtained is then compared with the flow rate figure
given in the manufacturer’s manual.

Note: The bore testing of a hose may include one or more of the above tests.

Bonding Test on Hose Assemblies

Hoses are tested for bonding before fitting, when the resistance should not exceed 0.05
ohms or 0.025 per foot length whichever is the greater.

Note: Bonding is only possible when hoses have a metal in their structure. However, all
installed hoses should be tested between the end couplings and the components to which
they are connected. The resistance should not exceed 0.050 ohms

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Training Purpose Only
© Copyright 2016 Rev.01 – 31 March 2016
 Maintenance Practices for Aircraft Hose
Hose for aircraft fluid systems requires reasonable care and an understanding of the
conditions that can cause damage, deterioration, or malfunction. The primary purpose of
the hose is to carry a fluid at a required pressure and flow rate to serve the functions of the
system involved.

The following practices are recommended for the care of hose:

 Do not use hose assemblies as footholds or hand holds.

 Do not lay hose where it may be stepped upon or run over by a vehicle.
 Do not lay objects on top of hose assemblies.
 When loosening or tightening hose fittings, turn the swivel nut only.
 Do not turn the hexes that form part of the socket or nipple assembly.
 Hold the socket with a wrench to prevent it from turning.
 Hold the fitting to which a hose assembly is to be connected to prevent it from
turning. Use an end wrench of the correct size.
 Cover open ends of hose assemblies with caps or plugs until the assemblies are to
be installed.
 Check the hose and the fittings for cleanliness, inside and out, before installation.

When inspecting hose in aircraft systems, the principal conditions to check for are leaks,
wear or damage to the outer surface, broken wire strands in the metal braid, corrosion of
the metal braid, evidence of overheating bulges, twists in the hose alignment, damage or
wear of the chafe guards, damage or wear of the fire sleeves, damage to the end fittings,
separation of the plies, blisters in the outer cover and any other indication of damage or
deterioration.

Any appreciable defect in the condition of the hose or the fittings is usually reason for
replacement. A leak may be caused by a loose fitting. This may be corrected by loosening
and inspecting the fitting, if there is no sign of damage to the fitting, tighten it to the proper
torque. A fitting must not be over torqued to stop a leak. Leaks or seepage from the hose
surface requires replacement of the hose assembly.

If there is more than one broken wire per plait in the covering braid or if there are more than
six broken wires per lineal foot, the hose should be replaced.

Hose that is reinforced with carbon-steel wire braid is subject to corrosion. This is easily
detected by a rust colour on the surface. If the corrosion is appreciable, the hose should be
replaced. Stainless steel wire braid often turns a golden yellow to brown colour when
subjected to heat. This condition should not be confused with corrosion. If the colouring is
extreme, it is possible that the hose has been overheated and may require replacement.

The hose mountings in the aircraft should be inspected for the condition of the clamps, any
bulging of the hose or other damage to the hose at the clamps, the condition of the
cushioning in the clamps, the position of the hose and the cushion in the clamp, and the
security of the clamp screws. The positioning of the cushion material in the clamp must be
such that the material does not lodge between the end tabs of the clamp when the clamp is
closed.

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 Hose that is twisted, as indicated by the lay line along the hose, can be corrected by
loosening one of the fittings, straightening the hose, and retorquing the fitting.
Fire sleeves are mounted on hose to protect the hose from excessive heat and flame. If the
fire sleeve is worn through, torn, cut, or oil soaked, the hose assembly should be replaced.
The removed hose assembly may be inspected and tested and, if found to be serviceable,
may have a new fire sleeve installed and then be returned to service.

End fittings are checked for corrosion, cleanliness, nicks, scratches, cracks, damage to
threaded areas, damage to cone-seat sealing surfaces, damage to flanges, and backed out
retaining wires on swivel nuts. The hose assembly should be replaced if any condition
found could cause malfunction or deterioration.

In all inspections of hose installations, the technician should consult the applicable
manufacturer’s manual to assure that specified conditions are met. There are many
different types and designs of fittings, and it is essential that the instructions and
specifications for the particular type of fitting being inspected are understood.

Installation Practices for Aircraft Hose

Before installation of a section of aircraft hose, the hose should be thoroughly inspected as
previously explained. If the hose is straight, the inside can be examined by looking though it
toward a light source. If there is an elbow on one end, a torch or other light source can be
used to illuminate the inside of the elbow, and the interior of the tube can be examined by
looking in the opposite end. If it is not possible to look inside the hose, a steel ball slightly
smaller than the ID of the hose should be passed through the tube. The ball should roll
freely through the tube from one end to the other.

Hose that is pre-formed to fit certain installations should not be straightened out.
Straightening causes undue stresses, wrinkling inside the hose, and other possible defects.
To prevent the straightening of pre-formed hose, a wire or cord can be attached to each
end and pulled taut.

The installation of flexible hose assemblies requires that the hose be of a length that will not
be subjected to tension. The hose section should be of sufficient length to provide about 5
to 8% slack. The hose should be installed without twisting by keeping the lay line on the
hose straight. Bends in the hose should not have a radius less than 12 times the ID of the
hose for normal installations. The coupling nuts for flexible hose assemblies should be
torqued to the correct value as specified by the manufacturer.

When a plain hose is used to provide a flexible joint between two sections of tubing, the
ends of the tubing should be beaded. Clamps should not be over tightened because of the
danger of damaging the hose. A good practice is to tighten the clamp finger tight plus a one
quarter turn. It must be emphasized that plain hose and clamps should not be used where
the fluid in the system is under pressure.

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Training Purpose Only
© Copyright 2016 Rev.01 – 31 March 2016
 Inspection of Fluid Line Systems
Lines and fittings should be inspected carefully at regular intervals for leaks, damage, loose
mountings, cracks, scratches, dents, and other damage. Flexible lines (hoses should be
checked for cracks, cuts, abrasions, soft spots and any other indication of deterioration.
Parts with defects should be either replaced or repaired. A damaged metal line should be
replaced in its entirety if the damage is extensive. If the damage is localized, it is
permissible to cut out the damaged section and insert a new section with approved fittings.
Care must be taken that no foreign material enters the line during the repair operation.
When soft aluminium tubing using flared fittings is replaced, a double flare should be used
on all tubing with a 3/8in [0.952cm] OD or smaller.

The following defects are not acceptable for metal lines:

 Cracked flare.
 Scratches or nicks greater in depth than 10% of the tube wall thickness or in the heel
of a bend.
 Severe die marks, seams, or splits.
 A dent of more than 20% of the tube diameter or in the heel of a bend.

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 British Standard Pipe and Hose Marking Scheme
This International Standard specifies the requirements for a scheme to indicate by
appropriate marking, the functions of pipe systems in aircraft. It thus provides the minimum
identification necessary for normal maintenance purposes.

Where the ambient temperatures allow, the scheme consists of adhesive tape markers
fixed to the pipe systems. The markers indicate the pipe functions and give due warning
where the contents are dangerous. When required, the direction of flow of the pipe contents
is also shown.

The contents of pipelines other than those listed here, e.g. pitot, are indicated by
supplementary markers bearing the name of the pipe function.

Where necessary, additional words may be added to describe the specific function of the
pipe e.g. Methyl Bromide; Autopilot etc.

Markers bearing the skull and crossbones are applied adjacent to the basic identification
markers where the contents of the lines are dangerous to maintenance personnel.

All lettering and symbols are printed in black on a white background. The background to the
lettering may be coloured as shown.

The markers are located at both ends of a pipeline and at intervals along the pipe. A marker
should be installed adjacent to each servicing point and inspection door.

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 n/s = not shown

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 Module 6.6 Pipes and Unions 6.49
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© Copyright 2016 Rev.01 – 31 March 2016
 Note: The letters above the markers are the serial letters of the colours as given above. The
numbers below the markers are the symbol numbers for identification purposes. The
symbol may be located on either margin of a marker. The supplementary identification
marker may also be located on either side of the basic identification marker.

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 Pipe and Hose Unions

General
Just as there is a wide range of pipe and hose end fittings, so there is a wide range of
unions to fit them to. These include straight connectors, elbows (right angle), angles, tees,
reducers and pivoting couplings.

They are available in a variety of materials to suit the application, in flare or flareless
configurations with straight and tapered threads of various forms. The part may bear a full
or partial Part Number.

It is, therefore, vital that parts are identified and ordered by Part Number by reference to the
aircraft or equipment Illustrated Parts Catalogue (IPC) or other authoritative documentation.

Module 6.6 Pipes and Unions 6.51

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 Aircraft General Standards (AGS)
It has already been discussed, in earlier topics, how this British standard comprises a wide
range of small parts, which includes items such as bolts, nuts, rivets and taper pins. The
standard also includes pipe end-fittings (union nuts and adapters), sleeves, collars, and
nipples.

The cones (flares) on AGS end-fittings (unions and adapters) have an included angle of
32º, with the pipe flaring machines being shaped accordingly.

Airforce and Navy (AN)

This standard may also be found in a wide range of aircraft and components, but it should
be noted that the flares and other hardware for this standard have an included angle of 74º.

Military Standard (MS)

This standard (as previously discussed) has replaced the standards from the AN system.
Many AN part numbers have been incorporated into the MS system and now appear with
MS designations

Other Standards
Other specifications in current use with aircraft manufactured in the USA include National
Aerospace Standards (NAS) and Military Specifications (Mil Specs). These may have an
equivalent civilian or Military Standard.

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 The Society of Automotive Engineers (SAE), and the Aeronautical Materials Division of
SAE specifications (AMS) are yet another set of standards to which aerospace materials
may be produced. The Society of Automotive Engineers has a second standard - referred
to as the Aeronautical Standard (AS) – which is for components that do not qualify for an
AMS standard.

All these specifications provide for a range of fasteners with Unified threads in the UNC,
UNF and UNJF series and, whereas British aircraft fasteners are manufactured in a
selected range of Unified threads, American fasteners are in some instances supplied in
both UNC and UNF threads.

From all this it can be seen that great care must be taken when matching up union
assemblies with these many different forms of thread.

Quick-Release Couplings
Quick-release couplings are required at various points in aircraft systems. Typical uses are
in fuel, oil, hydraulic and pneumatic systems. Their purpose is to save time in the removal
and replacement of components; to prevent the loss of fluid and to protect the fluid from
contamination. The use of these couplings also reduces the maintenance cost for the
system involved.

A coupling consists of a male and female assembly. Each assembly has a sealing piston
(poppet valve) that prevents the loss of fluid when the coupling is disconnected. Three
checks may be used to verify a positive connection. These involve an audible, visual and
tactile indication. A click may be heard at the time the coupling is locked and indicator pins
will extend from the outer sleeve upon locking, which can be seen and felt.

Module 6.6 Pipes and Unions 6.53

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Training Purpose Only
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 Banjo Coupling
A banjo coupling is used wherever a fluid tight seal is required, but relative (rotational)
movement between the fitting and hose is also required (such as on some brake units).

The fitting consists of a bolt, drilled longitudinally, and also partly radially. A ring (the
‘banjo’) with a hollowing on the inside accepts the fluid via the bolt’s drillings.

To ensure a leak free fitting but also relative rotational motion between bolt and ring, a
washer is placed either side of the banjo.

Module 6.6 Pipes and Unions

6.54
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European Aviation Safety Agency (EASA)

Module 6
Licence Category B1 and B2

Materials and Hardware

6.7 Springs
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 Copyright Notice
© Copyright. All worldwide rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced,
stored in a retrieval system or transmitted in any form by any other means whatsoever: i.e.
photocopy, electronic, mechanical recording or otherwise without the prior written
permission of Turkish Technic Inc.

Knowledge Levels — Category A, B1, B2, B3 and C Aircraft

Maintenance Licence
Basic knowledge for categories A, B1, B2 and B3 are indicated by the allocation of knowledge levels
indicators (1, 2 or 3) against each applicable subject. Category C applicants must meet either the category B1
or the category B2 basic knowledge levels.
The knowledge level indicators are defined as follows:

LEVEL 1
 A familiarisation with the principal elements of the subject.
Objectives: The applicant should be familiar with the basic elements of the subject.
 The applicant should be able to give a simple description of the whole subject, using common words
and examples.
 The applicant should be able to use typical terms.

LEVEL 2
 A general knowledge of the theoretical and practical aspects of the subject.
 An ability to apply that knowledge.
Objectives: The applicant should be able to understand the theoretical fundamentals of the subject.
 The applicant should be able to give a general description of the subject using, as appropriate, typical
examples.
 The applicant should be able to use mathematical formulae in conjunction with physical laws
describing the subject.
 The applicant should be able to read and understand sketches, drawings and schematics describing
the subject.
 The applicant should be able to apply his knowledge in a practical manner using detailed procedures.

LEVEL 3
 A detailed knowledge of the theoretical and practical aspects of the subject.
 A capacity to combine and apply the separate elements of knowledge in a logical and comprehensive
manner.
Objectives: The applicant should know the theory of the subject and interrelationships with other subjects.
 The applicant should be able to give a detailed description of the subject using theoretical
fundamentals and specific examples.
 The applicant should understand and be able to use mathematical formulae related to the subject.
 The applicant should be able to read, understand and prepare sketches, simple drawings and
schematics describing the subject.
 The applicant should be able to apply his knowledge in a practical manner using manufacturer's
instructions.
 The applicant should be able to interpret results from various sources and measurements and apply
corrective action where appropriate.

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 Table of Contents

6.7 Springs ________________________________________________________________ 9

General _________________________________________________________________ 9
Types of Spring _________________________________________________________ 10
Spring Materials _________________________________________________________ 15
General_______________________________________________________________ 15
Steels used for Cold-Wound Springs ________________________________________ 15
Steels used for Hot-Wound Springs _________________________________________ 16
Steels used for Cold-Rolled, Flat Springs _____________________________________ 16
Non-Ferrous Metals used for Springs ________________________________________ 17
Corrosion Protection _____________________________________________________ 17
Composite Materials used for Springs _______________________________________ 17
Spring Dimensions ______________________________________________________ 19
Spring Characteristics ____________________________________________________ 21
Application of Springs in Aircraft Engineering ________________________________ 25
Spring Maintenance ______________________________________________________ 26
General_______________________________________________________________ 26
Inspection and Testing of Springs __________________________________________ 28
Glossary _______________________________________________________________ 30

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7.6 Module 6.7 Springs

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 Module 6.7 Enabling Objectives and Certification Statement
Certification Statement
These Study Notes comply with the syllabus of EASA Regulation (EU) No. 1321/2014
Annex III (Part-66) Appendix I, and the associated Knowledge Levels as specified below:

Part 66 Licence Category

Objective
Reference A B1 B2 B3
Springs 6.7 - 2 1 1
Types of springs, materials, characteristics and
applications

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7.8 Module 6.7 Springs

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 6.7 Springs

General
While springs are seemingly simple devices, they are an essential working part of most
machines in one form or another.

They use the property of elasticity, inherent in many materials, which allows them to absorb
energy by distorting or deflecting when under load, store it in their loaded state, and then
release it in a controlled manner as they return to their original shape after the load has
moderated (or has been removed). Early springs consisted of flat and curved sections of
wood (and later metal), used in the suspension of carts and carriages

The dawning of The Industrial Revolution led to the mechanisation of practically every facet
of civilised life. Huge advances in transport, timekeeping, world-wide communication and
inevitably military capabilities have also taken place, in all of which can be found
mechanisms involving the principle of the spring.

The subject of spring technology is vast and well beyond the scope of these notes, so it is
sufficient for the student to appreciate the basic uses for springs in the aerospace
environment and the functions that they fulfil.

Module 6.7 Springs 7.9

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© Copyright 2016 Training Purpose Only Rev.00 – 31 March 2016
 Types of Spring
The three basic forces, which may be exerted on, and applied by springs are:

 Compression
 Tension
 Torsion

These forces may act singly, in combinations of any two or all three.

Springs have evolved into various shapes and sizes (and degrees of stiffness), which have
been dictated by the uses to which they have been put, and the loads they absorb, store
and release. The more common forms are described here.

Flat springs, while they were a development of flat, rectangular-sectioned strips of metal,
they can actually be found in forms other than simply flat as, for instance, in the shape of
the springs which control the contact breaker points in the magneto of an aircraft piston-
type engine.

Leaf springs are formed by layers of flat springs and while very early aircraft embodied leaf
springs in their landing gear, this type of spring is more familiar in the automobile and
railway industries.

Spiral springs may be found in the form of spirally wound flat springs (known as motor or
power springs) or as spirally wound wire, such as the hair springs of many types of
instruments. They are used to store or absorb torsional forces.

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Rev.00 – 31 March 2016 Training Purpose Only © Copyright 2016
 Helical Compression and Tension Springs are the most commonly found springs. They
are made in a wide variety of materials and sizes and may be found in a seemingly endless
number of applications. Compression springs are open wound to accommodate the axial
movement.

Module 6.7 Springs 7.11

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© Copyright 2016 Training Purpose Only Rev.00 – 31 March 2016
 Tension springs may be open or close wound but usually have hooks or loops formed at
their ends as attachment points. Both Compression and Tension springs may be made of
circular, square or rectangular cross section wire.

Helical springs are usually cylindrical in basic form, however Conical Compression springs
may replace cylindrical compression springs when the space in the axial direction is limited.
The spring coils fold into each other when the spring is completely compressed. A Conical
Compression spring of rectangular cross section is referred to as a Volute spring.

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Rev.00 – 31 March 2016 Training Purpose Only © Copyright 2016
 Helical Torsion Springs while being similarly wound to the cylindrical Compression and
Tension springs, have specially shaped ends to permit a torque force to be applied, and
transmitted, in a plane normal to the helix axis.

Torsion-bar springs are, basically, straight bars of metal, with splined, square or flanged
ends, that can accept and transmit torsional forces.

Module 6.7 Springs 7.13

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© Copyright 2016 Training Purpose Only Rev.00 – 31 March 2016
 Disc (or Cone, Cupped or Belleville Washer) Springs are shaped like the cup washers
used as locking devices. Often referred to as Belleville Springs or Washers, they are
capable of exerting frictional or linear forces and can be multiplied in the same direction to
increase the spring load or back to back to increase travel.

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 Spring Materials

General
The materials, used for the manufacture of springs, cover a very wide range of metallic and
non-metallic (plastic and elastomer) substances. These notes will, however, be confined
mainly to the discussion of metallic types, with a small consideration being given to some
composite materials.

There are numerous factors that can affect a choice of material for use in a spring. Perhaps
the most important of these is the strength of the material: carbon spring steel is the
strongest of the common spring materials, closely followed by Inconel and then stainless
steel.

But, of course, carbon steel will very quickly corrode, even in normal operation. Put it in salt
water and it will be useless within a few weeks. Stainless steel may be used in these sort of
conditions but it is slightly more expensive and not so strong. Inconel is a strong material
and very corrosion resistant but it is also very expensive. it is usually only used in extremely
corrosive environments or where reliability is crucial.

The operating temperature will also play a part in the choice of material. The maximum
reliable operating temperature of a spring can be as low as 150°C for carbon spring steel,
300°C for stainless, but up to about 550°C for Inconel X750.

The final choice of material may also depend on other factors such as appearance.
Stainless steel or Inconel will not corrode but after heat treatment they are not shiny as
would be expected. Stainless steel goes a yellowish colour and Inconel goes dark brown. If
a shiny finish is required then the material could be plated after manufacture in which case
standard carbon spring steel may be more appropriate.

Steels used for Cold-Wound Springs

Below a cross-sectional diameter of approximately 9.5 to 18.5 mm (0.375 in to 0.725 in)
certain steels are drawn into wires and cold-wound to form the required shape. The wires
are then usually, given some form of heat-treatment, to relieve the stresses imposed by the
winding processes. Typical types of carbon- and alloy-steel are used for the manufacture of
cold wound springs and include:

 Hard-drawn Spring Wire which is of a low-quality (and cheap) carbon steel. This
wire has fine seams in its surface, and as such, would only be used in applications of
low stress and low fatigue.
 Oil-tempered Spring Wire which is of a better quality, high-carbon steel, though it
may also contain surface discontinuities and would be found where long fatigue life
is not required.
 Music Wire which is a carbon-steel of high quality and is suitable for small-sized,
helical springs in applications involving high fatigue stresses.

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  Chrome-Vanadium Steel Wire which is a material that has been used for piston-
type aero-engine valve springs and is, suitable for high temperature and high-stress
conditions
 Chrome-Silicon Steel Wire which when used in valve springs, has a higher fatigue
life in the lower cycle ranges (10-100 kHz) than other wires
 Stainless-Steel Spring Wire which as is obvious from its name, is used in
conditions where high corrosion-resistance is the requirement. This grade of wire
would also be utilised in applications where resistance to creep at elevated
temperatures is desired. Some grades of Stainless- Steel wires can be made to
accept magnetism, where this characteristic is needed alongside the other qualities.

Steels used for Hot-Wound Springs

Above the cross-sectional diameters, previously mentioned, it is considered impractical to
cold-wind and so, the larger diameter metals (bars or rods) are hot-wound and then also
subjected to various stress relieving processes.

Similar carbon- and alloy-steels to those already discussed are employed in the
manufacture of hot-wound springs, with the necessary variations in their contents of carbon,
chromium, manganese, molybdenum, nickel, silicon, and vanadium.

Steels used for Cold-Rolled, Flat Springs

These steels vary in composition, depending on their location, but are commonly based on
carbon and manganese as the main constituent elements. They may be formed from oil-
tempered steels (thin sections - clock-type springs) or from annealed steels which are
subsequently heat treated.

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 Non-Ferrous Metals used for Springs
Based mainly on copper alloys, where corrosion resistance and good electrical conductivity
is required, and on nickel alloys where the ability to work at elevated temperatures and
resist corrosion is desirable, these alloys include:

Spring Brass which is comparatively inexpensive, has good electrical conductivity, but is
unsuitable for high-stress applications.

Nickel Silver (also called German Silver) which has better characteristics than brass and is
made from different percentages of copper, zinc and nickel.

Phosphor Bronze which has a minimum percentage of 90% copper content and has
excellent electrical conductivity. It is suitable for applications of higher stress levels than
those of brass.

Silicon Bronze which has similar characteristics to those of phosphor bronze but is less
expensive to produce.

Beryllium Copper which has similar conductivity (and corrosion resistance) qualities to
those of copper with the addition of beryllium (2.0-2.5%) imparting greater hardness and
other superior mechanical properties.

High-Nickel Alloys which are the types more commonly found in aero engine applications
and which fall under various, familiar, trade names such as:

 Monel
 'K' Monel (3% aluminium)
 Permanickel
 Inconel
 Inconel 'X' (2.5% Titanium)

Another high-nickel alloy goes under the name of Ni-Span-C and contains almost 50% iron.

All of these non-ferrous alloys can be found in the cold-rolled or drawn conditions for the
manufacture of many types of springs.

Corrosion Protection
Depending on application, metallic springs may require corrosion protection. Protective
coatings may be of plastic, zinc, nickel, chromium or tin.

Composite Materials used for Springs

Some composite springs involve the joining of certain metals with elastomers to form the
anti-vibration mountings (Metalastic Bushes and Housings) such as those found in aero-
engine and auxiliary power unit (APU) installations.

Module 6.7 Springs 7.17

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© Copyright 2016 Training Purpose Only Rev.00 – 31 March 2016
 Others combine synthetic rubber strands, encased within a sheath of braided cotton, nylon
or similar materials. They are usually referred to as 'Shock Absorbers' or 'Shock Cords'
rather than 'Springs' and are more familiarly known by the generic name of 'Bungee Cords'.
Bungee Cords may be encountered on many light- and medium-sized aircraft while their
use on heavier aircraft is not unknown.

Springs of resin impregnated Aramid and Carbon fibre construction can be made but cost of
production usually outweighs any weight saving achieved.

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Rev.00 – 31 March 2016 Training Purpose Only © Copyright 2016
 Spring Dimensions
The close-coiled round wire helical compression spring is the type of spring most frequently
encountered, and it alone is shown below. It is made from wire of diameter ‘d’ wound into a
helix of mean diameter ‘D’, pitch ‘p’, and total number of turns ‘nt’. This last is the number
of wire coils prior to end treatment .

Module 6.7 Springs 7.19

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© Copyright 2016 Training Purpose Only Rev.00 – 31 March 2016
 Close-coiled requires a small helix angle, say α ≤ 12o.

The ratio of mean coil diameter to wire diameter is known as the spring
index, C = D/d. Portions of two springs which have the same mean coil
diameter but different wire diameters and hence different indices are
compared here. It is clear that low indices result in difficulty with spring
manufacture and in stress concentrations induced by curvature. Springs in
the range 5 ≤ C ≤ 10 are preferred, while indices less than 3 are generally
impracticable.

Loads are transferred into a spring by means of platens, which are usually just flat surfaces
bearing on the spring ends.

Plain ends - when the wire is just cropped off to length - are suitable only for large index,
light duty applications unless shaped platens or coil guides are employed, because each
spring end contacts its platen at a point offset from the spring axis and this leads to bending
of the spring and uncertain performance.

Ground ends distribute the load into the spring more uniformly than do plain ends, but the
contact region on a flat platen will be very much less than 360o which is ideal for
concentricity of bearing surface and spring axis. One or more turns at the end of a spring
may be wound with zero pitch, this is called a squared or closed end. Subsequent grinding
produces a seating best suited for uniform load transfer, and so squared and ground ends
are invariably specified when the duty is appreciable. Grinding the ends becomes difficult
when the spring index exceeds 10, and is obviously inappropriate for small wire sizes - say
under 0.5 mm.

The active turns na are the coils which actually deform when the spring is loaded, as
opposed to inactive turns at each end which are in contact with the platen and therefore do
not deform though they may move bodily with the platen. The free length Lo of a
compression spring is the spring's maximum length when lying freely prior to assembly into
its operating position and hence prior to loading. The solid length Ls of a compression
spring is its minimum length when the load is sufficiently large to close all the gaps between
the coils.

The Table shows how na, Lo and Ls depend upon wire diameter, total turns, pitch and end
treatment, however the Table's predictions should be viewed with caution - especially if
there are less than seven turns - because of variability in the squaring and/or grinding
operations.

The springs illustrated here are right handed, but left hand lays are just as common. The lay
usually has no bearing on performance, except when springs are nested inside one another
in which case the two lays must differ to avoid interference. Springs with closed ends do not
become entangled when jumbled in a container, which is sometimes an important
consideration in assembly.

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 Spring Characteristics

Spring are normally specified by:

 Material
 Wire diameter or cross sectional area
 External diameter
 Internal diameter
 Free length
 Solid length
 Pitch
 End style - open, closed, ground, looped etc.
 Spring Rate

The Spring Rate or stiffness of a spring is the load required to produce a unit of deflection.

If a Load/Deflection graph for a typical, helical-wound spring were to be plotted, a straight-

line (or linear) load/deflection graph would be the result (see below). (Provided the spring
was not loaded beyond its elastic limit and the effects of temperature and repeated loading
were ignored.) This indicates that the deflection is directly proportional to the load, so if the
load is doubled, then the deflection also doubles.

Module 6.7 Springs 7.21

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© Copyright 2016 Training Purpose Only Rev.00 – 31 March 2016
 Non-linear load/deflection graphs can be produced by springs with unevenly spaced coils
(see below, broken line). These Progressive or Variable Rate springs are of particular use
in valves. Belleville springs share these particular characteristics and prove extremely
useful in certain control and indicating functions. Another non-linear plot (refer to solid line)
can be found when a thin, flat, circular disk is loaded to a large deflection. The individual
characteristics of these different spring types are used to good effect in many aeronautical
applications.

Piston engine valve springs are made of heat treated spring steel and are usually
duplicated and of different strengths to reduce valve bounce. When duplicated they are
wound in opposite directions to prevent coil interlocking.

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Rev.00 – 31 March 2016 Training Purpose Only © Copyright 2016
 Module 6.7 Springs 7.23
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© Copyright 2016 Training Purpose Only Rev.00 – 31 March 2016
 Spring Rate
This is the change in load per unit of deflection, generally given in pounds per inch (lbs/in).

7.24 Module 6.7 Springs

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 Application of Springs in Aircraft Engineering
There are many applications involving the use of springs in aircraft engineering and some
examples are:

 Pressure Regulating/Limiting Devices: in Fuel, Hydraulic, Lubrication, and Pneumatic

systems
 'Fail Safe' or 'Return to Neutral Condition' Devices: in Electrical Relays and
Solenoids, and also in Electric, Hydraulic, Mechanical, or Pneumatic Actuators
 Acceleration and Speed Control Devices: in Engine and Propeller control systems
and in Power-Assisted Flight Controls and Wheel Braking systems
 Shock Absorbing Devices: in Landing Gear systems and as Anti-Vibration Mountings
for delicate instruments and components which are subject to movement
 Devices which are capable of applying a constant force (linear or rotary) in a desired
direction, as in the holding closed of an aero engine valve spring for one example
 Devices with the ability to accurately indicate (and control) the value of an applied
force, as used in many instruments such as Ammeters, Voltmeters, Fuel Flow
Meters and Tachometers provide typical examples.

Module 6.7 Springs 7.25

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© Copyright 2016 Training Purpose Only Rev.00 – 31 March 2016
 Spring Maintenance

General
Most springs are contained inside units and assemblies and are not accessible during
aircraft maintenance, these will be inspected, tested and if necessary replaced during
component overhaul.

Springs which are accessible generally require very little maintenance. When visible,
inspection must be carried out at the specified intervals for damage such as;

 fretting against adjacent components,

 distortion - crushing, bending and stretching,
 overheating as evidenced by discolouration,
 cracking and
 corrosion.

Spring Rate may be tested in-situ by measuring the load applied by, or need to overcome a
spring loaded mechanism. For instance, a spring balance may be used on a door handle to
measure the force required to operate the overcentre spring mechanism of a door latch
system (although this will also measure stiffness and friction throughout the system).

For disassembled springs Spring Rate may be assessed by measuring the length of the
relaxed item then applying a specified load and measuring the compressed or extended
length.

Any defect found is cause for replacement. It is essential that only the correct spring is used
as these parts are often vital to the operation of the system in which they are installed. For
this reason replacement springs must be selected by part number with reference to the
Illustrated Parts Catalogue.

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 Module 6.7 Springs 7.27
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© Copyright 2016 Training Purpose Only Rev.00 – 31 March 2016
 Inspection and Testing of Springs
Springs will generally require little in the way of maintenance. Those that are in exposed
areas can become corroded over time and those in areas of high temperature can, if they
become overheated, lose their temper and cease to have the necessary mechanical
compliance to satisfy the task for which they were designed.

Corrosion, that occurs on static springs, can reduce the loads that the spring can carry,
whilst if a spring that carries cyclic loads becomes corroded, then the combination of fatigue
and corrosion can result in a serious loss of fatigue strength.

Overheating, usually shown as blistering of the surface protection can, in extreme

circumstances, show a change of colour of the metal due to the loss of temper. It must be
assumed in this event that the spring is not suitable for the designed task.

It is important that any exposed springs are carefully inspected for signs of either of the
problems of corrosion and overheating.

In some instances, springs have to be checked against figures or graphs to prove whether
they are in a suitable condition to continue in service. Some checks have to be done out at
prescribed intervals whilst others are done on an ‘opportunity basis’, such as when a brake
unit a hydraulic actuator is dismantled for overhaul.

The most common check done on coil springs is on its static measurement.

The manufacturer will publish the exact dimension of the unloaded spring with some small
tolerance, whilst the servicing technician will accurately measure the spring’s length and
compare the two dimensions.

Providing that the spring is within the published figures, then the spring is considered to be
serviceable.

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 The other check, usually completed in a workshop environment, is the load/deflection
check.

This check is done on the springs which are used in more critical services, such as piston
engine valve springs.

A special test rig is used, to load the spring with either a compressive, tensile or a torsional
loading and a meter on the rig will display the load versus deflection figures. A series of
loads are subsequently applied to the spring and the relevant deflections noted.

On completion, the figures are compared to a graph, published by the spring manufacturer,
to establish the serviceability of the spring.

If a spring fails any of these checks it is simply replaced with a serviceable item.

Module 6.7 Springs 7.29

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© Copyright 2016 Training Purpose Only Rev.00 – 31 March 2016
 Glossary

Active Coils
Those coils which are free to deflect under load.

Angular relationship of ends

The relative position of the plane of the hooks or loops of extension spring to each other.

Buckling
Bowing or lateral deflection of compression springs when compressed, related to the
slenderness ration (L/D).

Closed ends
Ends of compression springs where the pitch of the end coils is reduced so that the end
coils touch.

Closed and ground ends

As with closed ends, except that the end is ground to provide a flat plane.

Close-wound
Coiled with adjacent coils touching.

Coils per inch

Same as "Pitch"

Deflection
Motion of the spring ends or arms under the application or removal of an external load.

Elastic limit
Maximum stress to which a material may be subjected without permanent set.

Endurance limit
Maximum stress at which any given material may operate indefinitely without failure for a
given minimum stress.

Free angle
Angle between the arms of a torsion spring when the spring is not loaded.

Free length
The overall length of a spring in the unloaded position.

Frequency (natural)
The lowest inherent rate of free vibration of a spring itself (usually in cycles per second)
with ends restrained.

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 Hysteresis
The mechanical energy loss that always occurs under cyclical loading and unloading of a
spring, proportional to the area difference between the loading and unloading load-
deflection curves within the elastic range of a spring.

Initial tension
The force that tends to keep the coils of an extension spring closed and which must be
overcome before the coil starts to open.

Loops
Coil-like wire shapes at the ends of extension springs that provide for attachment and force
application.

Mean coil diameter

Outside wire diameter minus one wire diameter.

Modulus in shear or torsion

Coefficient of stiffness for extension and compression springs.

Modulus in tension or bending

Coefficient of stiffness used for torsion and flat springs. (Young's modulus).

Open ends, not ground

End of a compression spring with a constant pitch for each coil.

Open ends ground

"Opens ends, not ground" followed by an end grinding operation.

Permanent set
A material that is deflected so far that its elastic properties have been exceeded and it does
not return to its original condition upon release of load is said to have taken a "permanent
set".

Pitch
The distance from centre to centre of the wire in adjacent active coils.

Rate
Changes in load per unit of deflection, generally given in pounds per inch (lbs/in).

Remove set
The process of closing to a solid height a compression spring which has been coiled longer
than the desired finished length, so as to increase the elastic limit.

Set
Permanent distortion which occurs when a spring is stressed beyond the elastic limit of the
material.

Module 6.7 Springs 7.31

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© Copyright 2016 Training Purpose Only Rev.00 – 31 March 2016
 Slenderness ratio
Ratio of spring length to mean coil diameter.

Solid height
Length of a compression spring when under sufficient load to bring all coils into contact with
adjacent coils.

Spring index
Ratio of mean coil diameter to wire diameter.

Stress range
The difference in operating stresses at minimum and maximum loads.

Squareness of ends
Angular deviation between the axis o a compression spring and a normal to the plane of the
other ends.

Squareness under load

As in squareness of ends, except with the spring under load.

Torque
A twisting action in torsion springs which tends to produce rotation, equal to the load
multiplied by the distance (or moment arm) from the load to the axis of the spring body.
Usually expressed in inch-oz, inch-pounds or in foot-pounds.

Total number of coils

Number of active coils plus the coils forming the ends.

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European Aviation Safety Agency (EASA)

Module 6
Licence Category A, B1 and B2

Materials and Hardware

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 Copyright Notice
© Copyright. All worldwide rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced,
stored in a retrieval system or transmitted in any form by any other means whatsoever: i.e.
photocopy, electronic, mechanical recording or otherwise without the prior written
permission of Turkish Technic Inc.

Knowledge Levels — Category A, B1, B2, B3 and C Aircraft

Maintenance Licence
Basic knowledge for categories A, B1, B2 and B3 are indicated by the allocation of knowledge levels
indicators (1, 2 or 3) against each applicable subject. Category C applicants must meet either the category B1
or the category B2 basic knowledge levels.
The knowledge level indicators are defined as follows:

LEVEL 1
 A familiarisation with the principal elements of the subject.
Objectives: The applicant should be familiar with the basic elements of the subject.
 The applicant should be able to give a simple description of the whole subject, using common words
and examples.
 The applicant should be able to use typical terms.

LEVEL 2
 A general knowledge of the theoretical and practical aspects of the subject.
 An ability to apply that knowledge.
Objectives: The applicant should be able to understand the theoretical fundamentals of the subject.
 The applicant should be able to give a general description of the subject using, as appropriate, typical
examples.
 The applicant should be able to use mathematical formulae in conjunction with physical laws
describing the subject.
 The applicant should be able to read and understand sketches, drawings and schematics describing
the subject.
 The applicant should be able to apply his knowledge in a practical manner using detailed procedures.

LEVEL 3
 A detailed knowledge of the theoretical and practical aspects of the subject.
 A capacity to combine and apply the separate elements of knowledge in a logical and comprehensive
manner.
Objectives: The applicant should know the theory of the subject and interrelationships with other subjects.
 The applicant should be able to give a detailed description of the subject using theoretical
fundamentals and specific examples.
 The applicant should understand and be able to use mathematical formulae related to the subject.
 The applicant should be able to read, understand and prepare sketches, simple drawings and
schematics describing the subject.
 The applicant should be able to apply his knowledge in a practical manner using manufacturer's
instructions.
 The applicant should be able to interpret results from various sources and measurements and apply
corrective action where appropriate.

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8.4 Module 6.8 Bearings

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 Table of Contents

6.8 Bearings _______________________________________________________________ 9

General _________________________________________________________________ 9
Types of Bearings _______________________________________________________ 10
Ball Bearings __________________________________________________________ 11
Radial Bearings ________________________________________________________ 12
Angular-Contact Bearings ________________________________________________ 12
Thrust Bearings ________________________________________________________ 12
Instrument Precision Bearings _____________________________________________ 12
Roller Bearings _________________________________________________________ 13
Other Bearing Types and Features _________________________________________ 15
Limit System ____________________________________________________________ 17
General_______________________________________________________________ 17
Fits __________________________________________________________________ 17
Tolerances ____________________________________________________________ 17
Bearing Clearance and Classification ________________________________________ 18
Handling and Cleaning of Bearings _________________________________________ 19
Handling ______________________________________________________________ 19
Cleaning ______________________________________________________________ 19
Removal, Lubrication and Fitting ___________________________________________ 20
Effects of Bad Maintenance Practice or Adverse Working Conditions _______________ 21
Bearing Lubrication ______________________________________________________ 23
General_______________________________________________________________ 23
Lubricant Selection ______________________________________________________ 23
Grease Considerations ___________________________________________________ 23
Oil Considerations ______________________________________________________ 24
Solid Soft Film Lubricants _________________________________________________ 25
Inspection of Bearings ___________________________________________________ 27
Safety Precautions ______________________________________________________ 27
Points for inspection _____________________________________________________ 27
Feel Test _____________________________________________________________ 28
Run Test ______________________________________________________________ 28
Bearing Defects ________________________________________________________ 28
Storage ________________________________________________________________ 36

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 Module 6.8 Enabling Objectives and Certification Statement
Certification Statement
These Study Notes comply with the syllabus of EASA Regulation (EU) No. 1321/2014
Annex III (Part-66) Appendix I, and the associated Knowledge Levels as specified below:

Part 66 Licence Category

Objective
Reference
A B1 B2 B3
Bearings 6.8 1 2 2 1
Purpose of bearings, loads, material,
construction
Types of bearings and their application

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 6.8 Bearings

General
Bearings are broadly classified by the type of rolling element used in their construction. Ball
bearings employ steel balls which rotate in grooved raceways, whilst roller bearings utilise
cylindrical, tapered or spherical rollers, running in suitably shaped raceways. Both types of
bearings are designed for operation under continuous rotary or oscillatory conditions, but,
whilst ball bearings and tapered roller bearings accept both radial and axial loads, other
types of roller bearings accept mainly radial loads. The following paragraphs amplify the
uses of the various types of bearings, and examples are shown.

Caged bearings are in general use for engine applications and in equipment with rotational
speeds in excess of approximately 100 rev/mm. Most other bearings on an aircraft are
intended for oscillating or slow rotation conditions and do not have a cage; they are
generally shielded and pre-packed with grease, but some have relubrication facilities.

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© Copyright 2016 Training Purpose Only Rev.01 – 31 March 2016
 Types of Bearings
Bearings are, broadly, classified by the type of rolling element used in their construction.
Ball bearings employ steel balls, which rotate in grooved raceways, whilst Roller bearings
utilise cylindrical, tapered and spherical rollers running in suitably shaped raceways.

Although these notes give information on the uses of the various types of ball and roller
bearings, - together with general information on installation, maintenance and inspection, -
the Aircraft Maintenance Manual (AMM) should be the final arbiter for specific installations.

Ball bearings and tapered roller bearings accept both radial and axial loads, whilst the other
types of roller bearings may accept only radial loads.

Those bearings, which are contained in cages, are, in general, used for engine and gearbox
applications with rotational speeds in excess of approximately 100 rpm. Most other
bearings, on an aircraft or in an engine, are intended for oscillating or slow rotation
conditions and do not have a cage. They are generally shielded or sealed and pre-packed
with grease, although some have external lubrication facilities.

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 Ball Bearings
These consist of an inner and outer race separated by hardened steel balls. This class of
bearing relies on the motion of the balls to reduce friction between the inner race carried on
the shaft of the machine and the outer race which is normally fitted inside a housing on the
stationary part of the machine. The bearing may be constructed using single or double rows
of balls, each row controlled by bronze or brass cage, but bearings which do not have a
cage are often used. Ball bearings are designed for RADIAL or THRUST loads or a
combination of both and are able to operate in either direction of rotation. Ball bearings can
be of rigid or self-aligning type depending on the requirement, this being determined at the
time of manufacture.

Ball bearings may be divided into four main types that define the way in which the bearings
are used. The main types of Ball bearings are:
 Radial Bearings
 Angular-Contact Bearings
 Thrust Bearings
 Instrument Precision Bearings

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 Radial Bearings
Radial bearings are the most common type of bearing and can be found in all types of
transmission assemblies such as shafts, gears, control rods and end fittings. They are
manufactured with either a single or double row of balls, rigid for normal applications and
self-aligning for positions where accurate alignment cannot be maintained, such as in
control rod ends.

Angular-Contact Bearings
Angular-Contact bearings are capable of accepting radial loads and axial loads in one
direction only. The outer ring is recessed on one side to allow the ball and cage assembly
to be installed, thus enabling more balls to be used and the cage to be in one piece. The
axial load capacity depends on the contact angle.

In applications where axial loads will always be in one direction, a single angular-contact
bearing may be used but, where they vary in direction, an opposed pair of bearings may be
used.

Thrust Bearings
Thrust bearings are designed for axial loading only. They will usually be found in use
together with roller or radial ball bearings. The balls are retained in a cage and run on flat or
grooved washers. These bearings are adversely affected by centrifugal force and so work
best under high-load, low-speed situations.

Instrument Precision Bearings

Instrument Precision Bearings are manufactured to high accuracy and finish. They are
generally of the radial bearing type and can be found in both instruments and
communication equipment.

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 Roller Bearings
These consist of an inner and outer race separated by hardened steel rollers instead of
balls. Roller bearings are normally only used to support radial loads but can be designed to
compensate for linear expansion of the shaft or housing, by ensuring that the inner and
outer races are truly parallel. Location and control of the rollers is achieved by a groove cut
in the inner or outer races which act as recesses for the rollers. This arrangement allows
the rollers to take up lateral expansion of the shaft by allowing the rollers to slide across the
surface during rotation.

Roller bearings may be divided into three main types that define their use. They are:
 Cylindrical Roller Bearings
 Spherical Roller Bearings
 Tapered Roller Bearings

Cylindrical Roller Bearings

Cylindrical Roller bearings will accept greater radial loads than ball bearings of the same
size. This is due to the greater contact area of the rolling elements and, if they have ribs on
both rings, cylindrical roller bearings will also accept light, intermittent, axial loads. Normally
the rollers have a length equal to their diameter, although some rollers have a length
greater than their diameter to cater for special applications.

Roller bearings, which have a length much greater than their diameter, are normally called

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 needle roller bearings. These are designed for radial loads only and are best used in
situations where the movement is oscillatory rather than rotary, such as in universal joints
and control rod ends.

Spherical Roller Bearings

Spherical Roller bearings can be found with single or double rows of rollers, which run in a
spherical raceway in the outer ring, thus enabling the bearing to accept a small degree of
misalignment. These bearings will accept high radial loads and moderate axial loads.

Taper Roller Bearings

These bearings obtain their description from the shape of the inner race, this being in the
shape of a cone. The tapered bearing consist of the coned shaped inner and a cup shaped
outer race. The rollers are tapered and made from hardened steel. This class of bearing
can support radial loads in one direction only. Because of this, this class of bearing will
often be found to contain two individual rows of bearings, each row using the same inner
and outer races, but with the rollers arranged with the tapers on the rollers in opposite
directions, thus allowing the bearings to withstand radial loads in either direction.

Tapered Roller bearings are designed so that the axes of the rollers form an angle to the
shaft axis. They are capable of accepting radial and axial loads simultaneously, in one
direction only. It is common to find tapered roller bearings mounted in pairs - back to back -
so that loads can be accepted in both directions.

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 Needle Roller Bearings
These bearings consist of an inner and outer race separated by narrow trunnion ended
rollers. This class of bearing ft normally used where space saving is an important factor as
they are physically smaller in diameter than other classes of bearing but are longer and will
support the same loading as an equivalent sized ball or roller bearing. This class of bearing
are able to support only radial loads.

Other Bearing Types and Features

Self-Aligning Bearings
Bearings which allow a limited movement of the shaft. So that the inner and outer races are
not always exactly aligned with each other. The action is, of course, achieved without
impairing the operation of the bearing and is a type common to ball and roller class of
bearing.

Single and Double Row Bearings

These bearings employ either a single or double row of either ball or roller bearings. Balls
and rollers are never mixed within the same bearing races.

Sealed Bearings
Some bearings will have a seal in the form of a circular plate fitted at one end of the
bearing, this prevents the lubrication used in the bearing from escaping into other parts of
the machinery and causing contamination. This type is called SEMI-SEALED If the basic
idea of a seal is applied to both ends of the bearing and the bearing is primed with the
correct amount and grade of lubricant during manufacture, then sealed, it is called a FULLY
SEALED bearing. Foreign matter cannot enter this type of bearing, but the bearing cannot
be lubricated or maintained other than to wipe the bearing clean and check it for roughness
or wear by carrying out a hand rotation test.

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 (a) Journal for Radial Loads (b) Thrust for Axial Loads

(c) Self Aligning Double Row Roller (d) Rigid Double Row Ball Bearing
Bearing

Cage types

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 Limit System

General
For ease of manufacture and replacement it is essential that the components of similar
mechanisms should be inter-changeable. For this reason limits are imposed on the
manufacturing errors to ensure that any two mating parts are manufactured to the limits
stated on the drawing. The limits are based on the tolerance and allowance applied to the
dimensions of a manufactured part. The correct functioning of a component of any
mechanism depends upon their size. A rotating part must have clearance in its bearing, too
large a shaft or too small a hole can lead to damage and mechanical failure. Due to
imperfections in workmanship, it is not possible to manufacture component parts to
theoretically correct dimensions, but interchangeability of parts can be achieved if their
dimensions are within certain limits, thus the need for a limits system which defines how
much bigger or smaller than the basic size a part can be made and still be considered
acceptable. The limit system in use is the ISO system of limits, which is wholly metric and
covers up to 3150mm. The actual numerical values of tolerances are listed in the form of
engineering tables contained in the revised version of British Standard 1961, limits for
Engineering. The limits system used in the manufacture of a particular component should
always be shown in the title block of the engineering drawing for the component.

Fits
Defined as being the difference, before assembly, between the sizes of two parts of two
parts which are to be assembled. By using various methods of assembly, some gentle -
some extremely forceful, it is possible in engineering to obtain a fit whether or not the shaft
is smaller than the hole. When the shaft is smaller, a clearance exists between the parts,
therefore the assembly is relatively easy. When the reverse is true, an interference is said
to occur and force of some kind is needed to compete the assembly. From these two basic
situations, three types of fits emerge, Clearance, Transition and Interference:

 Clearance Fit. A fit which always has a positive clearance or, technically, where the
tolerance zone of the hole is always above that of the shaft.

 Transition Fit. A fit which can be either a clearance or interference fit or where the
tolerance zones of the hole and shaft overlap.

 Interference Fit. A fit which always has interference, or where tolerance zones of
the shaft, is always above that of the hole.

Tolerances
It is the aim of modern engineering production methods to make parts swiftly and to an
acceptable degree of accuracy. No engineering components can be made, or need to be
made, exactly to size. By using high quality machine tools and a certain flexibility in
dimensions, parts can be made at a tremendous rate and at the same time, guaranteed to
be fully interchangeable. This can be done by adopting a system of limits which in practice,
defines how much bigger or smaller than the basic size an item can be and yet still be
considered acceptable. A tolerance can be unilateral or bilateral. A unilateral tolerance is

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 one which permits a variation in one direction only, either above or below the basic size. A
bilateral tolerance allows a variation either above or below basic size.

Bearing Clearance and Classification

The clearance inside a bearing is vital to the correct operation and long life of the bearing.

There are 4 classes of clearance:

 Group 2
 Normal
 Group 3
 Group 4

The clearance refers to the clearance between the ball, roller or needle and the outer race
and is identified by one of the two available methods:

Dot Method
This method of marking the bearing uses a dot code (or zeros) to denote the clearance:

(1) One dot indicates a range 0.00005" less than standard (Group 2 – not suited to high
speed)

(2) Two dots represent a standard clearance (Normal).

(3) Three dots indicate a clearance 0.00005” greater than standard (Group 3 –
Interference fit – high speed – axial loading).

(4) Four dots indicate the largest clearance (Group 4 – For use where the bearing
is expected to get hot).

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 Handling and Cleaning of Bearings

Handling
Most bearings used for aircraft and aircraft components are costly because of high
precision in their manufacture. Bearings must never be spun in an un-lubricated condition
since dust, moisture or other foreign matter may contaminate the bearing and lead to slight
damage to the races, balls or rollers, which will lead to increased wear rates and encourage
corrosion. Bearings should also be handled using lint free gloves as the natural oils and dirt
may cause contamination of the lubricant

Cleaning
Cleanliness is vital. Key points to cleanliness:

 Do not unpack bearing until required for use.

 Clean using Trichloroethane or white spirit only.
 When cleaning use a brush not rag.
 Do not handle bearing unnecessarily.
 Do not rotate bearing at high speed unless lubricated.

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 Removal, Lubrication and Fitting

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 Effects of Bad Maintenance Practice or Adverse Working Conditions
In order that the maintenance carried out on aircraft or aircraft components is of the highest
possible standard, the following points must be remembered:

 Misalignment
Bearings which are misaligned will have a reduced life. The balls or rollers will be
unable to cope with this condition and will overheat and fail. A broken or distorted
cage or signs of non-concentric wear on the race surfaces are signs that the bearing
is incorrectly aligned.

 Ingress of Foreign Matter

This will cause rapid wear of the bearings, because even small particles will prevent
the correct rolling action of the balls or rollers and will cause scoring.

 Inadequate or Contaminated Lubricants

This will cause rapid wear, overheating and stiffness in the bearing. These defects
are usually detected by the lubricant being discolored and the bearings being stiff
when operated by hand, or the balls, rollers or cages and races will show signs of
excessive heat by discoloration.

 Vibration
This will cause indentations in the surface of the races and ball or roller, which will
cause a roughness in running and result in rapid wear.

 Excessive Interference Fit

Will place unbearable strain on the races which when combined with the heating
effects and vibration can cause cracking and eventual disintegration of the bearing.

 Excessive Pre-Loading
This will cause overheating of the ball or rollers and will lead to breakdown of the
lubricant resulting in the tightening of the bearing, rapid wear and eventual
disintegration of the bearing.

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 Bearing Lubrication

General
One of the major contributing factors to achieving reliability of bearings is proper lubrication.
Bearings operate on very thin films of lubricant, which have to be maintained to ensure that
design life is achieved. The ways of ensuring this, and to maximising bearing life, are to a)
select the correct lubricant, b) apply it properly, and c) maintain it in a clean condition.
Neglect or failure in any of these areas will seriously increase the risk of premature bearing
failures and interfere with the trouble free running that is now of such crucial importance in
competitive global markets.

The increased speeds and higher temperatures at which modern bearings routinely
operate, combined with the demands placed upon them for improved accuracy and
reliability, mean that the process of selecting a suitable bearing lubrication, today, is more
critical than it has ever been. Properly selected a lubricant will:

 Reduce friction and wear by providing a hydrodynamic film of sufficient strength and
thickness to support the load and separate the balls from the raceways, preventing
metal-to-metal contact.
 Minimise cage wear by reducing sliding friction in cage pockets and land surfaces.
 Prevent oxidation/corrosion of the bearing rolling elements.
 Act as a barrier to contaminants.
 Serve as a heat transfer agent in some cases, conducting heat away from the
bearing.

Bearing lubricants fall into three main categories; Oils, Greases and Solid Dry Film
Lubricants, which are usually limited to moderate speed and very light loading conditions.
Greases, because of their convenience, are by far the most widely used of the three, and
have been the focus of much development over the last decade.

Lubricant Selection
The selection of a particular type of bearing lubricant is generally governed by the operating
conditions and limitations of a bearing system. Three of the most significant factors in
selecting a lubricant are:

 The viscosity of the lubricant at operating temperature.

 The maximum and minimum allowable operating temperatures.
 The speed at which the bearing will operate.

Grease Considerations
The primary advantage of grease over oil is that bearings can be pre-lubricated, eliminating
the need for - and the cost of - an external lubrication system. Besides simplicity, grease
lubrication also requires less maintenance and has less stringent sealing requirements than

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© Copyright 2016 Training Purpose Only Rev.01 – 31 March 2016
 oil systems. Grease tends to remain in proximity to bearing components, metering its oil
content to operating surfaces as needed.
The negatives with grease are that it does not conduct heat away from a bearing as
efficiently as oil. In addition, grease can increase the initial torque within a bearing and
cause running torque to be slightly higher.

Finally, the speed limits for greases (expressed as a dN value, with dN being the bearing
bore in mm multiplied by rpm) are generally lower than for oils due to the plastic nature of
grease that tends to cause overheating at high speed.

Oil Considerations
While grease lubrication is inherently simpler than lubrication with oil, there are still
applications where oil is the better choice. In high-speed spindle and turbine applications,
for example oil is supplied continuously and provides cooling as well as lubrication. A
further example is instrument bearings with extremely low values of starting and running
torque. These require only a minimal, one-time lubrication, each bearing receiving just a
few milligrams of oil - a single drop or less.

The limiting speeds for oil-lubricated bearings are imposed by the bearing size and cage
design, rather than by the lubricant. To illustrate this point, petroleum or di-ester-based oils
can accommodate bearing speeds up to 1,500,000 dN or higher. In the case of silicone-
based oils, the maximum speed rating drops to 200,000 dN. Similarly, when computing life
for bearings lubricated with silicone-based oils, the Basic Load Rating (C) should be
reduced by two-thirds (C/3). In addition, to ensure long life at high speeds, the lubrication
system should provide for retention, circulation, filtration and possibly cooling of the oil.

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 Solid Soft Film Lubricants
Solid Soft films are primarily used to provide solid lubrication for bearings in extreme
applications where traditional fluid lubricants would be rendered ineffective. They offer the
advantages that their friction is independent of temperature (from cryogenic to extreme high
temperature applications), and they do not evaporate or creep in terrestrial vacuum or
space environments.

The solid soft film lubricant can either be applied directly to the surface or transferred by
rubbing contact from a sacrificial source such as a self-lubricating bearing cage. The
processes have been used successfully in a variety of extreme aerospace applications.

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 Inspection of Bearings

Safety Precautions
The cleaning of bearings for inspection normally involves the use of solvents, so the
appropriate PPE should be worn. This will include respiratory, eye and skin protection by
using breathing masks, goggles and inspection gloves. The moisture from the human hand
may contaminate a bearing surface, as easily as the lubricant can cause damage to the
skin through dermatitis.

Points for inspection

1. A darkening colour of the grease will indicate the presents of metallic particles in
suspension in the grease.

2. Rotate bearing by hand and check for roughness, after thoroughly cleaning and
lubricate with oil.

3. Ensure that the two halves of the cage are still riveted securely together.

4. Examine the cage for hairline cracks across the rivet holes and the sham corners at
the sides of the ball pockets.

5. Examine both edges of each ball pocket for wear, this will be indicated by shiny
edges with upturned lips.

6. Serviceable balls have a shiny polished appearance, whereas a dull leaden

appearance indicates excessive wear.

7. Examine both races for signs of serious scratching and fretting corrosion which has
the red appearance of rust.

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© Copyright 2016 Training Purpose Only Rev.01 – 31 March 2016
 Feel Test
A bearing is tested for roughness by turning the bearing slowly and hand feeling and
listening for any defect. Remember - the bearing must NOT be spun in an unlubricated
state.

Run Test
Running smoothness may be checked by mounting it on a shaft and rotating at 500 - 1,000
rpm and applying alternate axial and radial loads in either direction.

Bearing Defects

Fault What to look for

Worn races Excessive clearance radially/axially, flaking of raceway groove.

Worn balls/rollers Excessive axial/radial clearances, misshapen rolling elements.

Creep Shiny marks on outside of outer race caused by incorrect interference

fit in housing

Shiny marks on inside of inner race caused by incorrect interference fit

on shaft.

Worn cage Soft metal dust in and around the bearing. Inspect for loose rivets.

Overheating Look for bluing of elements and raceways.

Brinelling Indentation of raceways may be seen or felt in a dismantled bearing.

Roughness will be present on a spin test of an assembled bearing.
Caused by ‘skidding’ of the rolling elements due to sudden increases in
speed under high load (wheel bearings on landing for example).

False Brinelling Indentation of raceways may be seen or felt in a dismantled bearing.

Caused by vibration transmitted through the bearing when the machine
is stationary (in transit for example).

Corrosion Pitting of elements and raceways

Chipping Roughness and clicking on spin test.

Spalling The separation/flaking of the surface layer of the raceway

caused by thermal or mechanical stresses.

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 Normal Fatigue
Normal fatigue failure is often shown as a fracture of the running surface, with subsequent
removal of small particles of metal and is commonly called spalling.

It occurs on both rolling elements and raceways, and is always accompanied by an

increase in vibration. Moderately spalled areas show the bearing has reached the end of its
normal service life.

Excessive Loads
Excessive loading of a bearing is usually the same as normal fatigue, but the rolling
elements wear path is usually heavier. There is also increased evidence of overheating with
a widespread and deeper fatigue or spalled area. This often causes premature bearing
failure.

Damage due to excessive loads

Installation and Misalignment

Installation damage is usually the result of an impact that occurs when a bearing is fitted
incorrectly. This may be due to a sharp strike from a drift or pressing the wrong raceway
when mounting the bearing.

Misalignment damage can be seen on the raceway of the non-rotating ring because the
rolling element wear path is not parallel to the raceway edge. Excessive misalignment can
cause high temperatures as well as heavy wear of the cage.

Loose Fit
A bearing should always be mounted onto a shaft or housing with an interference fit. If the
raceway becomes loose then it will rotate on these surfaces and cause fretting. This fretting
will remove metal particles, which oxidise and leave a distinctive brown colour. It usually
occurs when the bearing outer raceway rotates inside a worn housing. The external surface
of the raceway will be scored and discoloured as a result of a loose fitting bearing.

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 Loose fit damage

Brinelling – True and False

Brinelling marks on a bearing raceway resemble the indentations that result from a Brinell
Hardness Test. They are described as being either True Brinell or False Brinell marks.

Brinelling is caused when a load is applied to a ball bearing that exceeds the elastic limits of
the steel and the raceways are permanently deformed. Brinelling creates measurable dents
at each ball location similar to the deformation caused by a Brinell Hardness Tester. This
type of damage can occur quite easily if proper care is not taken. High energy impacts
(from hammers and smash-ups), improper bearing handling and incorrect spindle assembly
can all damage bearings. Remember that we are talking about bearings with raceways with
roundness measured in millionths of an inch. You might not even realize the damage has
occurred except for increases in vibration and non-repetitive run-out.

False brinelling is not related to excessive loads. False brinelling is caused by ambient
vibration. Even a brand new bearing, sealed in a box on a shelf, is subject to false brinelling
if it is exposed to environmental vibrations for an extended period. When a bearing is not
operating it is subject to false brinelling in the box or in the machine. When a bearing is
operating, there is an oil film between the rolling elements and the raceways. This is called
elasto-hydro-dynamic (EHD) film. Most people can relate to hydroplaning. When you reach
a certain speed on a wet road your tyres actually lift off the road (not good). But when a
bearing operates with the proper lubrication and at the right speed the balls or rollers lift off
the raceway slightly (this is good). This extremely thin film protects and lubricates the
bearing while it is running. When the bearing is stopped there is no EHD film and there IS
metal to metal contact. That is when false brinelling can quietly attack your bearings. The
combination of metal to metal contact and vibration create a wear and corrosion pattern that
mimics brinelling.

8.30 Module 6.8 Bearings

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Rev.01 – 31 March 2016 Training Purpose Only © Copyright 2016
 The prevention is to rotate spindles routinely if they are not in use to reposition the rolling
elements and lubrication. Take steps to reduce vibration or isolate machines from each
other through properly designed mounting pads. Store bearings and spindles in a clean dry
area free from vibration.

False Brinelling (left) and True Brinelling (right)

Overheating and Lubrication Failure

Excessive heating of a bearing manifests itself as discoloration of the rings, rolling elements
and cages from gold to blue. Excessive temperatures will usually be in excess of 400°C. In
extreme cases the rolling elements and raceways will deform. A blue/black colour indicates
an area close to the heat source and changes to a silver/gold discoloration the further you
move away.

Failure or lack of lubrication often has similar signs as overheating because good
lubrication should cool the material and transfer away any heat produced during rotation.
Restricted flow and excessive temperatures can also degrade the chemical composition of
the oil, making it ineffective and increase wear rates.

The outcome of either overheating or lubrication failure will always result in the eventual
failure of the bearing.

Module 6.8 Bearings 8.31

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© Copyright 2016 Training Purpose Only Rev.01 – 31 March 2016
 Contamination and Corrosion
Contamination is one of the leading causes of premature bearing failure. The symptoms are
dents or scratches embedded in the bearing raceway and rolling elements, resulting in
bearing vibration and wear.

The contaminant would be an abrasive substance that gets into the bearing, such as sand,
grit or dust. The principal sources are dirty tools, contaminated work areas, dirty hands and
foreign matter in the lubricant or cleaning solutions.

Corrosion is usually the result of a chemical attack on the bearing material by an

incompatible fluid such as moisture. It manifests itself as either black pitting marks or
red/brown rust coloured areas on the rolling elements, raceways, or cages. It usually results
in increased vibration followed by wear.

Contamination damage

Corrosion damage

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Rev.01 – 31 March 2016 Training Purpose Only © Copyright 2016
 Flaking or Spalling
Fatigue is the result of shear stresses cyclically appearing immediately below the load
carrying surface. After a time these stresses cause cracks which gradually extend up to the
surface. As the rolling elements pass over the cracks fragments of material break away and
this is known as flaking or spalling. The flaking progressively increases in extent and
eventually makes the bearing unserviceable.

The life of a rolling bearing is defined as the number of revolutions the bearing can perform
before incipient flaking occurs. This does not mean to say that the bearing cannot be used
after then. Flaking is a relatively long, drawn-out process and makes its presence known by
increasing noise and vibration levels in the bearing. Therefore, as a rule, there is plenty of
time to prepare for a change of bearing.

Stages in flaking (spalling)

Electric Current Damage

When an electric current passes through a bearing, i.e. proceeds from one ring to the other
via the rolling elements, damage will occur. At the contact surfaces the process is similar to
electric arc welding.

Such electric currents can be of a low level but last for considerable lengths of time (such
as voltage leakage from a motor or generator) or be very high level for a short duration
(such as that caused by a lightning strike of the aircraft). Equal amounts of damage can
occur from both situations.

The appearance of the damage is dark brown or greyish black fluting (corrugation) or
craters in raceways and rollers. Balls have dark discolouration only. Sometimes zigzag
burns in ball bearings raceways. Also, localised burns in raceways and on rolling elements.

The material is heated to temperatures ranging from tempering to melting levels. This leads
to the appearance of discoloured areas, varying in size, where the material has been
tempered, re-hardened or melted. Small craters also form where the metal has melted.

The passage of electric current frequently leads to the formation of fluting (corrugation) in
bearing raceways. Rollers are also subject to fluting, while there is only dark discolouration
of balls.

It can be difficult to distinguish between electric current damage and vibration damage. A
feature of the fluting caused by electric current is the dark bottom of the corrugations, as
opposed to the bright or rusty appearance at the bottom of the vibration induced fluting.

Module 6.8 Bearings 8.33

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© Copyright 2016 Training Purpose Only Rev.01 – 31 March 2016
 Another distinguishing feature is the lack of damage to the rolling elements of bearings with
raceway fluting caused by vibrations.

Both alternating and direct currents cause damage to bearings. Even low amperage
currents are dangerous. Non-rotating bearings are much more resistant to electric current
damage than bearings in rotation. The extent of the damage depends on a number of
factors: current intensity, duration, bearing load, speed and lubricant.

The only way of avoiding damage of this nature is to prevent any electric current from
passing through the bearing.

Left: Fluting caused by the passage of electric current, in the outer ring of a spherical roller
bearing.

Right: The outer ring of a self-aligning ball bearing damaged by electric current.

8.34 Module 6.8 Bearings

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Rev.01 – 31 March 2016 Training Purpose Only © Copyright 2016
 Module 6.8 Bearings 8.35
Turkish Technic Inc.
© Copyright 2016 Training Purpose Only Rev.01 – 31 March 2016
 Storage
If a bearing is to be used immediately after inspection, it should be lubricated with correct
lubricant and installed. If there is liable to be a delay before installation, then the bearing
should be coated in rust-preventing inhibiting oil, wrapped in greaseproof paper, boxed and
labelled. The bearing should always be stored horizontally, in a clean dry atmosphere.

8.36 Module 6.8 Bearings

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Rev.01 – 31 March 2016 Training Purpose Only © Copyright 2016
European Aviation Safety Agency (EASA)

Module 6
Licence Category A, B1 and B2

Materials and Hardware

6.9 Transmissions
 Intentionally Blank

9.2 Module 6.9 Transmissions

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Rev.01 – 31 March 2016 Training Purpose Only © Copyright 2016
 Copyright Notice
© Copyright. All worldwide rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced,
stored in a retrieval system or transmitted in any form by any other means whatsoever: i.e.
photocopy, electronic, mechanical recording or otherwise without the prior written
permission of Turkish Technic Inc.

Knowledge Levels — Category A, B1, B2, B3 and C Aircraft

Maintenance Licence
Basic knowledge for categories A, B1, B2 and B3 are indicated by the allocation of knowledge levels
indicators (1, 2 or 3) against each applicable subject. Category C applicants must meet either the category B1
or the category B2 basic knowledge levels.
The knowledge level indicators are defined as follows:

LEVEL 1
 A familiarisation with the principal elements of the subject.
Objectives: The applicant should be familiar with the basic elements of the subject.
 The applicant should be able to give a simple description of the whole subject, using common words
and examples.
 The applicant should be able to use typical terms.

LEVEL 2
 A general knowledge of the theoretical and practical aspects of the subject.
 An ability to apply that knowledge.
Objectives: The applicant should be able to understand the theoretical fundamentals of the subject.
 The applicant should be able to give a general description of the subject using, as appropriate, typical
examples.
 The applicant should be able to use mathematical formulae in conjunction with physical laws
describing the subject.
 The applicant should be able to read and understand sketches, drawings and schematics describing
the subject.
 The applicant should be able to apply his knowledge in a practical manner using detailed procedures.

LEVEL 3
 A detailed knowledge of the theoretical and practical aspects of the subject.
 A capacity to combine and apply the separate elements of knowledge in a logical and comprehensive
manner.
Objectives: The applicant should know the theory of the subject and interrelationships with other subjects.
 The applicant should be able to give a detailed description of the subject using theoretical
fundamentals and specific examples.
 The applicant should understand and be able to use mathematical formulae related to the subject.
 The applicant should be able to read, understand and prepare sketches, simple drawings and
schematics describing the subject.
 The applicant should be able to apply his knowledge in a practical manner using manufacturer's
instructions.
 The applicant should be able to interpret results from various sources and measurements and apply
corrective action where appropriate.

Module 6.9 Transmission 9.3

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 Intentionally Blank

9.4 Module 6.9 Transmissions

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Rev.01 – 31 March 2016 Training Purpose Only © Copyright 2016
 Table of Contents

6.9 Transmissions __________________________________________________________ 9

Gears ___________________________________________________________________ 9
General________________________________________________________________ 9
Gear Nomenclature ______________________________________________________ 9
Spur Gears ____________________________________________________________ 11
Bevel Gears ___________________________________________________________ 12
Helical Gears __________________________________________________________ 13
Worm Gears ___________________________________________________________ 14
Conformal Gears _______________________________________________________ 15
Accessory Drives _______________________________________________________ 16
Spur and Pinion Reduction Gear Train _______________________________________ 18
Gear Ratio ____________________________________________________________ 18
Compound Gear Train ___________________________________________________ 22
Worm Gears ___________________________________________________________ 24
Epicyclic Reduction Gear _________________________________________________ 25
Reduction Gears________________________________________________________ 28
Gear Pattern ___________________________________________________________ 33
Backlash or Lash _______________________________________________________ 35
Gear Terms ___________________________________________________________ 37
Belts and Pulleys ________________________________________________________ 39
Control Chains, Chain Wheels and Pulleys ___________________________________ 43
General_______________________________________________________________ 43
Chain Assemblies _______________________________________________________ 43
Installation of Chain Assemblies____________________________________________ 44
Inspection after Assembly ________________________________________________ 47
Maintenance ___________________________________________________________ 47
Ball Screw Jack _________________________________________________________ 49
General_______________________________________________________________ 49
Ball Screw Inspection ____________________________________________________ 51
Lever Devices__________________________________________________________ 52
General_______________________________________________________________ 53
End Fittings ___________________________________________________________ 54
Adjustments ___________________________________________________________ 55
Method of Checking a Tubular Member for Bow _______________________________ 56

Module 6.9 Transmission 9.5

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Training Purpose Only
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9.6 Module 6.9 Transmissions

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 Module 6.9 Enabling Objectives and Certification Statement
Certification Statement
These Study Notes comply with the syllabus of EASA Regulation (EU) No. 1321/2014
Annex III (Part-66) Appendix I, and the associated Knowledge Levels as specified below:

Part 66 Licence Category

Objective
Reference A B1 B2 B3
Transmissions 6.9 1 2 2 1
Gear types and their application
Gear ratios, reduction and multiplication gear
systems, driven and driving gears, idler gears,
mesh patterns
Belts and pulleys, chains and sprockets

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 6.9 Transmissions

Gears

General
Gears are toothed wheels used to transmit power between components of a machine
where the centre distances between the shafts is limited. They give a positive drive of a
fixed velocity ratio and do not slip.

Gears are used in conjunction with the various bearings and shafts in various components
to transmit power, change direction of rotation and to increase or decrease speed.

Gears may be cast, moulded or cut from solid steel, brass, bronze and plastics. Frequently
used combinations for wheel and pinion respectively are carbon steel/alloy steel, alloy
steel/case hardened steel.

When two gears are running together the large one is called the gear and the smaller is
called a pinion. If the pinion drives the gear, the unit is a speed reducer; if the gear drives
the pinion, it is a speed increaser. Gears are more often used as speed reducers.

The second major function of gears is to provide a usable range of gear ratios in a machine.
Four or five forward gears in a motor car for example or a wide range of cutting speeds in a
lathe. The gear ratio is the ratio of the number of teeth on one gear to the number of teeth
on the other and determines the amount of speed reduction or increase which takes place.
For example, if a pinion has twenty teeth and the gear has sixty, the ratio is 1:3 and the
gear will make one revolution for every three of the pinion.

When one gear drives another, they turn in opposite directions (unless one of them is an
internally toothed gear). If it is required that they turn in the same direction, a third gear
called an idler gear is interposed between them.

Gear Nomenclature
If two gears running together are imagined to be two smooth wheels whose surfaces are
touching, the diameter of each wheel is the PITCH DIAMETER or the PITCH CIRCLE of the
gear.

The part of the gear tooth that extends beyond the pitch circle is called the ADDENDUM;
the DEDENDUM is the part of the tooth inside the circle.

The ROOT CIRCLE is the diameter of the gear measured at the base of the tooth.

The PITCH is the distance between a point on a tooth and the corresponding point on the
next tooth, measured on the pitch circle. This is known as the CIRCULAR PITCH. To

Module 6.9 Transmission 9.9

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© Copyright 2016 Rev.01 – 31 March 2016
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 facilitate calculations, the DIAMETRICAL PITCH is more commonly used, this being the
number of teeth per unit of diameter, measured on the pitch circle.

9.10 Module 6.9 Transmissions

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Rev.01 – 31 March 2016 Training Purpose Only © Copyright 2016
 Spur Gears
Spur gears are the most common and cheapest type. The have straight teeth and are used
to transmit power between two parallel shafts or shafts in the same axis.

The sides of the teeth, in profile, describe an involute curve. (If a piece of string is wrapped
around a cylinder, a point on the piece of string will describe the involute curve as the string
is held tautly and unwound.) The sides of the teeth must be curved, otherwise the operation
of the gears would be noisy, wear would be excessive and a great deal of vibration would
be generated.

The involute curve has been found to be best because when an involutely curved tooth
surface transmits power to an involutely curved mating tooth, as much of the power is
transmitted as possible even if the centre distance between the shafts varies slightly. The
point on the side of the tooth which is also a point on the pitch diameter of the gear is the
point at which the power is transmitted most efficiently. The exact curve of the tooth surface
is computed from the base circle of the gear. The base circle is just be the pitch circle and
is the point at which the involute curve from the top of the tooth ends. The tooth terminates
in a straight radial flank to the root.

Module 6.9 Transmission 9.11

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© Copyright 2016 Rev.01 – 31 March 2016
Training Purpose Only
 Bevel Gears
Bevel gears are shaped liked sections of cones. They are used to transmit power between
nonparallel shafts whose axes intersect. The teeth on an ordinary bevel gear are straight
but tapered in length and depth; if extended in length, they would meet at a point ahead of
the gear on the axis of the shaft called the pitch cone apex. The most common types are
straight cut and usually mounted on shafts 90º to each other and are used for fairly low
speed application where smoothness and noise are not a problem. Spiral bevel gears have
curved teeth and can be used for higher loads and speeds and are quieter in operation.

When the axes of the two shafts do not intersect, the gear is know as 'hypoid'. Hypoid gears
required to be lubricated with an oil containing an EP (Extreme Pressure) additive.

9.12 Module 6.9 Transmissions

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Rev.01 – 31 March 2016 Training Purpose Only © Copyright 2016
 Helical Gears
Bevel gears or spur gears can have spiral teeth on them, enabling them to be designed to
transmit power between shafts at any angle to each other, according to the spiral of the
teeth. They are called helical gears.

The curved teeth enter the mating teeth while the previously meshing teeth are still in
contact. This means that some sliding of the teeth against each other takes place and that
power is transmitted with relative smoothness and silence.

Helical gears are more expensive than spur gears and are normally used for high speed,
that is pinion RPM greater than 3600 and high load applications. Lubrication demands are
high and thrust bearings are required to withstand the trust arising from helical meshing.

To overcome this, two sets of helical gears can be used, with the thrust in opposite
directions, cancelling each other out. For this application, the gears are sometimes
machined out of one piece of metal with helical teeth meeting in the centre of the face and
spiralling outward from each other. These are called herringbone or double helical gears.

Helical gears are most common in parallel shaft drives. Single helical gears can be used for
nonintersecting, non-parallel shaft applications provided they have the same pitch and
pressure angle. These are known as crossed helical gears or skew gears and can only
carry comparatively low loads.

Module 6.9 Transmission 9.13

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© Copyright 2016 Rev.01 – 31 March 2016
Training Purpose Only
 Worm Gears
Worm gears are capable of large speed reduction and high load applications where
nonparallel, non-intersecting shafts are used and have an advantage over crossed helical
gears. The 90º shaft configuration is the commonest with the worm as the driver. The worm
is a screw thread with one continuous gear tooth which engages with the helical gear. The
set is irreversible and self locking and is often used in aircraft flap drive mechanisms.

The frictional heat generated during operation is large compared with other types of gear
and continuous lubrication and heat dissipating casings are required.

9.14 Module 6.9 Transmissions

Turkish Technic Inc.
Rev.01 – 31 March 2016 Training Purpose Only © Copyright 2016
 Conformal Gears
The conformal gear tooth pattern has been applied to helicopter gearboxes. The advantage
of the conformal mesh over the involute mesh is that the involute mesh only has line
contact between the two teeth of meshing gear, whereas the conformal mesh has an area
contact such that higher loads can be taken by conformal gear teeth.

For the same load, a conformal gear can have a reduction in the number of teeth on
pinions, thus giving a greater gear reduction per stage so that fewer gear stages are
necessary in a main rotor gearbox.

This leads to a reduction in the size and weight of the gearbox and an increase in
transmission efficiency as there are fewer gears and bearings to cause friction.

There is also a corresponding increase in reliability and maintainability with a more simple
and compact gearbox. As gearboxes distort under load, the gearboxes containing
conformal gears are constructed more rigidly, therefore some of the weight advantage of
conformal gears is offset by the need for heavier gearbox castings.

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© Copyright 2016 Rev.01 – 31 March 2016
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 Accessory Drives
Aircraft engines also employ multiple gear trains, in their internal and external gearboxes.
These provide the drives for accessories such as fuel, hydraulic and oil pumps, electrical
generators, engine speed indicators and many other devices

Here it can be seen that ‘idler’ gears are added to reverse the rotation and possibly to alter
the final ratio of several drives and, while the majority of the gears are of spur and helical
configuration, the drive from the engine shaft, to the gearbox, has bevel gears.

Accessory Drives Section of Helicopter Gas Turbine Engine

9.16 Module 6.9 Transmissions

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 Typical External Accessory Gearbox

Module 6.9 Transmission 9.17

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© Copyright 2016 Rev.01 – 31 March 2016
Training Purpose Only
 Spur and Pinion Reduction Gear Train
The smaller, of a high-ratio pair of spur gears, is referred to as the ‘Pinion’, while the larger
remains the ‘Spur’ and spur and pinion gear arrangements also vary, depending on the
desired results.

Where the drive pinion is located inside the spur-cut ring gear it has the advantage of not
only stepping down the ratio of input to output but also (as can be seen), both gears rotate
in the same direction.

Considerable space is also saved, compared to a system using two, externally-cut gears,
for a similar reduction in output speed.

Gear Ratio

Simple Gear Train

The illustration shows two meshed spur gears of different sizes. This is a simple gear train,
with one wheel on each shaft. The smaller 9 toothed pinion will have to turn two revolutions
for each revolution of the larger 18 toothed wheel and so when the wheel is used as the
driver (input) gear output motion will be faster than the input. In this case:

Velocity Ratio =

or

9.18 Module 6.9 Transmissions

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Rev.01 – 31 March 2016 Training Purpose Only © Copyright 2016
 The velocity ratio for a gear system is usually referred to as the gear ratio and the above
value would be quoted as a gear ration of 1:2. It equals the ratio of the speeds of the driving
and driven gears.

Sometimes the gear ratio is defined as the ratio of the driven gear speed to that of the
driver. To avoid confusion the gear ratio should be clearly specified.

Simple Train with Idler Gear

Module 6.9 Transmission 9.19

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© Copyright 2016 Rev.01 – 31 March 2016
Training Purpose Only
 Gear Ratio =

9.20 Module 6.9 Transmissions

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Rev.01 – 31 March 2016 Training Purpose Only © Copyright 2016
 Without Idler

Gear Ratio as above

The idler does not alter the overall Velocity Ratio.

Note: This means that gear 'C' travels or rotates at 3/5 the speed of gear 'A'.

Module 6.9 Transmission 9.21

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© Copyright 2016 Rev.01 – 31 March 2016
Training Purpose Only
 Compound Gear Train
In a compound train at least one shaft carries a compound gear or two wheels which rotate
at the same speed. The advantage of a compound gear train is that it can produce a high
gear ratio without the disproportionate gear sizes that would be necessary in a simple gear
train.

Consider that in the compound gear train illustrated, the drive gear A has 15 teeth and an
angular speed of 240 rev/min. For one revolution of gear A the meshing gear B (30 teeth)
will rotate half a revolution. Gear C is mounted on the same shaft as gear B and will
therefore also rotate half a turn. For half a turn of gear C (½ x 18 = 9 teeth), gear D (36
teeth) will rotate through one quarter of a revolution.

Gear Ratio =

Generally, for a compound gear train, in which A and C are the driver gears and B and D
are the driven gears -

Gear Ratio =

Using the figures for the gear train above -

Gear Ratio =

Note: This means that gear 'D' travels or rotates at ¼ of the speed of gear 'A'.

9.22 Module 6.9 Transmissions

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Rev.01 – 31 March 2016 Training Purpose Only © Copyright 2016
 Gear Ratio =

Driven gear is running at of driver gear

If driver is rotating at 1000 rpm then the final driven gear is rotating at

Module 6.9 Transmission 9.23

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© Copyright 2016 Rev.01 – 31 March 2016
Training Purpose Only
 Worm Gears
One revolution of the worm moves the gear one tooth and so the ratio of the angular
velocities is given by the number of teeth on the wheel.

= the number of teeth in wheel

therefore

gear ratio = the number of teeth in wheel

9.24 Module 6.9 Transmissions

Turkish Technic Inc.
Rev.01 – 31 March 2016 Training Purpose Only © Copyright 2016
 Epicyclic Reduction Gear
There are several basic types of planetary gear arrangements. In one type the ring gear is
fixed and the sun gear is the driven gear. The sun gear meshes with and drives three equi-
spaced gears known as planet gears. These gears are mounted on a carrier or spider and
rotate independently on their axles.

Surrounding this gear train is an internally toothed wheel known as the annulus or ring gear
whose teeth are in mesh with the planet gears. If the ring gear is fixed, rotation of the sun
gear will cause the planet gears to rotate about their axes and at the same time to move
around the ring gear. This causes the planet gear spider to rotate at a lower speed than the
sun gear. When high torque is to be transmitted, the gear tooth is helical.

The speed reduction of this arrangement is

Gear Ratio =

Module 6.9 Transmission 9.25

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© Copyright 2016 Rev.01 – 31 March 2016
Training Purpose Only
 Another type of planetary gear system has the ring gear as the driven gear and the sun
gear is fixed. The output shaft is mounted on the spider that holds the planetary gears.
Again the output turns more slowly that the input.

Gear Ratio =

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Turkish Technic Inc.
Rev.01 – 31 March 2016 Training Purpose Only © Copyright 2016
 In a third type the spider is fixed, input being provided by a shaft attached to the sun gear,
and output by a shaft connected to the rotating ring gear. This arrangement is commonly
used in gas turbine air driven starter motors.

Epicyclic reduction gears are also used in the reduction gear assemblies of turbo prop
engines.

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© Copyright 2016 Rev.01 – 31 March 2016
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 Reduction Gears
Reduction gears are driven by gas turbine engines, and normally drive a propeller or
helicopter rotor.

Power turbines run at speeds, which suit the design characteristics of the rest of the engine.
This does not have anything in common with the speed of the propeller, which is set by its
own characteristics, chiefly blade diameter.

This, as has already been seen, compromises the design and operation of the coupled
turbine engine but is much less problematic in a free turbine design.

As power turbines can be spinning at up to 38,500 RPM and anything much over 2,000
RPM is considered quite fast for a propeller, it is obvious that a means of reducing this
speed difference must be found. A suitable gear train will carry out this function.

Types of Reduction Gear

There are two main types available to the designer.

 The parallel spur gear type

 The epicyclic type.

Parallel Spur Gears

This type of gear train has the advantage of being mechanically simple and therefore
relatively cheap to manufacture.

Parallel Spur gears in use

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 Parallel Spur Gears – External and Internal

Epicyclic Reduction Gears

A gear train consisting of a sun (driving) gear meshing with and driving three or more equi-
spaced gears known as ‘Planet Pinions’. These pinions are mounted on a carrier and
rotate independently on their own axles. Surrounding the gear train is an internally toothed
‘Annulus Gear’ in mesh with the Planet Pinions.

An epicyclic gear

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© Copyright 2016 Rev.01 – 31 March 2016
Training Purpose Only
 If the annulus is fixed, rotation of the sun wheel causes the planet pinions to rotate about
their axes within the annulus gear, this causes the planet carrier to rotate in the same
direction as sun wheel but at a lower speed. With the propeller shaft secured to the planet
pinion carrier, a speed reduction is obtained with the turbine shaft (input shaft) and propeller
shaft (output shaft) in the same axis and rotating in the same direction.

Epicyclic Gear train with Fixed Annulus Ring Rear

If the annulus is free, rotation of the sun wheel causes the planet pinions to rotate about
their axles within the annulus gear. With the planet pinion carrier fixed and the propeller
shaft attached to the annulus gear, rotation of the planet pinions causes the annulus gear
and propeller to rotate in the opposite direction to the sun wheel and at a reduced speed.

Epicyclic Gear Train with Fixed Planet gear Carrier

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 Compound Spur Epicyclic
Compound epicyclic reduction gears enable a greater reduction in speed to be obtained
without resorting to larger components. They may be of either the fixed or free annulus
type.

Module 6.9 Transmission 9.31

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© Copyright 2016 Rev.01 – 31 March 2016
Training Purpose Only
 Gear Train / Epicyclic
Some turbo-props will use a gear train or a combination of gear train and epicyclic.

9.32 Module 6.9 Transmissions

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Rev.01 – 31 March 2016 Training Purpose Only © Copyright 2016
 Gear Pattern
The pattern of two gears is also very important and closely related to the backlash. The
backlashes and patterns are generally most critical where directional changes are made
with gears, because they are adjustable by moving the gears inward or outward in order to
obtain the correct relationship. Each gear tooth of a bevelled gear has a heel and a toe.

The heel is located at the largest diameter of the bevel gear and the toe is located at the
smallest diameter of the gear. If the gears mate in such a manner that the teeth ride too
close to the heel or toe, the load will not be distributed evenly and the breakage of the teeth
will occur. The illustration shows the pattern set too close to the toe and to the heel. If it is a
straight tooth bevel gear, the proper pattern should be at the middle of the tooth.

However many gears are not straight tooth gears, but are helical in design. By being helical
more strength may be developed in a smaller gear. With this type of gear a different pattern
is developed in a no load condition than under a load. With this type of gear the ideal no
load pattern is shown.

Module 6.9 Transmission 9.33

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© Copyright 2016 Rev.01 – 31 March 2016
Training Purpose Only
 The patterns of these gears is taken by using Prussian Blue on the gears to leave the
imprint of the other gears on the teeth. The illustration shows some typical patterns and
movement required to correct the pattern. The gears are moved in and out by means of
shims. The thickness of the shims determine the position of the gear and change the
backlash and pattern.

Often these gears on which backlash and patterns must be obtained are supplied and fitted
as matched sets. Sometimes the teeth are marked with X's and O's to ensure correct
meshing.

Gearboxes have control rings which set the backlash and pattern of the gears. The control
rings are matched to a particular gearbox casing. If a control ring is ever removed and lost,
the casing will have to be returned to the manufacturers for a new ring.

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 Backlash or Lash

General
BACKLASH or LASH is the play between two meshing gears and is defined as the
difference between the distance between two teeth and the width of the engaging tooth.
Backlash between two gears can be altered by changing the centre distance between them.
The correct amount of backlash is designed into a gear system, which means that the
distance between the centres must be within tolerance.

If the teeth of one gear are set too tightly into the teeth of another, there will be no backlash
and the gears will not be properly lubricated because a film of oil must be present between
the teeth of the gears as they mesh. This will also cause overheating of the gears.

If the gears are meshed too high in relation to the teeth the load will be transmitted to the
smallest portion of the tooth, causing the teeth to break. The ideal placement of the teeth is
in the middle area.

At this position the teeth will receive proper lubrication and loading. A typical gear may have
0.003 to 0.004 in (0.08 to 0.1 mm) backlash and this may be measured with a backlash flag
and dial test indicator.

All gear trains require continuous lubrication which must be pressure fed for high speed
gears to counteract the effects of centrifugal force on the oil. In some cases plastics
materials may be used which do not require lubrication e.g. nylon. However, these are
limited to low speed/ low load applications due to low thermal conductivity and strength of
plastics. The use of plastic gears in a gear train can reduce noise.

The provision of one more tooth than is needed to give the required ratio in a pair of mating
gears is called a 'hunting tooth' and will distribute wear evenly amongst all the teeth on the
pair. Wear can be further equalised by making the pinion harder than the gear wheel since
the pinion does more work per tooth than the gear.

Condition monitoring by continuous checking of temperature and vibration is common

practice for large gearbox installations.

Checking Backlash of Gears

The primary purpose of a gear is the transmission of force through motion; therefore, stress
and wear occur continually. For that reason, it is important to visually examine all gears for
cracked or chipped teeth and the presence of pitting or excessive wear. Deep pit marks or
excessive wear on gear teeth are reasons for rejecting and replacing a gear. Minor
scratches and abrasions on a gear’s bearing surfaces can normally be dressed out with a
fine abrasive cloth, however, deep scratches or scoring is unacceptable. Correct gear
backlash must be checked and maintained to ensure proper gear mesh with the aid of DTI
and special fixture for the particular gear box.

The addendum of a gear tooth is 0.318 of the pitch. For example a gear wheel is 3 inches in
diameter and the pitch of the teeth is 0.5 inches.

Module 6.9 Transmission 9.35

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© Copyright 2016 Rev.01 – 31 March 2016
Training Purpose Only
 0.318 x 0.5 = 0.1590

Multiply 0.1590 by 2 and subtract from the full diameter of the gear wheel. This gives the
pitch circle diameter on which the backlash is measured. Halve the pitch circle diameter
and this is the length of the lever used in conjunction with a dial test indicator for checking
the backlash of the gearwheels. Double the length of this lever and halve the backlash
figure obtained to give the true backlash

9.36 Module 6.9 Transmissions

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Rev.01 – 31 March 2016 Training Purpose Only © Copyright 2016
 Gear Terms

Backlash (or lash)

The terms used to describe the clearance which must exist between gear teeth at point of
mesh, essential with all forms of gearing to allow for expansion and lubrication.

Idler Gear
A gear which is interposed between the driving and driven gear, its function is to connect
the drive between two shafts. A spur idler gear is used between two parallel shafts to
maintain the direction of rotation and does not affect the ratio of the gears. A bevel idler
may be used where two shafts intersect and/or are co-axial.

Intermediate Gear
A gear which is positioned between the driving gear and one or more driven gears in a gear
train. It may function as an idler gear or transmit drive through its own shaft.

Compound Gear
This is a gear wheel which has more than one driving face. These faces may be formed
integrally on one casting or forging, or it may comprise two or more gears bolted or splined
together to transmit drive to a number of shafts.

Pinion
This term is usually applied to the smaller of two mating gears.

Lay-shaft
A shaft which supports an idler gear or intermediate gear, it may be integral with the gear
and be supported by bearings, or may be fixed and provide a bearing surface for the
rotating gear.

Rack and Pinion

A device in which a toothed rod (rack) meshes with a mating pinion to translate the rotary
movement of the pinion into linear movement.

Step-Up Drive
A drive through a gear train in which the speed of rotation of the output (driven) shaft is
increased.

Example: Used in aero-engines in a generator drive. It ensures that the generator has
sufficient rev/mm to remain “on charge” at engine idling rev/mm.

Step-Down Drive
A reduction gear in which the rev/mm of the output shaft is reduced while the torque is
increased.

Example: Used between the engine and propeller in order to allow the engine to develop its
power by running at high RPM while maintaining high propeller efficiency by avoiding the
tips speeds reaching Mach 1.

Module 6.9 Transmission 9.37

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© Copyright 2016 Rev.01 – 31 March 2016
Training Purpose Only
 Intentionally Blank

9.38 Module 6.9 Transmissions

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 Belts and Pulleys
It is rare to find belt drives being used on modern aircraft. Due to the risk of slippage once
the belt has taken on a slight stretch, there has to be some method, often automatic, to
retain the set tension over a long period.

Whilst some forms of pulley are covered in the section on controls, there are a few
situations where (lighter and less expensive) belts and pulleys are used to transmit
movement/power in place of cables.
Nominally flat belts and pulleys use only friction to transmit the power from input to output
shafts. These are, unfortunately, prone to slippage so, to reduce the problem, vee-section
belts were devised and yet a further improvement has seen the development of serrated or
‘toothed’ belts and pulleys, which use the principle of ‘engagement’, rather than ‘friction’, to
provide drive.

Some of the uses to which belt drives are put can include a change of ratio, usually in a
step-down situation, as well as a simple connection between input and output shafts which
are displaced by some distance.

The simple belt and pulley system, has a step-up or step-down facility, depending on which
pulley is driven. It will give a mechanical advantage of 2:1 if the smaller pulley is driven, due
to it being half the diameter of the larger pulley. The larger pulley will rotate at half the
speed of the smaller one, and can be driven using half the torque.

Some uses of belt and pulley installations in aviation can include the driving of propellers on
micro-light aircraft, which use high-revving engines. These engines rotate about 6000 rpm
whilst propellers are most efficient at around 2000 – 2500 rpm. Therefore the drive from the
crankshaft pulley, via a strong wide belt to the propeller pulley, gives a step down ratio of
about 2.5:1 on most of this type of aircraft.

Another application of belt drives is on certain piston-engined helicopters, which use a belt
to connect the output pulley on the end of the crankshaft to the transmission and rotor. The
tension pulleys, which bear onto the belt, keep it at the correct tension for normal use.

Module 6.9 Transmission 9.39

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© Copyright 2016 Rev.01 – 31 March 2016
Training Purpose Only
 When starting-up, the tension can be totally released, allowing the engine to be started
without the load of the rotors and transmission. In an emergency the released tension
allows the rotors to free-wheel (autorotate) and, thus, enables a safe landing.

There are a number of places inside piston engines where toothed belts, are used to drive
camshafts and other accessories from the crankshaft.

In some installations, the drive from the high-speed engine to the low-speed propeller is
accomplished by the use of a ‘toothed’ belt drive. The teeth on the inside of the belt engage
with grooves machined onto the drive (and driven) pulleys. This reduces the chance of
slippage. Most piston engines on smaller aircraft have a belt drive to the AC generator or
the vacuum pump, similar to that found on many motor cars.

Maintenance of belts usually involves the measurement of their tension, by measuring the
amount of flexure at the middle of the longest unsupported length. Providing the belt is
otherwise in good condition, excessive slack is taken up by adjusting the position of one of
the pulleys by slackening its retaining bolt, sliding to a new position then retightening the
retaining bolt.

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 The same maintenance applies to most belts, in that the security is checked before each
flight.
The belts must also be checked, at regular intervals, for signs of wear, by fraying and
splitting, in addition to a tension check on the either the belt itself or the tensioning
mechanism. The majority of belts (whatever their usage), have a finite life and are also
subject to ‘on-condition’ monitoring.

Module 6.9 Transmission 9.41

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© Copyright 2016 Rev.01 – 31 March 2016
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9.42 Module 6.9 Transmissions
Turkish Technic Inc.
Rev.01 – 31 March 2016 Training Purpose Only © Copyright 2016
 Control Chains, Chain Wheels and Pulleys

General
Chains are used to change direction of control runs in systems where considerable force is
required, such as aileron and elevator controls.

The change of direction is achieved by the use of chain wheels or pulleys. Chains may be
found in control column installations, aileron and elevator controls and in trim control
systems.

Chains may be used in conjunction with cable assemblies. Incorrect assembly of the chains
is prevented by the use of non-reversible chains in conjunction with the appropriate types of
wheels, guards and connectors.

Chain Assemblies
Chain consists of a series of inner plates, rollers and bushes, connected together by outer
plates and bearing pins. The pitch of the chain is the distance between the centres of the
rollers.

Chain assemblies should be obtained as complete, proof loaded units. No attempt should
be made to break and reassemble rivets links or riveted attachments.

Joining the chain to an end connector is achieved by a bolt, which passes through the outer
plate and into a threaded hole in the opposite outer plate. A nut is fitted to the protruding
thread, and split pinned. In the case of the 8 mm size only, a nut is not fitted, but the bolt is
peened.

The use of cranked links for the attachment of the chain to the end fittings is not permitted.
The use of spring clip connecting links is prohibited.

Module 6.9 Transmission 9.43

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© Copyright 2016 Rev.01 – 31 March 2016
Training Purpose Only
 Installation of Chain Assemblies
The illustration shows typical arrangements of chain assemblies. Change of direction of
straight line motion in two planes is achieved by using a ‘bi-planer’ block. The transfer of
straight line to rotary motion is achieved by using a chain wheel (sprocket). A chain wheel is
also used to change the direction of the straight line motion.

A range of non-interchangeable end fittings is available as a safeguard against the crossing

of controls. However, these connectors do not always prevent the possibility of reversing
the chain end to end on its wheel, neither do they prevent the possibility of the chain being
assembled to gear on the wrong face where two wheels are operated by the same chain.
Such contingencies can be overcome by the use of non-reversible chains.

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Rev.01 – 31 March 2016 Training Purpose Only © Copyright 2016
 Typical chain end assembly

Module 6.9 Transmission 9.45

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© Copyright 2016 Rev.01 – 31 March 2016
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 Non-reversible chains are similar to standard chains except that every second outer plate is
extended in one direction in order to break up the symmetry of the chain. The complete
system of non-reversibility involves the use of five features, i.e. the non-reversible chain,
the shroud on the wheel, correct positioning of the wheel on its shaft, the chain guard, and
non-interchangeable connectors.

The shape of the special outer plates and the principle of non-reversible chains is shown in
the illustration.

It will be seen that by providing a shroud on one side of the wheel and by making use of the
chain guard, the reversing of the chain end to end on its wheel is not possible.

It should be borne in mind that in practice a special feature, such as an attachment collar, a
key, or a flat on the shaft in conjunction with a specially shaped hole, is incorporated in the
wheel mounting to ensure that it can be assembled on its shaft in one definite position only.

9.46 Module 6.9 Transmissions

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 Inspection after Assembly

After installation in the aircraft, the chain should be examined for:

 freedom from twist, particularly in instances where the attachment is made to

threaded rods by means of screwed end connectors, or where a twist may
inadvertently be applied to the chain during the locking of the assembly.
 Care should also be taken to ensure that the chain is not pulled out of line by the
chain wheel; the chain should engage smoothly and evenly with the wheel teeth and
there should be no tendency for the chain to ride up the teeth.
 The pre-tensioning of chains should not be excessive, as this will cause friction, but
should be just sufficient to prevent any back-lash in the system.
 The guarding should be checked to ensure that jamming could not occur and that the
chain would not come off the wheel should it become slack.
 The security of end connections should be checked, care being taken to ensure that
the split pins in the chain connecting bolts are correctly locked.
 The initial lubricant on new chains should not be removed and the chains should be
further lubricated after assembly by brushing all over, particularly on link edges, with
lubricant complying with specification DTD 417A, unless otherwise specified.
 The wheel or pulley mountings should be examined to ensure that the wheels or
pulleys are firmly secured to the shafts or spindles, that they are correctly located
and are running freely.

Maintenance
Chain assemblies should be inspected for serviceability at the periods specified in the
relevant Maintenance Schedule.

Generally the inspection would be as follows:

 The continued smoothness of operation between the chain and the chain wheel or
pulley should be checked. If the chain does not pass freely round the wheel or pulley,
it should be removed and checked as described.
 The chain should be checked for wear; if it is worn so that the links are loose and can
be lifted away from the wheel teeth, it should be removed and checked for excessive
elongation.
 The chain should be checked for damage, cleanliness, adequacy of lubrication and
freedom from corrosion. If the inspection shows the chain to be corroded or
otherwise defective, it should be removed.
 If it becomes necessary to adjust the tension of the chain, care should be taken to
ensure that the chain itself is not twisted during the adjustment.

Chain assemblies should be removed from the aircraft for complete inspection at the
periods specified in the Maintenance Schedule.

If elongation through wear is suspected the following procedure should be adopted:

Module 6.9 Transmission 9.47

Turkish Technic Inc.
© Copyright 2016 Rev.01 – 31 March 2016
Training Purpose Only
  Remove the chain from the aircraft by disconnecting at the design breakdown points.
 Immerse the chain in clean paraffin and brush with a stiff brush to remove all traces
of dirt etc.
 Dry the chain with hot air to ensure that all the paraffin is removed in order to prevent
corrosion.
 Place the chain on a flat surface and apply the correct tension load.

8mm - 12 lbs
0.375 in - 16 lbs
0.5 in - 28 lbs.

 Measure the chain and calculate the percentage extension using the formula:

Where:
M = Measured length of chain under load
X = Number of pitches measured
P = Pitch of chain

The total length or any section of the chain may be checked as above, and an elongation of
more than 2% or any part will render the complete assembly unserviceable.

 Suspend the chain freely and check for kinks and twists by sighting along the length.
If kinks or twists exist the chain is unserviceable.
 Check the chain for tight joints by articulating each link over the finger through 180°.
If further cleaning does not cure stiffness, try carefully tapping the ends of the
bearing pins with a light hammer.
 Examine throughout the length of the chain for corrosion and damage, such as:-
cracked plates or rollers, worn or seized rollers, worn or scored plates, loose bearing
pins.
 If the chain is serviceable, it should be soaked in oil, (generally to DTD 417A) and if
not being immediately re-fitted, it should be coiled flat and wrapped in greaseproof
paper.

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 Ball Screw Jack

General
The screwjack is a method of converting rotary force into linear motion. A motor is usually
used to turn a threaded shaft while a nut which is prevented from rotating is driven along
the shaft. For light loads and low speeds a fixed nut of suitable thread form may be used
while at higher loads and speeds a recirculating ball nut is used.

The recirculating ball nut employs one or more sets of steel balls which act as the female
thread in the nut. The balls are free to roll and thus circulate through an internal passage or
external transfer tube as the male shaft thread rotates. The male thread has semicircular
troughs to accommodate the balls, and squared or flattened crests. This arrangement
reduces friction and wear and allows large forces to be carried at high speeds. The ball nut
is often packed with grease or oil and has felt or fibre wipers at both ends to prevent the
ingress of contamination from the shaft.

Typical uses of recirculating ball screws include stabiliser drives, engine thrust reversers,
cargo doors, galley lifts, wing leading edge slats and the trailing edge flap system described
below:

Motive force for the T/E flap system is provided by a hydraulic motor unit with a backup
electric motor located in the main landing gear bay. Drive shafts or torque tubes with
splined end connectors transfer the rotary drive to transmission gearboxes mounted on the
flap tracks on each wing.

The transmission gearbox contains mating bevel gears and a torque limiter. One
transmission assembly on each flap also incorporates a “noback” friction brake. The torque
limiter consists of two springs wound together, an internal shaft with two bevel gears, an
output shaft, and a housing. If a flap jams, excessive torque on the screw actuator will
cause the springs to expand and bind against the torque limiter housing. The torque limiter
is designed to operate in either direction of flap travel. Excessive torque is absorbed by the
torque limiter until the flap hydraulic motor stalls.

At extended flap positions, the no-back friction brake prevents flap retraction due to
airloads. The brake consists of a brake disk, ratchet wheel, and two pawls. At extended flap
positions, uploads transmitted to the jackscrew force the brake disk against the ratchet
wheel resulting in a braking action. The brake action does not oppose flap extension since
the pawls do not engage in the ratchet wheel in this direction of rotation. The brake ratchets
oppose retraction and in order to retract the flaps it is necessary to slip the no-back friction
brake from the upstream side. The transmission gearbox is a sealed unit filled with
hydraulic oil.

The ball nut and screw actuator consists of a jackscrew, a downstop nut, and recirculating
ball bearing nut. The universal joint attaches the jackscrew to the transmission gearbox and
allows angular deflection of the jackscrew during flap operation. The ball bearing nut is
attached to the flap surfaces through a gimbal assembly. During flap operation, the ball
bearing nut is restrained from turning and therefore travels fore and aft on the rotating

Module 6.9 Transmission 9.49

Turkish Technic Inc.
© Copyright 2016 Rev.01 – 31 March 2016
Training Purpose Only
 screw to extend and retract the flaps. Total jackscrew travel is restricted by upstops and
downstops on the ball nut and screw actuator. Upstop lugs on the ball bearing nut and on
the universal joint limit flap travel when the flaps are retracted. Downstop lugs on the ball
bearing nut and on the downstop nut limit flap travel when the flaps are extended. The ball
bearing nut has drilled passages and externally mounted tubes that allow recirculation of
the steel balls. Scrapers and wipers are incorporated at each end of the ball nut to remove
foreign material from the jackscrew. An oil reservoir in the ball bearing nut provides
lubrication of the nut and screw actuator.

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 Ball Screw Inspection
Screwjacks must be periodically inspected for wear, corrosion and damage. Excessive
lubricant film is indicative of worn wipers on the ball nut assembly. Dimensional checks of
the screwjack may also be required. The ball nuts must be inspected for general damage,
security of transfer tubes, retention of lubricant and locking.

A backlash check must be performed when specified and will usually involve a test fitting
and a DTI type gauge. Measurements of both radial and axial play are taken. Any ball
screw unit which exceeds the Maintenance Manual limitations must be replaced.

Separate tests for play and backlash in the universal joint, the transmission gearbox and
the gimbal attachments must also be performed and these are often scheduled to coincide
with the ball screw tests.

Care must be taken when testing these components to ensure that any findings are isolated
and attributed to the correct component. Aircraft Maintenance Manual test procedures must
be closely followed.

Module 6.9 Transmission 9.51

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© Copyright 2016 Rev.01 – 31 March 2016
Training Purpose Only
 Lever Devices
Various lever devices and arms are used in aircraft systems. These include bellcranks and
actuation linkages.

Inspection of these devices depends largely on their configuration. Generally they should
be inspected for twisting, bending and distortion, corrosion, wear and play in any bearings
and bushings installed.

Upon installation they must be checked for alignment and must not be stressed or bent
while being fitted.

When installed they must be tested for full and free range of movement, freedom from
obstruction and play.

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 Push-Pull Rod Systems

General
The majority of aircraft push-pull systems can be found in both the flying and engine
controls. They may consist of a series of hollow aluminium tubes, which have either fixed or
adjustable end fittings. Sometimes, to prevent the tubes vibrating, their length is kept short
and idler levers are fitted between each pair of tubes. As an alternative, rollers or bushes
can be installed along the length of the push-pull tubes to provide support.

The push-pull rods are of light alloy tubing to which the end fittings are attached by taper
pins, either directly or by a socket assembly fitting which provides a limited adjustment by
screw and lock nut. When the rods are of such length that they are liable to whip, they are
supported by guide blocks. These are split and bored to take the rod, and are usually made
of Tufnol (phenolic resin).

The maintenance required for this type of control consists generally of inspection and
rigging. As the bearings in both the idler levers if fitted, and the end fittings are normally
sealed for life, the only inspections to carry out are for signs of damage and overheating. If
the pilot complained of stiff controls, then a check of each bearing assembly would be
required, to check which bearing was stiff.

Rigging of push pull rods is relatively simple. The rigging pins hold the rods and levers in
the datum position and the adjustable ends are altered until all the connecting bolts can be
inserted without any force being required.

Module 6.9 Transmission 9.53

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© Copyright 2016 Rev.01 – 31 March 2016
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 End Fittings
Ball joint end fittings are made of light alloy machined to fit over the ball ends. A slot in the
top of the socket fits over a stop pin extension on the ball and limits the end movement. A
spring-loaded clip inside the socket shank clips the ball into position and the cup is locked
by a key which when turned through 90 degrees compresses the spring and forces the
locking disc hard against the cup. The key in turn is locked by a spring clip.

Bell and socket joints may also be used to join tubes, in which case the socket is open at
the end to receive the ball shank. Older types had an opening only at the end and were
bayonet-fitted on to the locking key. In later types, the ball fits into a cup, which is part of
the joint and locking mechanism. The ball is inserted into the joint from underneath and
turned through a slot into its working position where it is secured by the locking mechanism.

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 Adjustments
Servicing is limited to ensuring that all joints are secure and that the ball joints are kept
lightly coated with grease. Any actual adjustment would be made, by releasing the ball
joint, slackening the locking nut and screwing the ball socket into, or out of, the
transmission tube or lever. The transmission line can, however, be considered to be in
correct adjustment when the control lever is in the mid-way position, the stop-pins on the
balls are central in their slots and full travel is obtained on the operating lever on the engine,
by full movement of the operating lever in the control box. A small clearance (about 1/8 in.)
is necessary at both ends of the control box quadrant to allow for spring in the transmission
line.

Module 6.9 Transmission 9.55

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© Copyright 2016 Rev.01 – 31 March 2016
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 Method of Checking a Tubular Member for Bow
The maximum permissible bow on a tubular member is 1 in 600 (0.02” per foot length), and
this may be checked by using a three point trammel

(a) Concave bow is checked as follows:-

 Set points at the ends of bar to length of member being checked.

 Using a surface table or a straight edge, set the centre point in line with the two outer
points.
 Apply the trammel to the member, and using feeler gauges, measure between the
centre point and the member.
 If necessary, move the centre point along the bar to clear rivet heads etc., and to
ensure that the maximum measurement is obtained.
 Using the measurement obtained, calculate the bow of the member-

Example. a member 77" long has a bow measurement of 0.11".

Measured deflection 0.11" 1

Bow    or 1 in 700
Length 77" 700

b) Convex bow is checked as follows:-

 Set points at ends of bar to length of member being checked.

 Apply the trammel to the member and adjust the centre point to the maximum
deflection.
 Using a surface table or straight edge and feeler gauges, measure the displacement
of the centre point.
 Calculate the bow

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European Aviation Safety Agency (EASA)

Module 6
Licence Category A, B1 and B2

Materials and Hardware

6.10 Control Cables

 Intentionally Blank

10.2 Module 6.10 Control Cables

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Rev.01 – 31 March 2016 Training Purpose Only © Copyright 2016
 Copyright Notice
© Copyright. All worldwide rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced,
stored in a retrieval system or transmitted in any form by any other means whatsoever: i.e.
photocopy, electronic, mechanical recording or otherwise without the prior written
permission of Turkish Technic Inc.

Knowledge Levels — Category A, B1, B2, B3 and C Aircraft

Maintenance Licence
Basic knowledge for categories A, B1, B2 and B3 are indicated by the allocation of knowledge levels
indicators (1, 2 or 3) against each applicable subject. Category C applicants must meet either the category B1
or the category B2 basic knowledge levels.
The knowledge level indicators are defined as follows:

LEVEL 1
 A familiarisation with the principal elements of the subject.
Objectives: The applicant should be familiar with the basic elements of the subject.
 The applicant should be able to give a simple description of the whole subject, using common words
and examples.
 The applicant should be able to use typical terms.

LEVEL 2
 A general knowledge of the theoretical and practical aspects of the subject.
 An ability to apply that knowledge.
Objectives: The applicant should be able to understand the theoretical fundamentals of the subject.
 The applicant should be able to give a general description of the subject using, as appropriate, typical
examples.
 The applicant should be able to use mathematical formulae in conjunction with physical laws
describing the subject.
 The applicant should be able to read and understand sketches, drawings and schematics describing
the subject.
 The applicant should be able to apply his knowledge in a practical manner using detailed procedures.

LEVEL 3
 A detailed knowledge of the theoretical and practical aspects of the subject.
 A capacity to combine and apply the separate elements of knowledge in a logical and comprehensive
manner.
Objectives: The applicant should know the theory of the subject and interrelationships with other subjects.
 The applicant should be able to give a detailed description of the subject using theoretical
fundamentals and specific examples.
 The applicant should understand and be able to use mathematical formulae related to the subject.
 The applicant should be able to read, understand and prepare sketches, simple drawings and
schematics describing the subject.
 The applicant should be able to apply his knowledge in a practical manner using manufacturer's
instructions.
 The applicant should be able to interpret results from various sources and measurements and apply
corrective action where appropriate.

Module 6.10 Control Cables 10.3

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 Table of Contents

6.10 Control Cables _________________________________________________________ 9

General _________________________________________________________________ 9
Cable Properties_________________________________________________________ 11
Strength ______________________________________________________________ 11
Safety Factors _________________________________________________________ 11
Bending and Fatigue ____________________________________________________ 11
Abrasive Wear _________________________________________________________ 12
Stretch of Cable ________________________________________________________ 12
Cable Construction ______________________________________________________ 13
End-Fittings ____________________________________________________________ 17
General_______________________________________________________________ 17
End Fitting Swaging _____________________________________________________ 19
Turnbuckles ____________________________________________________________ 23
Cable Tensioning Devices _________________________________________________ 27
General_______________________________________________________________ 27
Tension Regulator ______________________________________________________ 28
Broken Cable Compensator _______________________________________________ 29
Cable Stops ____________________________________________________________ 30
Cable Fairleads _________________________________________________________ 31
Quadrants and Drums ____________________________________________________ 35
Fork Joints _____________________________________________________________ 37
Shackle Pins ____________________________________________________________ 38
Lockclad Cables_________________________________________________________ 39
Control Cable System Inspection ___________________________________________ 41
General_______________________________________________________________ 41
Control Cables Inspection ________________________________________________ 41
Control Cable Pulley Inspection ____________________________________________ 44
Control Cable Run and Travel Inspection _____________________________________ 46
Cable Removal and Installation ____________________________________________ 47
Cable Tension __________________________________________________________ 49
Cable Rigging ___________________________________________________________ 53
Flexible Control Systems _________________________________________________ 55
Bowden Cable Systems __________________________________________________ 55
Teleflex Cable Systems __________________________________________________ 57
Bowdenflex Cables ______________________________________________________ 63

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 Module 6.10 Enabling Objectives and Certification Statement
Certification Statement
These Study Notes comply with the syllabus of EASA Regulation (EU) No. 1321/2014
Annex III (Part-66) Appendix I, and the associated Knowledge Levels as specified below:

Part 66 Licence Category

Objective
Reference A B1 B2 B3
Control Cables 6.10 1 2 1 2
Types of cables
End fittings, turnbuckles and compensation
devices
Pulleys and cable system components
Bowden cables
Aircraft flexible control systems

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 6.10 Control Cables

General
Metal cables (or wire ropes as some manufacturers refer to them) are used as a method of
transferring movement from one place to another, for instance from the control column to
the control surface. A cable is constructed from a number of wires twisted together to form
a strand. Depending on configuration a number of strands may then be twisted in the
opposite direction to form the cable.

Being flexible they can transfer this motion round corners and into different planes via
pulleys. However, being flexible, they can only transfer a tension or pulling movement, so
usually they are used in pairs as a circuit to enable travel in both directions. Occasionally a
single cable may be used with a spring loaded return device to maintain tension (like the
brakes on a bicycle).

The cables used in aircraft control systems comply with a number of British, American
and/or European Standards. They are usually 'preformed' during manufacture. Preforming
is a process in which each strand is formed into the shape that it will take up in the
completed cable. This makes the cable more flexible, less prone to kinking and more
fatigue resistant. Another advantage of preformed cables is that, in the event of a wire

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 breaking, it will lie flat within its strand, so that the cable is less likely to jam in its pulleys
and fairleads (but the damage is also less easy to see).

Preformed cables are manufactured from galvanised (zinc coated), or tin over zinc coated
Carbon Steel, or uncoated Corrosion-Resistant Steel (CRS or Stainless Steel), and are
impregnated with friction reducing lubricant during manufacture. CRS cables are slightly
weaker than the carbon steel equivalents but are less prone to corrosion and may be used
in harsher environments. Non-preformed single strand cable may be found on some minor
aircraft systems.

British Cable
Minimum Breaking No. of Wires per No. of Strands per Cable diameter
Load Strand Cables
5 cwt. 7 7 0.08 in.
10 cwt. 14 7 0.12 in.
15 cwt. 19 7 0.15 in.
20 cwt. 19 7 0.16 in.
25 cwt. 19 7 0.18 in.
30 cwt. 19 7 0.21 in.
British control cable specifications

American Cable
Diameter (in) No. of Wires per No. of Strands per Minimum
Strand Cable Breaking load
1/16 7 7 480 lbs
3/32 7 7 920 lbs
1/8 19 7 2000 lbs
5/32 19 7 2800 lbs
3/16 19 7 4200 lbs
7/32 19 7 5600 lbs
American control cable specifications

British aircraft control cables are classified by their minimum breaking load while American
and European cables, by their nominal diameter in fractions of an inch and millimetres
respectively.

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 Cable Properties

Strength
Cables in service are subjected to several kinds of stress. The stresses most frequently
encountered are direct tension, stress due to sudden or shock loads, stress due to bending,
and stress resulting from several forces acting at one time. For the most part, these
stresses can be converted into terms of simple tension. The tensile strength of a cable is
determined by its size, material and construction. The correct strength is selected by the
aircraft manufacturer and the appropriate size and material is specified in the Aircraft
Maintenance Manual.

Safety Factors
The safety factor is the ratio of the strength of the cable to the working load. A cable with a
strength of 10,000 pounds and a total working load of 2,000 pounds would be operating
with a safety factor of five.

The proper safety factor depends not only on the loads applied, but also on the:

• speed of operation,
• shock load applied,
• type of fittings used for securing the cable ends,
• length of cable,
• number, size and location of direction changing pulleys and quadrants,
• corrosion environment,
• facilities for inspection.

It will be determined by the aircraft manufacturer and the cable specified accordingly.

Bending and Fatigue

All cables, except stationary ones used as bracing, are subjected to bending around
pulleys. The detrimental effects of bending may be classified as:

• Loss of strength due to bending.

• Fatigue effect of bending.

A cable may be considered a machine in which the individual elements (wires and strands)
slide upon each other when the cable is bent. Loss of strength due to bending is caused by
the inability of the individual strands and wires to adjust themselves to their changed
position when the cable is bent. Therefore, for the satisfactory operation of a cable over
pulleys, the cable must be internally lubricated. This lubricant is applied during manufacture
and care must be taken that it is not removed during maintenance.

Repetitive flexing of the wires as the cable passes over a pulley, and their straightening, as
the cable leaves the pulley develops bending loads which, even though well within the

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 elastic limit of the wires, set up points of stress concentration. Fatigue failure of the wires in
a cable is the result of the propagation of small cracks from these stress points. This results
in broken wires showing no apparent contraction of cross section (no wasting).

Both conditions occur when cables operate over comparatively small pulleys or drums. The
best means of preventing both conditions is to use pulleys of adequate size. Also a cable of
more flexible construction may be used.

Abrasive Wear
The ability of a cable to withstand abrasion is determined by the size and composition of the
outer wires and the construction of the cable. The larger outer wires of the less flexible
constructions are better able to withstand abrasion than the finer outer wires of the more
flexible cables. Finer wires will also cause more abrasion to the softer materials they come
into contact with (e.g. pulleys and fairleads).

Stretch of Cable
The stretch of a cable under load will result in uneven, delayed or reduced output
movement and is the result of two components:

• structural stretch and

• elastic stretch.

Structural stretch is the lengthening of the cable caused by compression of the core and
adjustment of the wires and strands to the load placed upon the cable. This can be
minimised by preforming the components of the cable.

The elastic stretch is caused by elongation of the wires. It is directly proportional to the load
and the length of cable under load, and inversely proportional to the metallic area and
modulus of elasticity. This applies only to loads that do not exceed the elastic limit of a
cable. The elastic limit of stainless steel cable is approximately 60% of its breaking strength
and for galvanised cables it is approximately 50%. The effects of stretch in aircraft cable
systems is minimised by tensioning the cable when installed and correctly routed.

Repair cables are normally ordered from the manufacturer by part number, identified
through the aircraft's IPC. They are supplied fully formed with the necessary end-fittings,
tested to the correct load factor. If a cable is fabricated by the operator, it is vital to ensure
that cable of the correct grade and material is used, the proper end fittings are installed,
and that the cable is proof tested prior to installation. The cable fabrication workshop will
normally need to be approved.

It may also be possible to repair damaged cables by splicing in the repair piece with
suitable end fittings swaged on in situ when approved by the AMM.

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 Cable Construction
As we have seen, the thickness of the individual wires determines the flexibility of the cable,
so a cable composed of 19 wires will be more flexible than a similar sized cable constructed
from 7 thicker wires. Thicker wires may offer slightly greater strength in larger diameter
cables.

The designation of the cable is determined by the number of strands it contains, and the
number of wires in each strand. For example a cable designated as 7x19, consists of 7
strands, each containing 19 wires. A specific diameter of cable may be available in two or
more configurations as shown on the accompanying table, e.g. 1/8 inch cable as 1x19 or
7x19. The most common configurations for commercial aircraft cables are 1x19 and 7x19.
The aircraft manufacturer will specify both diameter and construction.

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 There is also a very specialised form of aircraft control cable known as Lockclad. Lockclad
control cable consists of standard aircraft cable over which is swaged an aluminium tube of
proper thickness and length.

This combination provides several advantages:

• It lowers the creep stretch

• The smooth cylindrical surface provides for closer sealing through pressure walls.
• It dampens the vibration of the cable.
• It provides a higher coefficient of thermal expansion.

The swaged tubing compacts the cable which minimises undesirable stretch characteristics
caused by load application. This combination also provides a coefficient of expansion of the
cable closer to that of the airframe and this may produce an improvement in sensitivity of
control.

The aluminium tubing is swaged only to straight runs of cable assemblies, those sections
passing around pulleys must be left bare. For this reason, no increase in strength over the
bare cable is obtained by the use of Lockclad. The rigidity of the cladding also makes the
routing of long cable runs impossible so it is rarely used on large commercial aircraft.

It is possible that cables with a non-metallic core strand, or non-metallic strands wrapped
round a metal core may be encountered. A non-metallic sleeve or void filler which produces
a smoother surface may also be seen, but these are not common on current commercial
aircraft.

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 End-Fittings

General
Whilst cables were previously, 'spliced' and 'whipped' with waxed cotton to form end-fittings,
the majority of modern cables have a 'swaged' type end-fitting where a hollow shank or
sleeve on the fitting is physically distorted to grip the cable. Lightly loaded aluminium and
copper end fittings may be installed with simple hand crimping pliers while the stronger
steel fittings used on most commercial aircraft cables are swaged on using specialised
manual or hydraulic powered tooling.

Relatively low strength cables with the loop and thimble type end fitting shown opposite are
formed using a Nicopress tool. The cable is passed through a Nicopress sleeve, around the
thimble and back through the sleeve. When satisfied that there is sufficient protrusion, the
sleeve is placed inside the tool and deformed by compressing the handles. The finished
sleeve is then inspected for cracks and distortion and tested with a go/no-go gauge for
adequate deformation.

Most high strength end-fittings on control cables are special-to-type and those such as fork,
threaded (internal and external), and ball and ferrule button type fittings can be found in
various locations. The grip of a correctly fitted terminal will be greater than the breaking
strength of the cable.

Swaging machines may be hand portable or bench mounted, manually or hydraulically

powered units. Most small machines work on the same principle in that rotating dies turn
and progressively compress the sleeve or shank of the end fitting causing it to grip the
cable. Large hydraulic machines may apply pressure to dies which form the swage in one
action.

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10.18 Module 6.10 Control Cables
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 End Fitting Swaging
Operation of a typical hand swaging tool is as follows:

It is essential that the cable and the terminal you have selected to swage onto it are both of
the proper size. Check the cable diameter with a micrometer and, using the go-gauge
included in the kit check the outside diameter of the terminal shank to be sure it
corresponds to the size of the cable.

From the kit, select the matched pair of roll dies suited for the size cable onto which you are
preparing to swage a terminal. Each die has the nominal cable size for which it is suited
stamped on the flat sides. Install the dies on the machine in the correct orientation so that
they are properly indexed with one another, and secure them. Attach the correct size feed
guide assembly. The machine is now ready to receive and swage the cable-terminal
assembly.

The cable is a close fit in the bore of the terminal before swaging. It is important that the
end of the cable be cut cleanly and squarely and that individual wires be prevented from
splaying out. A proprietary cable cutter must be used for this purpose. If necessary re-cut
the cable to obtain a good end. It is also important that the terminal and the cable be
engaged over the full length of the terminal bore so that the full strength of the swaged joint
will be realised. Probe the bore of the terminal with a stiff wire to make sure that the depth
of the bore is as specified in the Specification Sheet and that the bore is not plugged by dirt,
chips or other foreign objects.

1. Push the cable into the fitting until the end of the cable reaches the bottom of the
bore. Mark the cable at point (A) as shown. Place the cable beside the fitting shank
and have mark (A) placed flush with the bottom of the shank. Mark the shank at point
(B) using the end of the cable. Place the cable next to the mark (B) and mark the
shank at point (C) as shown.

2. Insert the cable to approximately half the depth of the bore and, taking hold of the
cable close to the end of the terminal, bend it sharply enough to set a kink into the
cable. This is to ensure that the terminal will not move on the cable while they are
being inserted in the swaging machine.

3. Push the cable back into the fitting until mark (A) is flush with the end of the shank
again. You will start your swaging at mark (C) on the shank.

4. Grasp the pins protruding from the lower die and rotate until the cutaway portions of
the two dies are centred opposite one another, allowing you to insert the cable-
terminal assembly between the dies. Place the cable terminal assembly in the feed
guide with the free end of the terminal resting against the feed guide adapter. Slide
the feed guide assembly to the right as far as it will go and then, by hand, rotate the
lower die anticlockwise until the two rolls meet in contact with the terminal at point
(C).

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10.20 Module 6.10 Control Cables
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 Ratchet the handles of the swager until the rolls have passed completely over the terminal
sleeve. When the first pass has been completed a longitudinal fin or flash on the opposite
sides will be noticeable on the swaged portion of the shank, as shown. To eliminate the
flash rotate the terminal 90° from the first position and pass it through the rolls as outlined in
the preceding instructions. After the second pass, the terminal shank will appear smooth
and round. Measure the diameter of the terminal shank with the gauge. The shank should
now slide through the slot from one end of the swaged portion to the other. The gauge is
made to pass a terminal which has been reduced to the proper diameter as specified in
applicable drawings. If the terminal has not been sufficiently reduced, an additional pass
may be necessary to reduce it to the required diameter. Rotate the terminal 45° for the 3rd
pass to make the terminal more uniform.

Caution Over-swaging will only cause work hardening, or may lead to embrittlement
which may induce terminal cracking. For this reason you must never use more than four

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 passes. If after the fourth pass the diameter on the sleeve has not been reduced to the
proper size, examine the equipment and recheck instructions in order to determine what is
causing the problem.

Irrespective of which method was used for installing the end fitting, the cable assembly
must be inspected and proof tested. A visual inspection for cracks and distortion is
performed and then the cable is proof loaded to 50% of the minimum breaking load for
British spec cables and 60% for American spec. This proof load is about 10 times the static
tension applied to the cable in normal operation and tests the integrity of the cable
assembly whilst also pre-stretching it.

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 Turnbuckles
Turnbuckles are the usual device for tensioning a cable system. A turnbuckle assembly
consists of a left hand threaded fitting swaged on to one cable end, and a right hand
threaded fitting swaged to the other cable end, and a barrel, tapped left and right hand
between them.

Turnbuckles are in safety when:

British types - A hardened steel pin will not pass through the safety inspection hole.
American types - All of the fitting thread is engaged in the barrel.

It is common practice for the left hand threaded end of the barrel to be identified with a
grooved machined on the outer surface.

Turnbuckle locking
Most turnbuckles currently are locked using spring clips which are passed down grooves
cut in the threads of the fittings and the barrel. The clip is positively located when the
locking tongue is located under the lip of the barrel centre hole.

When use of a clip is not possible, or wire locking is specified, this should be done in
accordance with the aircraft manufacturer’s requirements, usually to the FAA or CAA
standards as appropriate.

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 A turnbuckle locked with a clip

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 Turnbuckle wire locking procedure

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 Cable Tensioning Devices

General
Although the cable tension can be correctly adjusted on the ground, this tension may alter
once the aircraft is in flight. This can be due to the large temperature differentials involved
and the consequent expansion and contraction. Flexing of the airframe in flight will also
affect the tension. To overcome these problems a tension regulator is installed in some
control runs.

The tension regulator shown here is typical. As the tension in both the cables varies, due to
expansion, contraction or flexing, the Quadrants will rotate independently about the central
Pivot. The Link Rods transfer this motion to the Locking Crossbar Assembly. The
Compensating Locking Sub-assembly Compression Springs which push against the
Locking Crossbar Assembly, expand or contract to maintain uniform tension.

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 Tension Regulator
If, however, a control input is made, the tension in the cables will differ. This causes the
Locking Crossbar Assembly to cock over, locking it against the Lock Bar, so that both
quadrants will rotate together around the central Pivot. The Output Rod and its arm are
attached to the pivot shaft and so move with the Quadrants to transfer the control input to
the control surface or power package.

Cable Tension Regulators can be very dangerous when disconnecting cable runs, so it is
important to ensure that they are locked or 'snubbed', in accordance with the AMM, before
any work is done on the controls. Some tension regulators have a scale on one quadrant
and a datum on the other. This gives an indication of cable tension and is also used to
ensure that the regulator is correctly adjusted when rigging the system.

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 Broken Cable Compensator
Some systems require protection against broken cables producing false control inputs. This
may be done using a cable compensator.

The typical cable compensator assembly has two pulleys, each connected to a force link
which meet at, and share a pivot with, a roller. The roller sits in the detent of the cam plate
which is connected to the output shaft. Under normal operation, with tension on both
cables, the two pulleys act as one and the roller remains in the cam transferring the drive to
the output. In the event of a failed cable, the slackened pulley rotates causing the roller to
move moving out of its detented position. This isolates the output and prevents a false
control selection.

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 Cable Stops
Some control systems have Cable Stops attached to turn buckles or end fittings. These are
designed to contact stop brackets on the aircraft structure in the event of cable failure or
over-travel, to limit the movement of a control. They are typically used on throttle cables.

The stop is usually wirelocked into position at a specific distance from a datum.

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 Cable Fairleads
The cables of a control run must be supported to reduce the possibility of fouling, vibration
and fluctuations. They are supported by fairleads which are usually made from plastic or
fibre materials. These fairleads should not be lubricated as this will collect dirt and dust,
which will cause extra wear on the cable and fairlead.

To prevent chafing of the cables, fairleads are fitted to the aircraft structure where the
cables pass through, e.g. bulkheads and frames. They are made of Tufnol, Micarta or
Nylon, and are normally of two halves bolted together. The cable runs through a hole in the
fairlead.

Fairleads must not be lubricated as they will collect dust and dirt.

A typical fairlead

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 A sealed fairlead assembly

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 Cable Pulleys
Cables that run for long distances inside an aircraft, will need to change direction to allow
for the complicated structure. The usual method is by means of a pulley, as this allows the
change of direction with little increase in friction.

Aircraft pulley's are usually made from resin impregnated fibre materials like Tufnol with a
sealed bearing fitted in the centre.

A typical example would be a flying control system opposite, which has pulleys that change
the direction of the cable through various of angles.

Where a change in direction of the cable is required, a pulley is normally used, due to its
low friction in comparison with fairleads. Guards are fitted to pulleys when the risk of the
cable riding off the pulley is high.

As previously mentioned pulley diameter is selected by the airframe manufacturer to

minimise stress and wear on the cable.

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10.34 Module 6.10 Control Cables
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 Quadrants and Drums
Quadrants and Drums are used where an input to, or output from the cable system is made.
The cables always terminate at these components, the swaged ferrule or ball type end
fitting being anchored to a cut-out in the track.

Quadrants and drums often have rig pin holes or other rigging facilities. These will be
discussed later in this section.

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10.36 Module 6.10 Control Cables
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 Fork Joints
These are used in conjunction with bracing wires, tie rods, tension rod turnbuckles, etc.
Identification is as follows:

1. Low Tensile Steel - Plain collar

2. Stainless Steel - No collar or groove
3. High tensile Steel - Groove around collar
4. H.T. Stainless Steel - Groove around shank

Size and nominal thread diameter is determined by a code marked on the shank. Code
numbers commence from:

412 which is 4 BA
413 which is 2 BA

For numbers starting from 414, subtract 406 the size being in 1/32 in. The letter R or L
added as a suffix indicates left hand or right hand thread e.g. 420R.

420 = 7/16 in. B.S.F.

R = Right hand thread

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 Shackle Pins
These are used with fork joints, fork ends and other applications where they take shear
loads. They are secured in place with split pins. While non-standard end fittings are used, a
collar may be placed over the small end and the split pin passed through the collar and
shackle pin.

Shackle pins are made from High Tensile Steel and High Tensile Stainless Steel. H.T.S.S.
shackle pins have a dimple at the shank end and/or the letter ‘Z’ marked on the head.

The diameter is denoted by a letter starting from A which is 5/32 in and rising by 1/32 in
from each letter up to T.

Length is indicated by a number starting with 1 which is 0.25 in and rising 0.050 in per
number, and is measured from the underside of the head to the nearer side of the split pin
hole.

Example: D9 is 1/4 in diameter, 0.65 in long.

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 Lockclad Cables
Lockclad is a standard twisted steel wire cable with an aluminium tube swaged around it.
This type of cable has two advantages. One is that the cable’s coefficient of expansion is
nearer that of the aircraft’s fuselage than the standard steel wire cable. With temperature
changes, they expand or contract by almost the same amount.

This combination provides several other advantages.

 It lowers the creep stretch.

 The smooth cylindrical surface provides for closer sealing through pressure walls.
 It dampens the vibration of the cable.
 It provides a higher coefficient of thermal expansion.

The swaged tubing compacts the cable, resulting in an increase in the AE value which
minimizes undesirable stretch characteristics caused by load application. This combination
also provides a coefficient of expansion that more nearly synchronizes thermal expansion
and contraction of control cables to the airframe of the plane, and this effects a noticeable
improvement in sensitivity of control.

The aluminium tubing is swaged only to straight runs of control assemblies. Those sections
passing around pulleys must be left bare. For this reason, no increase in strength over the
bare cable is obtained by the use of Lockclad.

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 Control Cable System Inspection

General
This section gives the typical inspections for control cable systems. Always check the AMM
for specific information.

Tests show that flexible cables can have broken wires without an important decrease in
strength. A 7x7 cable, for example, can have two broken wires in a one-foot length and
continue to hold its specified load. However, it is good practice to replace a cable whenever
broken or corroded wires are found.

Control Cables Inspection

Clean the airplane control cable with a dry, clean cloth. Do not use solvents or abrasive
materials to clean the control cable, solvents will remove the cables internal lubricant, which
will cause corrosion and rapid wear.

If necessary, apply applicable grease to carbon steel cable. Do not put grease or corrosion
preventive agents on corrosion resistant steel cables, because attraction of grit increases
wear rate on CRES cables.

Check for broken wires. Rub a cloth along the length of the cable in both directions, do not
use bare hands as serious laceration can occur. Broken wires are indicated where the cloth
gets caught on the cable. Broken wires which lay flat can be difficult to detect.

Move the control cable to full travel in each direction to inspect where it passes through
seals, pulleys, drums, quadrants and fairleads, wires usually break where cables pass over
or through these components. Examine these areas carefully paying special attention to
cable runs outside the pressurised areas. Use a torch and mirror to aid inspection in hard to
see places.

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 Replace a 7 x 7 control cable when one of the following conditions is found.

• Two wires are broken in a 12-inch length of cable.

• More than three wires are broken in the total cable length between the two
terminals.
• One wire is broken caused by rust or corrosion.

Replace a 7 x 19 control cable when one of these conditions are found.

• Four wires are broken in a 12-inch length of cable.

• More than six wires are broken in a total cable length between the two cable
terminals.
• One wire is broken caused by rust or corrosion.

Broken wire is only permitted in a cable assembly if it is in a straight part of the cable
assembly and does not go over a pulley, through a pressure seal, or through a fairlead.

Check for wear on cables. For cables in the pressurised area (fuselage cables), replace a
cable if one strand has worn wires where one wire cross section is decreased by 40 percent
or more. Flex the cable at the shiny portion to see if any wires break.

For cables in the unpressurised areas, replace a worn cable where you cannot identify the
wire strands on the worn side.

Replace all cable assemblies which have damage caused by rust or corrosion. A whitish
deposit on High Tensile Steel galvanised cables indicates corrosion of the zinc coating. Red
rust indicates that the steel wires are corroding.

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 Examine for ‘bird-caging’. This is caused when the cable is subjected to a sudden tensile
load which, although insufficient to break the cable causes the pre-formed strands to
straighten out at the point of maximum stress. When the load is removed from the cable
these strands stand out causing ‘bird-caging’. Affected cables must be rejected.

Check for kinking. If the cable has a permanent bend when not under tension it must be
rejected. If the heart strand protrudes from between the pre-formed strands it must be
rejected.

Check swaged end fittings for cracks, corrosion and signs of pulling off the cable, indicated
by a shiny portion adjacent to the end fitting. Check the hole in the end fitting for elongation
using a new bolt.

Check for a broken heart strand, indicated by thinning of the cable, or loss of tension in an
installed cable.

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 Control Cable Pulley Inspection
Visually examine the pulleys for roughness, sharp edges, and unwanted material in the
grooves.

Visually examine the pulley wear pattern for the conditions shown below.

Examine the pulley for wobble by pushing on the outer edge of the pulley with a 2 pound
force and making sure that the movement of the outer edge is no more than:

• 0.10 inch for 8-inch diameter pulleys

• 0.09 inch for 6-inch diameter pulleys
• 0.08 inch for 5-inch diameter pulleys
• 0.07 inch for 4-inch diameter pulleys
• 0.06 inch for 3-inch diameter pulleys.

Examine the pulley bearings to make sure they are lubricated correctly, can turn smoothly,
and have no flat spots.

Examine the pulley bolts for worn areas.

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 Remove and replace a pulley when you find:

• There is an unusual pulley wear pattern.

• There is too much pulley wobble.
• The pulley does not turn freely and smoothly.

Examine the pulley brackets for cracks, and for other damage to the structure.

Repair or replace damaged brackets, if necessary. Pulleys are fitted to change the direction
of a cable run. They are made from Tufnol or Micarta. An integral sealed ball bearing is
provided. Cable guards are provided to prevent the cable coming off the pulley.

When inspecting cables for the previously mentioned wear and breakages, the complete
cable runs must be examined for incorrect routing, fraying, twisting or wear at fairleads,
pulleys and guards.

Pulleys must be inspected for wear, to detect indications of seizure, flat spots, embedded
foreign material and excessive tension. Any signs of contact with adjacent structure, pipe-
work, wiring and other controls must also be thoroughly investigated.

Pulley wear patterns

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 Control Cable Run and Travel Inspection
Examine the cable guides and fairleads for worn areas, broken parts, correct alignment,
clean parts, and correctly attached parts.

Make sure the cable deflection angle at the fairleads is not more than three degrees.

Examine the cables to the make sure they go along the correct routing, and do not have
twists. Check the minimum clearance from the adjacent structure.

Make sure the cable is free to move through its full travel.

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 Cable Removal and Installation
Prior to removing a control cable familiarise yourself with the AMM procedure and in
particular, any cautions and warnings. Ensure you have a serviceable replacement cable,
all the tools required and any assistance you may need. The following is a typical procedure
for replacing a control cable.

• Use masking tape to make index marks on the cable, fittings and adjacent
structure. The masking tape lets you refer to the initial position when you install
the new cable.
• Loosen the turnbuckles to reduce the tension.
• Remove all fairleads. If applicable, remove the control cable air seal.
• Install control cable clamps on the cable(s) you do not need to remove to keep
light tension on them. If you can isolate the cable between rigging pin locations,
install the rigging pins through the applicable drum or quadrant. Light tension on
the cables that are not removed will prevent wind off on the cable drums and will
also make sure the cables do not move out of the pulley guides.
• Release turnbuckles and/or cable end attachments
• Install the new cable at the same time you remove the old cable. Use the old
cable to pull the new cable into position. Alternatively, attach a piece of cord to
the old cable and pull this into position, then use the cord to pull the new cable
into position.

NOTE: If you do not attach the new cable or cord to the old cable before you remove
the old cable, you will have a problem routing the new cable.

• It may be necessary to remove certain pulleys or pulley guides when pulling

through old and new cables. Keep light tension on cable and investigate any
snags.
• When new cable is in position, install removed pulleys, pulley guides, fairleads
and pressure seals. Check correct routing while installing these components.
• If necessary, remove unwanted corrosion preventive compound, from the surface
of the control cable with a dry, lint-free cloth. Clean the full length of travel
through the fairleads, air seals, over the pulleys, quadrants, and drums.
• Lubricate the cable if required. Only lubricate carbon steel cables. It is not
necessary to lubricate CRES cables. CRES cables can be wiped with a clean
cloth. Apply a light thin layer of grease, to the cable. Wipe the cable with a clean
rag to leave a thin film of grease between the strands on the cable.
• Engage the turnbuckles with the turnbuckle barrel installed an equal distance on
the two threaded terminals.
• Remove the control cable clamps and rigging pins from the control cable and
drums as applicable.
• Tighten the cable in accordance with the temperature - tension chart in the AMM.
Use a 10 - 200 lb cable tensiometer to do a check on the cable tension. Apply the
tensiometer to the cable at least 6 in. (152 mm) from the turnbuckle terminal or
other fittings. To make sure you have the correct cable tension, permit a
minimum of one hour at constant ambient temperature (±5°F) for aeroplane and
cable temperatures to become stable.

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 • If a new cable is installed, operate the system for a number of test cycles, with
cables tightened to two times the working tension ('Double Tensioned'). See the
applicable chapter for tension specifications. Reduce to normal tension.
• Make the last rigging adjustments, refer to the applicable chapter for rigging load
and test cycle tables. Ensure no more than three threads show out of the barrel
of the turnbuckle when at correct tension.
• Make sure the air seals are correctly adjusted after installation, correctly adjusted
seals do not deflect the cable and allow free movement.
•
• Check the minimum clearance from the adjacent structure are as follows (the
clearances that follow are general guidelines only, refer to the applicable chapter
to find any special conditions for a specific system) :
o Between different cable systems - 0.50 in. (12.70 mm) min, (a
clearance of 2.00 in. (50.80 mm) is recommended).
o Between structure, wiring, tubing and fixed equipment:
i. At a fairlead - 0.50 in. (12.70 mm).
ii. At a rubstrip - 0.10 in. (2.54 mm).
iii. (a clearance of 1.50 in. (38.10 mm) is recommended
below the cable, and 1.00 in. (25.40 mm) is
recommended in the other directions).
o Between doors, landing gear, and components that move - 2.00 in.
(50.80 mm), (a clearance of 4.00 in. (101.60 mm) is recommended).
• Replace turnbuckle Locking Clips.
• Operate controls through full travel to make sure that they move freely and that
too much force is not necessary.
• Perform Duplicate Inspections and function checks as required and certify task.

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 Cable Tension
As mentioned, the correct cable tension is important to ensure safe and proper system
operation and continued serviceability of the components. The correct tension for a control
cable is specified in the AMM. It is checked by the use of a Tensiometer and adjusted on
the turnbuckles.

Before using the cable Tensiometer ensure the standards room recalibration date has not
been exceeded and the serial No on the chart (see diagram), is the same as the serial No
on the Tensiometer.

Cable tension is temperature dependant so it is important to determine the temperature

conditions in the area where the work is to be done. From the AMM ascertain the cable
diameter and required tension using the graph or table provided.

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 A typical modern tensiometer is the Pacific T5 tensiometer.

It has a set of risers. The tensiometer chart indentifies which riser is to be used with each
cable size. Fit the correct riser to the tensiometer.

Operation of the Pacific T5 tensiometer

Open the lever to retract the riser and check the gauge is zeroed. Place the sectors over
the cable and close the lever to take a reading. If the dial cannot be observed a small brake
lever will lock the needle so that the reading may be taken with the gauge removed.
Observe any AMM instructions about reading position and proximity to end fittings. For
increased accuracy take several readings in different points along the cable and average
them.

Compare the gauge reading with the tensiometer chart and read across the determine
actual tension in pounds.

The cable tension can now be adjusted on the turnbuckles if it is out of to limits. A spring
loaded tool may be used to hold the end fittings while the barrel is turned to tighten or
loosen the cable.

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 Module 6.10 Control Cables 10.51
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 Cable Rigging
A control system will require rigging after a cable change, system maintenance or when a
control problem is found or suspected. Rigging is the means to ensure that all the parts of
the system are in the correct position to allow full travel in the correct sense.

Rig pins are part numbered tools of specific length which have a red flag attached to show
when they are installed (dispatch of an aircraft with rig pins still installed could have
catastrophic consequences!). They are inserted into holes in quadrants, drums and other
components at certain points in the system which align with holes in brackets or the
adjacent structure when in the correct position. If they do not align the cable must be
adjusted by loosening and tightening the turnbuckles until correct alignment is achieved.

Note: When working on flying controls and particularly hydraulic powered systems,
surfaces can move with great speed and force. Ensure all staff are briefed and all safety
precautions taken.

Specific details of the rigging procedure vary with aircraft type so it is vital to refer to the
AMM. The following is a description of a typical rigging procedure:

• Set the control columns, wheels or selector lever in the neutral position. This may
require the use of a protractor, spirit level or a special tool.
• Set Trim mechanism to neutral if applicable.
• Remove hydraulic power and isolate associated electrical systems (alternate
drive etc.) if applicable.
• Insert rig pin in control cable drum. Rig pin to be a push fit into drum and
alignment hole. If pin does not fit, adjust drum position in accordance with the
AMM.
• Insert rig pins in system quadrants progressively along system. If pin does not fit,
adjust cable circuit in accordance with the AMM and check cable tension.
• Insert rig pin into trim actuator quadrant if applicable. Adjust actuator output rod
as required.
• For manual controls: Check position of control surface – trailing edge faired with
aerofoil trailing edge.
• For powered controls: Check rig pin/dimension at power control unit input, adjust
accordingly. Provide hydraulic power, check position of control surface - trailing
edge faired with aerofoil trailing edge, adjust actuator output accordingly.

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 Flexible Control Systems
Normal aircraft cables are only capable of performing a pulling action, due to their lack of
rigidity and so are used in a circuit. Where a two directional movement of push and pull is
required in areas of limited space it would be necessary either to use control rods, with the
increased weight penalty, or to use flexible control systems. The two most common types of
flexible control system are Bowden Cables and Teleflex Control Systems.

Bowden Cable Systems

A typical Bowden cable control might be a brake lever on the control column operating a
remote brake control valve.

Maintenance of Bowden cable systems is usually restricted to cleaning and lubrication of

the inner cable at regular intervals and adjustment of the outer conduit (e.g. if the brakes
needed adjustment). The lubrication would keep moisture out of the cable to prevent it
freezing at low temperatures.

Servicing

 Inspect the cable ends for fraying and corrosion

 Inspect the conduit for kinks and signs of wear
 Adjust the cable for slackness by adjuster (screw out, i.e. increase the length of
conduit to take up the slackness in cable) Check for adequate locking.
 Lubricate, on assembly, with recommended grease.

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 A Bowden cable assembly

Bowden cable connections

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 Teleflex Cable Systems
The Teleflex cable system is more complex than the Bowden cable system in that the
operating cable, within the conduit, is actually a number of spirally wound cables which
surround a core tension cable, giving it support. This allows the cable to transmit a push
force as easily as a pull force, doing away with the need for any form of return spring.

A typical use of a Teleflex system might be a throttle lever to engine fuel control system
connection.

The Teleflex cable system is a snug fit within the conduit and, because there might be the
chance of it becoming seized, due to foreign objects, dirt or freezing, it is vital that the inner
cables are regularly removed, cleaned and lubricated with low temperature grease. It is also
important that the conduits are thoroughly cleaned using a form of ‘pull-through’, prior to the
inner cable being installed.

At longer intervals, it might become necessary to inspect the outer conduit for signs of
damage or kinking; which can cause the control to become tight or ‘notchy’.

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 Cable
The cable is made of high tensile steel wires, which enable it to transmit both push and pull.
The strand core A transmits the pull, whilst the first wire wrap B transmit the push. A and B
are wound in different directions to prevent the cable from twisting under load. A wire of
heavier gauge C, interspaced by three turns of wire D, forms the helix which acts as a
bearing surface when working in the conduit and by which the end of the cable is gripped in
the control unit.

Box Unit
Tuck the cable into the slot in the pinion and ensure that the cable helix engages with the
pinion teeth to give a wrap of at least 40 degrees ("single entry" units). On double entry
units the cable should engage with the pinion to give a wrap of 180 degrees, the cable
projecting through the lead-out hole throughout the travel of the control. Ensure that the
cable end does not foul the blanked end of the conduit when fully extended. All box units
should be packed with recommended grease.

End Fittings
Sliding end fittings (fork end type). Unscrew the threaded hexagon plug from the body,
screw the lock nut right back, and pass the cable through the plug. Screw the lock spring
on to the end of the cable so that 3/16-in. of cable projects.

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 Insert the cable end, with its lock spring, into the bore of the body of the end fitting, and
screw the hexagon plug tight down, preventing the body from rotating. Check that the free
end of the cable is beyond the inspection hole, but not beyond the fork gap (for a fork end
fitting). Tighten the lock nut and turn up the tat washer. Check that the distance from the
face of the body to the end of the sliding tube does not exceed 0.45 in. (0.35-in. old type,
without tab washer). This ensures that the lock spring is tightly compressed.

Control end units vary in detail. In the "box" (or wheel) unit at the control end the large wire
of the cable C is engaged between the teeth of the gear wheel and the body of the unit.
The gear lever is turned by a hand lever or hand wheel, thus moving the cable into or out of
the box. In some boxes (double entry) the cable engages the pinion for 180 degrees and
an outlet it provided for the free end of the cable, which is protected by a short length of
conduit. These boxes permit much greater movement of cable.

Alternatively, the control may consist of a simple push-pull unit. This is sometimes fitted
with a spring-loaded stop to retain the control in any position; or sometimes fitted with a
spring which returns the control to its original position when released from operation. The
cable is attached to such a fitting by clamping a short coil of wire, which is screwed to the
cable end, between two parts of the control knob,

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 At the operating (or terminal) end the fitting may be box type (with gear wheel) or a simple
sliding end fitting to which the cable is attached in a similar manner to that for a push-pull
type of control. This final attachment to the component operated could vary, being either
fork end or ball and socket – examples of which are shown.

In assembling, the body of the end fitting must not be screwed on to the hexagon plug. The
plug should be screwed into the fork, not fork into plug. Failure to apply this rule will result
in the lock spring unscrewing. The same method should be used when removing the fork,
and care should be taken not to jam the spring and foul up the wire wrap.

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 Module 6.10 Control Cables 10.61
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 Swivelling Couplings
A swivelling coupling is sometimes used to allow the sliding end fitting an angular
movement; this is used when the lever on the component scribes an arc.

To operate the system, the cable and conduit are connected to control units at each end of
the control run and, in between, to other units and fittings, which are used to direct the run.
In many locations, the cables are attached to lever-operated wheel units or to push-pull
handles. At the receiving end of the run, another wheel unit or sliding end-fitting is used to
actuate the mechanism.

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 Bowdenflex Cables
Bowdenflex cables are another form of push-pull cable which may be encountered.
However, due to their method of construction, they are flexible in only one plane.

The tension and compression loads are transmitted by a flexible Centre Load Rail. This is
supported by a set of Balls either side, which are kept at regular intervals by two flexible
Ball Cage Strips. Each set of balls runs in an Outer Guide Rail and the whole assembly is
retained in a flexible casing. Orientation flats are formed on the outer casing parallel to the
flat face of the Centre Load Rail to ensure that the correct plane of flex is evident on
installation.

End fittings are attached to the Centre Load Rail to allow input and output loads to be
applied.

The cable requires no lubrication in service and will operate at temperatures of between -
40° and +250°C. Minimum bend radius is around 3 inches while stroke range is normally 1-
4 inches. Bending in the wrong plane will result in high friction and excessive wear.

Applications are similar to those of the Teleflex cable although they are far less common.

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European Aviation Safety Agency (EASA)

Module 6
Licence Category A, B1 and B2

Materials and Hardware

6.11 Electrical Cable and Connectors

 Intentionally Blank

11.2 Module 6.11 Electrical Cables and Connectors

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 Copyright Notice
© Copyright. All worldwide rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced,
stored in a retrieval system or transmitted in any form by any other means whatsoever: i.e.
photocopy, electronic, mechanical recording or otherwise without the prior written
permission of Turkish Technic Inc.

Knowledge Levels — Category A, B1, B2, B3 and C Aircraft

Maintenance Licence
Basic knowledge for categories A, B1, B2 and B3 are indicated by the allocation of knowledge levels
indicators (1, 2 or 3) against each applicable subject. Category C applicants must meet either the category B1
or the category B2 basic knowledge levels.
The knowledge level indicators are defined as follows:

LEVEL 1
 A familiarisation with the principal elements of the subject.
Objectives: The applicant should be familiar with the basic elements of the subject.
 The applicant should be able to give a simple description of the whole subject, using common words
and examples.
 The applicant should be able to use typical terms.

LEVEL 2
 A general knowledge of the theoretical and practical aspects of the subject.
 An ability to apply that knowledge.
Objectives: The applicant should be able to understand the theoretical fundamentals of the subject.
 The applicant should be able to give a general description of the subject using, as appropriate, typical
examples.
 The applicant should be able to use mathematical formulae in conjunction with physical laws
describing the subject.
 The applicant should be able to read and understand sketches, drawings and schematics describing
the subject.
 The applicant should be able to apply his knowledge in a practical manner using detailed procedures.

LEVEL 3
 A detailed knowledge of the theoretical and practical aspects of the subject.
 A capacity to combine and apply the separate elements of knowledge in a logical and comprehensive
manner.
Objectives: The applicant should know the theory of the subject and interrelationships with other subjects.
 The applicant should be able to give a detailed description of the subject using theoretical
fundamentals and specific examples.
 The applicant should understand and be able to use mathematical formulae related to the subject.
 The applicant should be able to read, understand and prepare sketches, simple drawings and
schematics describing the subject.
 The applicant should be able to apply his knowledge in a practical manner using manufacturer's
instructions.
 The applicant should be able to interpret results from various sources and measurements and apply
corrective action where appropriate.

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11.4 Module 6.11 Electrical Cables and Connectors

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 Table of Contents

6.11 Electrical Cables and Connectors _____________________________________ 13

Aircraft Cables _______________________________________________________ 13
Cable Performance, Inspection Criteria and Damage Tolerance _______________ 15
Cable Performance___________________________________________________ 15
Cable Damage and Damage Tolerance ___________________________________ 16
Aircraft Cable Construction ____________________________________________ 21
Conductor __________________________________________________________ 21
Conductor Plating ____________________________________________________ 21
Classification of Cables________________________________________________ 22
Airframe Cables _____________________________________________________ 22
Interconnect Cables __________________________________________________ 22
Equipment Cable ____________________________________________________ 22
Fire Resistant Cables _________________________________________________ 23
Fireproof Cables _____________________________________________________ 23
Multicore Screened and Jacketed Cables _________________________________ 23
Data Bus___________________________________________________________ 24
Cable Types _________________________________________________________ 25
Copper Cable _______________________________________________________ 25
Aluminium Cable ____________________________________________________ 25
Shielded Cable ______________________________________________________ 25
Data Bus Cable _____________________________________________________ 27
Insulation Types _____________________________________________________ 28
Examples of Aircraft Cables ____________________________________________ 29
Cable Coding ________________________________________________________ 33
General____________________________________________________________ 33
Construction of the Code ______________________________________________ 34
Applicable Requirements ______________________________________________ 38
Cable Stripping_______________________________________________________ 39
General____________________________________________________________ 39
The Stripping Tool ___________________________________________________ 39
Stripping Tools – Double Blade Action ____________________________________ 41
Stripping Tools - Thermal ______________________________________________ 43
Cable Termination ____________________________________________________ 45
AMP Terminals ______________________________________________________ 45
Crimping of AMP Terminals ____________________________________________ 46
Crimping Tools ______________________________________________________ 51
Crimping Procedure __________________________________________________ 53
Foot Pump _________________________________________________________ 57
Crimping Head ______________________________________________________ 59
In-Line Connectors ___________________________________________________ 61

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 General____________________________________________________________ 61
Use of Crimped Splices in Aircraft Electrical Cables _________________________ 61
Use Forbidden ______________________________________________________ 61
Location of Splices ___________________________________________________ 62
Support of In-Line Splices _____________________________________________ 62
Crimp Selection _____________________________________________________ 62
Crimping Action _____________________________________________________ 63
Kapton Cables ______________________________________________________ 64
Other Information ____________________________________________________ 65
Sealing of Electrical Pressure Bungs _____________________________________ 66
Introduction_________________________________________________________ 66
Assembly __________________________________________________________ 67
Pressure Bungs _____________________________________________________ 69
Method of Wiring of Pressure Bungs _____________________________________ 70
Wire Locking of Electrical Connectors ___________________________________ 74
Introduction_________________________________________________________ 74
The Exception ______________________________________________________ 75
Electrical Terminal Blocks _____________________________________________ 76
Introduction_________________________________________________________ 76
Construction ________________________________________________________ 76
Assembly __________________________________________________________ 77
New Style Terminal Blocks _____________________________________________ 78
Securing Terminators _________________________________________________ 79
Bending of Terminals _________________________________________________ 81
High Density Module Blocks ____________________________________________ 82
Bussing Configuration ________________________________________________ 83
Contacts ___________________________________________________________ 84
Environmental Terminal Blocks _________________________________________ 86
Burndy Terminal Blocks _______________________________________________ 90
Installation of Cable __________________________________________________ 93
Crimping Contacts ___________________________________________________ 94
Insertion/Removal____________________________________________________ 95
Pin Insertion ________________________________________________________ 96
Burndy Crimping Tool _________________________________________________ 97
Grounding and Earth Points ____________________________________________ 98
Introduction_________________________________________________________ 98
Testing ____________________________________________________________ 98
Component Parts ____________________________________________________ 99
YHLZG Grounding Modules ___________________________________________ 100
Identification – Earth Stations __________________________________________ 101
Crimping Tools______________________________________________________ 102
General___________________________________________________________ 102
M22520 Series Crimp Tools ___________________________________________ 103
M22520/1-01 Crimp Tool _____________________________________________ 103
Turret Heads ______________________________________________________ 104
M22520/2-01 Crimp Tool _____________________________________________ 105
Calibration ________________________________________________________ 106

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 Gauge Test________________________________________________________ 106
Crimping a Contact __________________________________________________ 107
Pneumatic Crimping Tools ____________________________________________ 108
PICO Crimping Tools Model 500D1 _____________________________________ 108
Canon Crimping Tools Model CBT600 and CBT600B _______________________ 109
Pneumatic Hand Tool AMP P/N 69365 __________________________________ 110
Typical Hand-Operated Hydraulic Crimping Machine _______________________ 112
Preparation of Typical Machine ________________________________________ 112
Operation of a Typical Machine ________________________________________ 113
Installation of Crimping Dies or Nests____________________________________ 113
Example of Crimping ________________________________________________ 113
Electric/Hydraulic Crimping Machine ____________________________________ 116
Designation _______________________________________________________ 116
Example of Crimping ________________________________________________ 116
Aircraft Connectors __________________________________________________ 118
Introduction________________________________________________________ 118
Construction _______________________________________________________ 118
Component Parts ___________________________________________________ 119
Coupling Method ___________________________________________________ 120
Classification ______________________________________________________ 121
MIL-C-26482 ______________________________________________________ 122
MIL-C-26500 ______________________________________________________ 123
MIL-C-83723 ______________________________________________________ 123
MIL-C-81511 ______________________________________________________ 124
MIL-C-38999 ______________________________________________________ 125
Contacts __________________________________________________________ 130
Crimped Type Connectors ____________________________________________ 131
Contact Insertion and Extraction _______________________________________ 132
Contact History _____________________________________________________ 132
Locking Mechanisms ________________________________________________ 134
Insertion / Extraction Tools ____________________________________________ 135
Tweezers type insert/extract tools ______________________________________ 141
Installing a Contact __________________________________________________ 146
Removing a Contact _________________________________________________ 147
Front and Rear Release ______________________________________________ 148
Terminal Block Contact Installation _____________________________________ 149
Terminal Block Contact Removal _______________________________________ 150
Testing ___________________________________________________________ 151
Cable Protection_____________________________________________________ 152
Cable Environment __________________________________________________ 152
Cabin Drainage_____________________________________________________ 152
Cable Support _____________________________________________________ 152
Cable Support at Terminal Fittings ______________________________________ 153
Cable Clamps ______________________________________________________ 154
Loop Clamps ______________________________________________________ 156
Standoff Supports ___________________________________________________ 158

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 Prevention of Chafing ________________________________________________ 159
Looms/Cable Bundles ________________________________________________ 160
Introduction________________________________________________________ 160
Ties______________________________________________________________ 161
High Vibration Areas_________________________________________________ 162
Loom Assembly Checks ______________________________________________ 163
Cable Bundle Breakouts ______________________________________________ 163
Made Up Cabling ___________________________________________________ 164
Installation of Electrical Wiring _________________________________________ 164
Cable clamps ______________________________________________________ 166
Conduit (Metallic and PVC) ___________________________________________ 167
Interference _______________________________________________________ 169
Heat-Shrinkable Sleeving _____________________________________________ 170
Hot Air Heat Guns/Infra-Red Heat Guns _________________________________ 170
Selection of Heat Shrinkable Sleeving ___________________________________ 171
Selection Criteria ___________________________________________________ 173
Connector Sealing __________________________________________________ 174
Molded Parts ______________________________________________________ 174
Tape Irradiated Heatshrink ____________________________________________ 174
The Product Range _________________________________________________ 176
Heat Shrink Heat Sources ____________________________________________ 177
Heat Shrink Tubing __________________________________________________ 178
Heat Shrinkable Sleeves _____________________________________________ 182
Aircraft Coaxial Cables _______________________________________________ 184
Introduction________________________________________________________ 184
Cable Losses ______________________________________________________ 186
Types of Coaxial Cable ______________________________________________ 188
Co-axial Connectors _________________________________________________ 190
General___________________________________________________________ 190
Co-axial Connector Families and Series _________________________________ 191
MIL-C39012 Series Co-Axial Connectors _________________________________ 191
Construction _______________________________________________________ 195
Styles ____________________________________________________________ 196
Crimped Connection _________________________________________________ 197
Assembly of a Typical Coaxial Connector ________________________________ 199
Coaxial Cable Testing ________________________________________________ 202
Time Domain Reflectometer (TDR) _____________________________________ 202
Impedance ________________________________________________________ 203
Pulse Widths ______________________________________________________ 204
Blind Spots ________________________________________________________ 204
Velocity of Propagation (VOP) _________________________________________ 205
Locating Multiple Faults ______________________________________________ 206
Cable Wrap Connections______________________________________________ 208
General___________________________________________________________ 208
Changes to the Cable Integration Unit (WIU) ______________________________ 211
Cable and Terminal Specifications ______________________________________ 212

11.8 Module 6.11 Electrical Cables and Connectors

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Rev.01 – 31 March 2016 Training Purpose Only © Copyright 2016
 Distribution of Stress ________________________________________________ 212
Easy Removal _____________________________________________________ 213
Quality Assurance __________________________________________________ 213
Mechanical and Electrical Stability ______________________________________ 213
Hand Cable Wrapping Tool ____________________________________________ 214
Manual Unwrap ____________________________________________________ 216
Cable Wrapping Tools _______________________________________________ 217
Manual ___________________________________________________________ 217
Four Steps to a Standard Cable Wrapped Connection_______________________ 218

Module 6.11 Electrical Cables and Connectors 11.9

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© Copyright 2016 Training Purpose Only Rev.01 – 31 March 2016
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11.10 Module 6.11 Electrical Cables and Connectors

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Rev.01 – 31 March 2016 Training Purpose Only © Copyright 2016
 Module 6.11 Enabling Objectives and Certification Statement
Certification Statement
These Study Notes comply with the syllabus of EASA Regulation (EU) No. 1321/2014
Annex III (Part-66) Appendix I, and the associated Knowledge Levels as specified below:

Part 66 Licence Category

Objective
Reference A B1 B2 B3
Electrical Cables and Connectors 6.11 1 2 2 2
Cable types, construction and characteristics
High tension and co-axial cables
Crimping
Connector types, pins, plugs, sockets,
insulators, current and voltage rating,
coupling, identification codes

Module 6.11 Electrical Cables and Connectors 11.11

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© Copyright 2016 Training Purpose Only Rev.01 – 31 March 2016
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11.12 Module 6.11 Electrical Cables and Connectors

Turkish Technic Inc.
Rev.01 – 31 March 2016 Training Purpose Only © Copyright 2016
 6.11 Electrical Cables and Connectors
Aircraft Cables
In a modern transport aircraft the electrical cables are the arteries taking life to the aircraft.
The electrical power supplies are distributed to the numerous consumers by cables which
have been designed to fulfil, in the most efficient, safe and cost effect manner, the need of
each consumer with regard to its environment and at the same time remain certificatable.

Reliability is possibly the prime consideration for aircraft cables since the performance of
the aircraft and the safety of the aircraft, its crew and passengers, may depend on the
correct functioning of an electrical circuit under all flight conditions. Great care is taken in
the manufacture of these cables and stringent tests are applied to ensure that all cables are
of maximum reliability.

The following pages describe in detail the various factors that determine the cable reliability.
At this point it is not essential the student remembers the temperature and other ranges
quoted.

A wide range of types of cables are fitted to modern aircraft. On occasions there will be a
need to connect these cables by means of a solder joint.

It should be noted that many of the latest aircraft cables are nickel plated. Special solders
and flux must be used to solder theses cables.

Equipment Cable
A wide range of miniature cables exist for low current use in Avionic wiring assemblies.
Designed primarily for use with miniature plugs and sockets, it is now extensively used for
internal and inter-unit connection of instruments and electronic devices.

Equipment cable is available in both single and multicore forms, standard self-colours and
bicolours for ease of circuit identification.

Single Core Form (Single Strand)

• Single-strand annealed copper or tinned copper conductor.

• PVC or PTFE insulation.

CAUTION: FUMES FROM HEATED PTFE ARE DANGEROUS

Module 6.11 Electrical Cables and Connectors 11.13

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© Copyright 2016 Training Purpose Only Rev.01 – 31 March 2016
 Single Core Form (Multi-Strand)

 Multi-strand annealed copper or tinned copper conductor.

 PVC or PTFE insulation.

Multi-Core Form
Utilises several single core equipment cables, covered overall with an additional insulation
sleeve.

If required for magnetic screening purposes a sheath of tinned copper braid encloses the
cores, either on single or multi-core cable forms.

11.14 Module 6.11 Electrical Cables and Connectors

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Rev.01 – 31 March 2016 Training Purpose Only © Copyright 2016
 Cable Performance, Inspection Criteria and Damage Tolerance
Cable Performance
The prime considerations that govern the construction of any electrical cable are that it
must:

 Be capable of carrying its rated current

 Be able to withstand the applied voltages
 Be flexible, where necessary

Also it must be able to perform these functions in conditions of:

 Very high temperature

 Very low temperature
 A large temperature range

The insulation of additional covers must provide a mechanical cover to protect the cable in
the environment in which it is designed to be used, e.g.,

 Atmospheric moisture
 Fuels
 Lubricating oils and greases
 Hydraulic fluids
 Abrasion caused by vibration

The definition of cable performance has increased in complexity and precision with the
reduction of insulation thickness and weight. Some of the cables now used for airframe
wiring have no more than 0.006" of insulation thickness and thus there is little margin for
error in manufacture or in an aircraft installation. The operating temperature dictates to a
large extent the materials and constructions used, but installation requirements need to be
satisfied by defining properties such as resistance to insulation "cut through" and abrasion.
It follows that cables need to be selected with care and the factors detailed below should be
considered in relation to any intended duty.

Module 6.11 Electrical Cables and Connectors 11.15

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© Copyright 2016 Training Purpose Only Rev.01 – 31 March 2016
 Cable Damage and Damage Tolerance

Temperature
The temperature rating of a cable must be defined to permit comparison with the worst case
requirements of the application. It follows that the location of a cable, relative to hot air
ducts and local hot spots such as power transformers and some filament lighting, must be
known. Cables have a specified maximum continuous operating temperature and for many
types, this may be achieved by any combination of ambient temperature plus temperature
rise due to I2R losses. However, it should be noted, that in general, it is undesirable to
contribute more than 40º rise by electrical heating and that operating temperature and
installed life are directly related. The temperature rating of an airframe cable is determined
by its construction.

105ºC (obsolescent cable types), 135ºC, 150ºC, 210ºC and 260ºC.

Clearly this temperature rating had to be known when evaluating any design application.

Flammability and Toxicity

All cables are required to have a defined level of resistance to burning when exposed to
standard flame tests. In addition to the requirements for flammability, there exists within
BCARs and FARs, general requirements relating to the hazards of smoke and toxicity. In
recent years, greater emphasis has been placed upon these characteristics and whilst they
are not yet defined in many civil cable specifications, it is generally true that new cable
types have been more thoroughly investigated.

Wet Arc Tracking

A requirement has now been formulated to assess the 'resistance to failure' of cables when
subjected to a combination of insulation damage and fluid contamination.

Tracking can also occur under dry conditions and this is being studied. This failure mode
reinforces the need for good cable installation and maintenance practices.

Fluid Contamination
Cables are required to display a defined level of resistance to the effects of commonly used
aircraft fluids but this is not to say that cables can withstand continuous contamination,
which should be avoided. A related hazard is that presented by sealing compounds
because this these may contain agents which are aggressive to cable insulation. It follows
that where a new cable type is introduced, the compatibility with such compounds should
be checked. Equally, the use of a new fluid on an aircraft, e.g. new types of hydraulic fluid,
should be considered in relation to the ability of cables to withstand contamination.
Contamination of cables by toilet or galley waste has to be rigorously prevented or
corrected.

Arc Tracking
Electrical wet-cable arc tracking is a phenomenon that has been known for many years.
This can occur when leakage currents on a wet insulation surface are great enough to
vaporize the moisture, resulting in the formation of dry spots. These dry spots offer a high

11.16 Module 6.11 Electrical Cables and Connectors

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Rev.01 – 31 March 2016 Training Purpose Only © Copyright 2016
 amount of resistance to current flow. In turn, an induced voltage will develop across these
spots and result in the occurrence of small surface discharges. Initially, these discharges
will appear as scintillations at the insulation surface. These discharges produce highly
localized temperatures on the order of 1000oC. Temperatures of this magnitude will cause
thermal degradation of the insulation material, the nature of which depends on the
insulation material used. The FAA conducted a series of bench scale tests which
demonstrated that the ability of an aircraft cable to resist wet arc tracking and possible
flashover is highly dependent on the composition of the cable insulation. In addition, the
conductivity level of the electrolyte may influence the time and type of failure (arc track or
open circuit) that can occur.

An example of the damage caused by Wet Arc Tracking

The actions of cable manufacturers should resolve the problem, but the greatest need is to
ensure that hot stamp printing is properly controlled. ‘Inter-connect’ and ‘Equipment Cables’
should not be hot stamp printed.

Minyvin -Some batches of Minyvin have in the past shown a tendency to shed the
outer nylon sheath because of splitting along a flow line inadvertently introduced
during manufacture. In dry areas of aircraft, replacement of such cable is not a matter
of urgency but if moisture, especially hydraulic fluid, is present then cable must be
replaced. In areas which are exposed and prone to fluid contamination, such as

Module 6.11 Electrical Cables and Connectors 11.17

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© Copyright 2016 Training Purpose Only Rev.01 – 31 March 2016
 undercarriage bays, modifications to introduce a more suitable cable have been raised
on some aircraft types.

BMS 13-28 - Larger sizes of this mineral-filled PTFE cable, especially those used on
Boeing 707, 727 and 737 aircraft, tend to experience complete insulation failure due to
a longitudinal splitting of the total dielectric. Replacement by BMS13-58 or EFGLAS to
BS G222 under modification action is desirable.

Abrasion
Some types of cable have shown a tendency to ‘wear through’ the insulation at a point
where the cable rubs on cable or cable rubs on structure. Areas of high vibration induce this
failure mechanism and it may be supposed that the stiffer construction of some cables
tends to produce a greater contact force and transmit vibration where previously it was
damped. Careful cable loom tying and clipping is necessary to alleviate this.

A typical source of abrasion

11.18 Module 6.11 Electrical Cables and Connectors

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Rev.01 – 31 March 2016 Training Purpose Only © Copyright 2016
 Conductor ‘Knuckling Through'
Some earlier cable constructions tended to exhibit ‘knuckling of conductors which could be
severe enough to penetrate the insulation. This was induced by applying excessive pull
through forces and care should be taken not to put cables under tension. FEPSIL to BS
G206, which is now ‘obsolescent’, requires particular care in manufacture and installation to
avoid this defect.

Red Plague
Cables with silver plated conductors can exhibit the aptly named ‘Red Plague’ if the plating
has been damaged and then exposed to moisture. Consequently, silver plated conductors
are generally unsuitable for use in unpressurised areas.

Glycol Fires
It is known that should de-icing fluid contaminate silver plated conductors, an electrical fire
can result. Accordingly, silver plated conductors should not be employed in areas where de-
icing fluid can be present.

Poor Solderability
It should be recognised that the quantity of free tin or plated conductors rapidly reduces
with time. The replacement of soldered connections during aircraft maintenance will
probably require that conductors are ‘tinned’ as part of the process. The loss of free tin
starts as the cable is manufactured and thus prolonged storage should be avoided.

Module 6.11 Electrical Cables and Connectors 11.19

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© Copyright 2016 Training Purpose Only Rev.01 – 31 March 2016
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11.20 Module 6.11 Electrical Cables and Connectors

Turkish Technic Inc.
Rev.01 – 31 March 2016 Training Purpose Only © Copyright 2016
 Aircraft Cable Construction
An aircraft cable usually consists of a plated conductor protected by an outer insulation
covering:

Conductor
The conductor commonly consists of a number of strands of copper cable. The number of
strands depends upon the current rating and degree of flexibility required. However, size 24
and smaller sizes of conductor will be made of a copper alloy having a higher tensile
strength. Fire resistant cables may also be of copper alloy or copper conductors throughout
all applicable sizes. The conductor is plated to resist oxidation which occurs with increased
temperatures and moist atmospheres.

The total conductor consists of plated strands which are circular in section and which are
laid up into one of a number of stranded forms. Aluminium conductors are also available for
cables of size 8 and larger but such cables have not been without problems. Any
modification which involves conversion from copper to aluminium should be classed as
'major' and thoroughly investigated especially in regard to termination techniques.
Obviously, 'aluminium cables' will need to be significantly larger in cross section than
copper for a given electrical load, because of the higher electrical resistance of aluminium.

Conductor Plating
Plating is employed on copper, copper alloy and aluminium conductors to improve
resistance to corrosion and to assist termination techniques. Very often it is the plating
which will determine the temperature rating of a given cable and the figures given below are
those widely recognised with in the UK.

 Tin plated copper maximum continuous temperature - 135ºC

 Silver plated copper maximum continuous temperature - 200ºC

 Nickel plated copper maximum continuous temperature - 260ºC

 Nickel clad plated copper maximum continuous temperature - 260ºC

Nickel clad copper is used instead of nickel plate on fire resistant cable to provide a thicker
nickel element.

The temperature figures quoted above may have to be varied downwards because of
limitations imposed by the cable insulation. Higher figures, notably 150ºC for tin plating, are
sometimes quoted in the USA but performance at such temperatures, especially in regard
to staple crimp resistance and solderability is the subject of debate, if not dispute. It should
be noted that the plating used on crimped terminal ends must be compatible with the
conductor plating of the cable and information should be sought from termination
manufacturers.

Module 6.11 Electrical Cables and Connectors 11.21

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© Copyright 2016 Training Purpose Only Rev.01 – 31 March 2016
 Classification of Cables
Listed below are the broad classifications used for aircraft cables. Regrettably, there is little
International Standardisation of terminology and it should be noted that the term 'cable' is
used in the USA where most other countries talk of 'cable'.

Airframe Cables
Cables designated as 'Airframe' are intended to be sufficiently robust to satisfy the
requirements of 'Open' airframe wiring and the general wiring of Power Plants. However, in
recent years there has been a strong trend towards very thin insulation which is harder and
stiffer than insulation such as PVC. Such 'stiff' cables are perfectly satisfactory if the
installation is designed to accept them but they may very well be quite unsuitable for an
older airframe design requiring, say, flexing over hinges. It follows that even if all the major
declared characteristics such as overall diameter and temperature rating are acceptable,
the apparently equivalent cables may still not be interchangeable. There are two basic
methods of applying cable insulation, namely wrapping and extruding. These methods in
themselves can produce different 'handling' characteristics. In the USA, the term 'Medium
Weight Interconnect' may be used for Airframe Cables.

Interconnect Cables
'Interconnect' is a term adopted by the BSI to designate cables which may be used in
protected areas of wiring such as the interconnection of equipment within racks. Such cable
would then be positioned into an aircraft. It would not, therefore, be subject to 'pulling
through' and other such stressful exercises. Interconnect cables employ thinner insulation
than airframe types, which saves weight and space and increases flexibility, the latter being
most important where looms (bundles) are required to turn through small radii into electrical
connectors. However, all the constraints given for airframe cable also apply here.

The term 'Hook Up' is commonly used in the USA to designate cables of this general type
and the designation 'Light Weight Interconnect' may also be applied.

Equipment Cable
This cable, invariably known as 'cable', is intended to be used within equipment and,
therefore, is very flexible and suitable for soldering. It is not designed for use as
interconnect wiring but design organisations do, on occasions, select a particular type for
use in protected areas of an airframe. There is a considerable range of such cables which
vary in basic construction and performance and they should always be very clearly defined.
In general, the types in aircraft use are produced by CAA Approved Organisations who
provide 'CAA Release' to British Standard G210 or an equivalent specification. Some
manufacturers have sought 'Accessory Approval' for BS G210 cable and this has been
granted, but it is not a CAA requirement that any form of design approval be applied to this
cable when it is used for its intended purpose (which is within equipment enclosures where
the equipment itself is subject to control). It follows that it can be manufactured and
released by a Supplier, approved to BCAR A8-2. The term 'Module Cable' is sometimes
used for this class of cable in the USA.

11.22 Module 6.11 Electrical Cables and Connectors

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Rev.01 – 31 March 2016 Training Purpose Only © Copyright 2016
 Fire Resistant Cables
This type of cable is required to retain a defined level of electrical insulation in the presence
of fire for five minutes, as defined in BCAR Section S1-2 paragraph 1.17.2 and EASA CS-1.
'Fire Resistance' should not be confused with 'high temperature' and fire resistant types
should only be employed where this property is required because other characteristics,
such as fluid resistance, will usually be poorer than could be expected from a non-fire-
resistant high temperature cable.

Fireproof Cables
These cables are required to operate for fifteen minutes in a designated fire as defined in
BCAR D6 paragraph 6.5.1 and EASA CS-1 and are for use in designated fire zones. BCAR
D6-13 paragraph 6.6.2 and JAR 25.1359 define a fire zone. As for Fire Resistant types,
they should only be used where necessary.

Multicore Screened and Jacketed Cables

Airframe and interconnect cables may be supplied in a multicore form of generally up to
four cores, the cores being twisted together. The multicore may be jacketed (sometimes
known as a sheath) or it may be screened and jacketed. The screening is usually a braid
which gives 85% surface coverage, but screening to a higher standard may be used and on
replacement of such cables, the standard must not be degraded. The cores are coloured for
identification as defined in BS G230.

Module 6.11 Electrical Cables and Connectors 11.23

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© Copyright 2016 Training Purpose Only Rev.01 – 31 March 2016
 Data Bus
Data Bus cables are designed to specific requirements which will not, as a general
principle, allow for replacement by any other type other than that specified by the Design
Authority for the installation. (This requirement will also apply to the terminations of such
cable.)

11.24 Module 6.11 Electrical Cables and Connectors

Turkish Technic Inc.
Rev.01 – 31 March 2016 Training Purpose Only © Copyright 2016
 Cable Types

Copper Cable
There are many different types of cable used for special applications in aircraft electrical
systems, but the majority of the wiring is achieved with MIL-W-5086 or MIL-W-22759
stranded tinned copper cable with PVC, nylon or Teflon insulation.

MIL-G-5086 Copper Cable

Aluminium Cable
Where large amounts of current must be carried for long distances, MIL-W-7072 aluminium
cable is often used. This cable is insulated with either "Fluorinated Ethylene Propolene
(FEP), nylon or fibreglass braid. Aluminium cable smaller than six-gauge is not
recommended because it is so easily broken by vibrations.

Shielded Cable
Anytime a cable carries a current, a magnetic field surrounds the cable, and this field may
interfere with some aircraft instrumentation. For example, the light that illuminates the
compass card of a magnetic compass is powered with low-voltage DC. The field from this
small voltage can deflect the compass. To minimise this occurrence, a two-conductor
twisted cable is used to carry the current to and from this light. By using a twisted cable,
the fields cancel each other out and thus do not interfere with the compass.

AC or pulsating DC has an especially bad effect on electronic equipment, as its conductor’s

radiate electrical energy much like the antenna of a radio. To prevent radio interference,
cables that carry AC or pulsating DC are often shielded. Encasing the conductor in a cable
braid carries this out. This ensures that the radiated energy is received by the braid and is
then passed to the aircraft's ground where it can cause no interference.

Module 6.11 Electrical Cables and Connectors 11.25

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© Copyright 2016 Training Purpose Only Rev.01 – 31 March 2016
 Shielded Cable

Antennas are connected to most of the radio receivers and transmitters with a special type
of shielded cable called "Coaxial Cable". This consists of a central conductor surrounded
by an insulator and a second conductor. The spacing and concentricity of the two
conductors are critical for the most efficient transfer of energy through the cable. This
second conductor is normally the cable braid, which is then covered in an outer insulator.
OUTER
INSULATOR
JACKET

Coaxial Cable

11.26 Module 6.11 Electrical Cables and Connectors

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Rev.01 – 31 March 2016 Training Purpose Only © Copyright 2016
 Data Bus Cable
One special type of cable used exclusively for various digital electronic systems is called
“Data Bus Cable”. Data bus cable typically consists of a twisted pair of cables surrounded
by electrical shielding and insulators. Digital systems operate on different frequencies,
voltages and current levels. It is extremely important to ensure that the correct cable is
used for the system installed. The cable should not be pinched or bent during installation
and data bus cable lengths may also be critical. Refer to current manufacturer’s manuals
for cable specifications.

Data Bus Cable

Module 6.11 Electrical Cables and Connectors 11.27

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© Copyright 2016 Training Purpose Only Rev.01 – 31 March 2016
 Insulation Types
Insulation material is applied to conductors by one of two basic methods, extrusion and
wrapping. In general terms, extrudable materials are "heat meltable" and are not employed
for higher temperature applications. It follows that towards the upper limit of their operating
temperature their mechanical strength, when measured by abrasion or cut through, can be
significantly less than that measured at room temperature.

Airframe categories of cable usually have a double extrusion which are not always of the
same material. A double extrusion is also claimed to impart "crack stopping" qualities.
Radiation cross linking of processed material is employed on high performance cables and
this eliminates melting, increases strength and allows for thinner wall thickness. Cables
employing this construction perform well on the British Standard test for wet arc tracking.

The most commonly used wrapped insulation material is Kapton, which is the registered
trade name to an aromatic polyimide by Dupont. Many cable manufacturers Worldwide use
Kapton, either singly or in combination with other materials to give a so called hybrid
construction. Single or double tapes are spirally wound over the conductor to a defined
overlap to give the required tape thickness at any one point. Kapton is naturally copper
coloured and it is usual to apply a top coat to provide a coloured surface which will accept
print and also gives an added protection to the cable. It follows that it is totally incorrect to
talk of Kapton cables without further definition.

Some construction, notably cables made in the USA to MIL-W-81381/11, have been the
subject of adverse comment and it is possible that the use of this particular type will be
discontinued in some environments. This would not reflect general rejection of cables
containing Kapton because most constructions provide good overall performance including
excellent mechanical strength, especially the newer higher temperature hybrid types.

The process of wrapping insulation provides good control of insulation wall thickness and
there are now cable types which employ only 4 layers of 'Kapton', giving a total wall
thickness of approximately 0.006 inches and these are being employed throughout the
airframe of some recently certified aircraft types. The CAA has not granted an Accessory
Approval as 'Airframe' types to such cables, these having been accepted on a 'Component'
basis.

PVC insulated cables such a Minyvin (BS G221) and all PVC cables are now classed as
'Obsolescent - unsuitable for new designs".

11.28 Module 6.11 Electrical Cables and Connectors

Turkish Technic Inc.
Rev.01 – 31 March 2016 Training Purpose Only © Copyright 2016
 Examples of Aircraft Cables

Nyvin
A general purpose white airframe cable available in the following five forms:

• Uninyvin
The most common form. Replaced by Raychem 44A.
• Minyvin
As uninyvin but has smaller insulation diameter to save weight and space. Used
on BAC1-11. Replaced by Raychem 44A.
• Trinyvin
Three standard Uninyvin cables twisted together during manufacture. Used only
in 3 phase circuits. With each cable having a red, yellow or blue tracer.
• Uninyvin-Metsheath
A screened cable used in ratio and fuel quantity measurement systems.
• Uninyvinal
Has aluminium conductor. Used in larger gauge cables to save weight.

Tersil
A fire resistant cable having greater flexibility than Nyvin. Available in similar forms as
Nyvin. Used on landing gear and other areas where movement of the cable is necessary.
Exterior finish is orange.

Module 6.11 Electrical Cables and Connectors 11.29

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© Copyright 2016 Training Purpose Only Rev.01 – 31 March 2016
 Fepsil
A fire resistant cable which has replaced TERSIL in some instances. Exterior finish is
green.

Efglas
A high temperature resistant cable used in some engine circuits. Exterior finish is grey.

Kapton
A series of AWG cables with a very high degree of insulation. Kapton cables employed the
use of PTFE sleeving over thin layers of insulation. They were recognised by the ‘thin wall’
of insulation which was usually a tarnished yellow in colour. Kapton cables have been
superseded by ACT-260 and were/are mainly used on B747-100/200, Tristar, Concorde
and older A320 aircraft.

KP 150
A modern general purpose cable. Has large saving in weight and space over Nyvin.

BMS 13-13
(Boeing Materials Specification) cable is an American equivalent to Nyvin. Single cables are
coloured white; Doubles: red and blue, Triples: red, yellow and blue.

BMS 13-42
An earlier cable performing similar function to the British KP 150. Replaced by BMS 13-48.
Used on older B747’s.

11.30 Module 6.11 Electrical Cables and Connectors

Turkish Technic Inc.
Rev.01 – 31 March 2016 Training Purpose Only © Copyright 2016
 BMS 13-51
Used on Tristar, Concorde, B737, B747, B747- 400 and B757. Replaced by ACT-260.

ACT-260
A recent cable having a high degree of Arc Track Resistance. Used on ATP. Replaced by
KP 260.

Ratchem 44A
A recent replacement for Minivin. Used on HS 748.

Co-axial
Used in radio aerial circuits and fuel measurement circuits.

Note: The length of cable, and hence the impedance is critical in these circuits due to the
capacitance effect.

Module 6.11 Electrical Cables and Connectors 11.31

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© Copyright 2016 Training Purpose Only Rev.01 – 31 March 2016
 Thermocouple Cable
Used as cold junction compensation cables or as extension cable.

The correct cable combination must be used in thermocouple circuits and the coloured
insulation denotes the material of each conductor. These cables are always manufactured
as a pair.

11.32 Module 6.11 Electrical Cables and Connectors

Turkish Technic Inc.
Rev.01 – 31 March 2016 Training Purpose Only © Copyright 2016
 Cable Coding

General
A modern aircraft contains miles and miles of cable and cable. It is therefore important that
we can identify individual cables easily.

Nowadays most aircraft manufacturers have adopted a method of coding cables and cable
which conforms to the ATA 100 specification. This method is often referred to as 'series
coding'.

The code number appears on the wiring diagrams, cables lists and other electrical or
electronic drawings. The code number is imprinted at regular intervals on the cable or cable
itself. Alternatively an identification sleeve may be used.

On modern cables the code is imprinted onto the cables. This is achieved by a method
known as 'hot stamping'. As the name suggests this method uses a machine to bur onto the
insulation the cable code. For operators employing this coding method it is vital that they
are aware of risk degrading the insulation properties of the cable. Therefore any cable
which has been hot stamped must undergo stringent insulation testing.

There are several tests available and are detailed in BS G230 Test 16. In essence it is a
simple test involving placing the stamp cable against a metal surface and applying a high
voltage source. The IR value for a new cable should be close to infinity.

It is important to note that stamp printing may only be applied to cables and sizes which
have been certified as capable of accepting such markings.

Module 6.11 Electrical Cables and Connectors 11.33

Turkish Technic Inc.
© Copyright 2016 Training Purpose Only Rev.01 – 31 March 2016
 Construction of the Code

Cable Number Prefix

The first four digits of the code is the cable number prefix and identifies the aircraft system
to which the cable is connected. This number will also cross reference to its associated
ATA system number.

Cable Number
A dash separates the ATA number prefix from the cable number. A cable number
consisting of a maximum of 5 digits is used to differentiate between cables, cables or
coaxial cables in a particular subsystem.

A different cable number is used for each conductor not sharing a common connection.
Notice that both cables shown in the diagram have the same cable number. This is
because there is a permanent connection between the two cables. If there were a switch or
relay contact between the two cables then the cable number would change because in this
case there would not be a permanent connection between them.

11.34 Module 6.11 Electrical Cables and Connectors

Turkish Technic Inc.
Rev.01 – 31 March 2016 Training Purpose Only © Copyright 2016
 Cable Segment Letter
In the case where two cables were permanently connected, such as in a terminal block, or
a splice, the cable number didn't change. We still need to discriminate between these two
cables. We use a letter for this purpose.

A different letter is used for each segment sharing a common terminal or connection and
having the same 4 digit ATA number. Where practicable, segments are lettered in
alphabetical sequence and the letter A identifies the first segment starting at the signal
and/or power source.

The letters I and O are not used. Double letters AA, AB, AC . . . . ., BA, BB, BC, . . .etc., are
used when more than 24 segments are required. Segments joined by a permanent splice
have different segment letters assigned to them.

Cable Gauge
The cable or cable size number is used to identify the American Cable Gauge (AWG) size
of the cable or cable. The cable size number is not normally included for coaxial cables. For
thermocouple cables a dash is used instead of the cable size number.

The cable gauge is not shown on a wiring diagram if a note similar to the following appears.

Note:
All cables are 20 gauge unless otherwise specified.

Ground, Phase or Thermocouple Letter

The letter 'N' (ground or earth) is used as a suffix to the cable identification code to identify
a segment of a cable or cable that is a part of the ground network.

The phase letters 'A', 'B' and 'C' are used as suffixes to the cable or cable identification
code on all cables segments carrying three phase ac power from the source of power up to
and including the aircraft item using the three phase ac power.

The phase letter 'V' is used as a suffix to the identification code to identify all segments of
the high voltage side of a single phase power circuit.

When a suffix letter such as N, indicating a ground cable is a part of the cable identification
code and the cable gauge is indicated in the wiring diagram note, a dash is inserted before
the suffix letter.

Example: 3135-27B-N
The following suffixes are used for thermocouple identification.

CHROM - CHROMEL
IRON - IRON
ALML - ALUMEL
COP - COPPER
CONST - CONSTANTAN

Module 6.11 Electrical Cables and Connectors 11.35

Turkish Technic Inc.
© Copyright 2016 Training Purpose Only Rev.01 – 31 March 2016
 Although the series code is an internationally accepted standard for identifying cables and
cables it does suffer from a distinct disadvantage in that you can't determine to which
pieces of equipment a particular cable is connected without referring to the Wiring Diagram
Manual. Some earlier aircraft types employed a method of cable identification which would
help you find where a particular cable terminated.

The ATA 100 Specification basic coding consists of a six position combination of letters
and numbers, which are printed on the outer covering of the cable. The identification code
is normally printed at specified intervals along the length of the cable. When printing is not
practical the code is printed on non-metallic sleeves and positioned along the cable

 Position 1 – Unit number, used where the component shave identical circuits
 Position 2 – Circuit function letter and circuit designation letter which indicate the
circuit function and the associated system
 Position 3 – Cable number, allocated to differentiate between cables which do not
have a common terminal in the same circuit. Generally, contacts of switches, relays
etc. are not classified as common terminals. Beginning with the number 1, a
different number is given to each cable.
 Position 4 – Cable segment number, which identifies the segment of cable between
two terminals or connections, and differentiates between segments of the circuit
when the same cable number is used throughout. Segments are lettered in
alphabetical sequence, excluding the letters I and O. A different letter is used for
each of the cable segments having a common terminal or connection.
 Position 5 – Cable size
 Position 6 – Suffix data, used to indicate the type of cable and to identify its
connection function. For example, in the sample code NMS V indicates Nyvin-
metsheath ungrounded cable in a single phase system.

11.36 Module 6.11 Electrical Cables and Connectors

Turkish Technic Inc.
Rev.01 – 31 March 2016 Training Purpose Only © Copyright 2016
 This example shows another typical code.

The last letter relates to the function of the system to which the cable relates. The Table
below shows the other functions

AC Power X
De-icing and anti-icing D
Engine control K
Engine instruments E
Flight control C
Fuel and oil Q
Ground network N
Heating and ventilation H
Ignition J
Inverter control V
Lighting L
Miscellaneous M
Power P
Radio navigation and R
communication
Warning devices W
Function code letters

Module 6.11 Electrical Cables and Connectors 11.37

Turkish Technic Inc.
© Copyright 2016 Training Purpose Only Rev.01 – 31 March 2016
 Applicable Requirements
The applicable airworthiness code will depend on the type of aircraft in which the cable is to
be installed. EASA Certification (CS) 25 provides the wiring specifications for Large Aircraft.

EASA CS-25
25.1309 Equipment, Systems and Installation
25.1353 Electrical Equipment and Installation
25.1355 Distribution System
25.1359 Electrical System Fire and Smoke Protection

11.38 Module 6.11 Electrical Cables and Connectors

Turkish Technic Inc.
Rev.01 – 31 March 2016 Training Purpose Only © Copyright 2016
 Cable Stripping

General
The majority of electrical cables in present day use are insulated with materials that have
been developed to have great mechanical strength as well as other properties.

Several types of stripping tools have been designed to strip the insulation layer from cable
prior to terminal crimping, however it is essential that only the correct tool is used.

The Aircraft Maintenance Manual details all the correct approved tools which must be
adhered to when carrying out any crimping task on the aircraft.

Failure to use the correct approved tool will inevitably result in:

 A reduction in the current carrying capacity or rating of the cable if strands are
lost.
 A reduction in the insulation protection of the cable.
 Unacceptable mechanical or electrical characteristics of the completed cable
terminal.

The Stripping Tool

An approved stripping tool should be visually inspected before use and a test crimp carried
out on each size of cable to be stripped.

The tool should be considered suspect and appropriate action taken if on inspection the
following characteristics are evident.

 Bruised, nicked or severed conductor strands.

 Kinks in the conductor or cable adjacent to the terminal.
 Ragged cuts to the insulation or protective sleeving.

There are commonly four types of cable strippers available which are:

Module 6.11 Electrical Cables and Connectors 11.39

Turkish Technic Inc.
© Copyright 2016 Training Purpose Only Rev.01 – 31 March 2016
  Single Blade
A rotary device which cuts around the cable.

 Double Blade
A four action device which is a high precision cut and strip tool.

 Thermal
Removes the insulation by melting.

 Abrasive
Grinds off hard insulation (e.g. Enamel)

11.40 Module 6.11 Electrical Cables and Connectors

Turkish Technic Inc.
Rev.01 – 31 March 2016 Training Purpose Only © Copyright 2016
 Stripping Tools – Double Blade Action
The cut and pull action of the double blade cable strippers is in five stages. Each of the
stages are independent, however they are co-ordinated by the use of mechanical handle
interlocks.

Because high tolerance mechanical interlocks are used, the strippers must be kept clean
and free from any debris.

The stages are as follows:

Relaxed - Cable grip and cutters open.

Half Pressure - Cable grip secures cable and the blades cut insulation.
Full Pressure - Cutters and grips are separated, severed insulation drawn from the
conductor.
Half Released - Grips and cutters open, releasing the cable.
Fully Released - Grips and cutters snap back together.

Following the Stripping Action

Remove any glass fibre strands or discarded cable.

Re-impose the lay with a gentle twist then inspect the cable for the following:

 Severed or nicked strands

 Kinks
 Correct insulation strip length
 Damage to insulation

Module 6.11 Electrical Cables and Connectors 11.41

Turkish Technic Inc.
© Copyright 2016 Training Purpose Only Rev.01 – 31 March 2016
11.42 Module 6.11 Electrical Cables and Connectors
Turkish Technic Inc.
Rev.01 – 31 March 2016 Training Purpose Only © Copyright 2016
 Stripping Tools - Thermal
A thermal tool is more popular with equipment cable because if used properly it offers no
damage to the conductor. Its drawback is that it must not be used with PTFE as it gives off
poisonous fumes.

It is a 28V DC tool, capable of stripping up to 4mm cable. The scissor blades are heated
and melt the insulation. They are then rotated through 180° and the insulation is easily
pulled off. When inspecting the cable, it is important that there are no strands of insulation
drawn up the conductor.

Module 6.11 Electrical Cables and Connectors 11.43

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© Copyright 2016 Training Purpose Only Rev.01 – 31 March 2016
 Intentionally Blank

11.44 Module 6.11 Electrical Cables and Connectors

Turkish Technic Inc.
Rev.01 – 31 March 2016 Training Purpose Only © Copyright 2016
 Cable Termination
AMP Terminals
To ensure the reliability of aircraft general purpose wiring, the method used to terminate the
cables should be such that the mechanical and electrical properties of the joint are of a
controlled quality. E.g. A strong mechanical joint with good electrical conductivity (the
resistance of which is equal to or less than an equivalent length of cable).

There are several methods by which cable terminations may be made but the most
commonly used method is the solderless or crimped termination. Although soldered
terminating is still used it is becoming rare on aircraft and is generally confined to internal
wiring of equipment.

A large number of cable terminations are made by attaching a “terminal” to the end of a
prepared cable using a process known as CRIMPING. This enables a cable to be
connected to a terminal block or attachment point.

There are several advantages in using 'crimps':

 Good conductivity.
 Uniformity of operation.
 Strength of connection.
 Corrosion proof.

Examples of both Ring Tongue Terminals and In Line Splices are shown below.

Module 6.11 Electrical Cables and Connectors 11.45

Turkish Technic Inc.
© Copyright 2016 Training Purpose Only Rev.01 – 31 March 2016
 Crimping of AMP Terminals
Crimping is a process where deliberate distortion of the terminal shank is used to secure
the terminal to the conductor.

The crimp is formed by an overall compression of the shank of the terminal onto the
conductor, this results in a “cold flow” of metal between the shank and the conductor. The
resulting single mass has good Electrical and Mechanical properties. These are sometimes
known as 'confined crimps'.

Ideally the crimp should be round, but in practice a hexagonal shape has been found to
yield excellent results, at the same time lending itself conveniently to the manufacture of
crimping dies. Moreover, it is a form of crimp uniformly applicable to large and small cable
sizes and to aluminium as well as copper conductors.

The most common terminals used are the “AIRCRAFT MARINE PRODUCTS” (AMP) and
are usually of the “Pre-Insulated Diamond Grip” (PIDG) type.

The quality of the completed crimped terminal can only be determined and assured when
the recommended procedure is strictly adhered to and the correct tools, detailed in the
relevant manuals, identified and used.

AMP Terminals all have plastic or nylon insulating sleeves covering the shank or barrel.
The sleeves are colour coded, with the colour relating to the appropriate crimping tool size.
The correct size crimping tool is identified by a coloured sleeve on its operating handle
which will match that of the termination.

This will be looked at in greater detail later in this section.

Note: PIDG terminals are approved for use in aircraft and have a superior grip due to the
use of a copper sleeve insert.

The tongue design and size will depend totally upon the size and location of the terminating
stud with which it is to mate. Two of the more common forms are the ring and the fork.

11.46 Module 6.11 Electrical Cables and Connectors

Turkish Technic Inc.
Rev.01 – 31 March 2016 Training Purpose Only © Copyright 2016
 Following are examples of cable terminals and associated tools, used as a basis for a
standard range of terminals for use in applications where temperatures (for aircraft
electrical cables up to 650ºF) exceed those permitted for the general purpose range of
cables.

The example covers ring tongue heat resistant nickel plated terminals and associated
crimping tools.

Cable sizes quoted in the attached lists relate to the cable specifications mentioned in the
paragraph above, which control conductor and overall dimensions. Should cables outside
these ranges be used, care must be taken to check dimensions prior to crimping to ensure
that the relevant diameters are consistent with those recommended for the terminals
chosen. A check of specimen crimped terminations is recommended.

In isolated cases the insulation grip when crimped may impede installation on terminal
blocks or components. In such cases it may be permissible to remove the nickel silver
sleeve forming the insulation grip, prior to crimping. When this is done it becomes essential
to crimp with the Solistrand type tool No 49935-B or 46447 both of which cater for the three
sizes: 22-16,16-14 and 12-10.
CAUTION: CRIMPING TOOLS MUST BE REGARDED AS PRECISION TOOLS AND SHALL NOT BE USED
ON CABLES AND TERMINATIONS OUTSIDE THE RANGE FOR WHICH THEYARE APPROVED E.G. NO
TERMINAL OTHER OTHAN THOSE OF AMP MANUFACTURE SHALL BE CRIMPED BY AN AMP TOOL.

No AMP terminals shall be crimped by any tool other than its associated AMP.

No colour identification is provided on nickel plated terminals so careful segregation must

be maintained at all times by stores and production personnel to avoid confusion with tin-
plated terminals.

Module 6.11 Electrical Cables and Connectors 11.47

Turkish Technic Inc.
© Copyright 2016 Training Purpose Only Rev.01 – 31 March 2016
 All crimping tools in use, whether listed herein, or not, should be periodically tested in
accordance with the relevant requirements.

Terminals and crimping tools are listed in the tables provided, for illustration purposes only.
The relevant approved information should always be used when carrying out any task.

11.48 Module 6.11 Electrical Cables and Connectors

Turkish Technic Inc.
Rev.01 – 31 March 2016 Training Purpose Only © Copyright 2016
 At the time of writing, Terminal Catalogue P/No 323067 is to be replaced by a new part
number.

The relevant approved information should always be used when carrying out any
task.

Module 6.11 Electrical Cables and Connectors 11.49

Turkish Technic Inc.
© Copyright 2016 Training Purpose Only Rev.01 – 31 March 2016
11.50 Module 6.11 Electrical Cables and Connectors
Turkish Technic Inc.
Rev.01 – 31 March 2016 Training Purpose Only © Copyright 2016
 Crimping Tools
The special tool used for crimping AMP terminals has four important design features to
ensure a constant quality of completed crimp joint:

 Certi-crimp ratchet
 Locator
 Insulation adjusting pins
 Colour and dot coding

Certi-Crimp Ratchet
This ensures the bottoming of the die jaws before the jaws can be opened again. Thus
ensuring that the crimp has been completed and preventing under crimping.

Locator
This “holds” the terminal in the correct position in the die jaws and allows the conductor
strands to protrude 1/32" from the terminal barrel, when the cable is fully inserted.

Insulation Adjusting Pins

To allow for variation in insulation diameter and wear in the tool, the insulation die head has
three degrees of adjustment.

 Loose, (No 3 selected)

 Medium, (No 2 selected)
 Tight, (No 1 selected)

Colour and Dot Coding

The "dot" coding system is needed to identify terminals which have been crimped in the
correct AMP hand tool and that the terminals correctly positioned in the tool e.g., if a red
terminal is crimped in a red handled tool, a single dot impression will be left on the
insulation at the barrel end.

The tools have colour coded handles to specify the size range and a different dot code for
each tool:

Colour Size/Range Dot Code

Yellow 26-22 One
Red 22-16 One
Blue 16-14 Two
Yellow 12-10 One

Since this tool is a PRECISION TERMINATING TOOL it must be subjected to regularly

prescribed checks and have a validity label showing dates of last and next check. If the test
date has expired the tool must be considered unserviceable and returned for check.

Module 6.11 Electrical Cables and Connectors 11.51

Turkish Technic Inc.
© Copyright 2016 Training Purpose Only Rev.01 – 31 March 2016
 AMP Crimping Tool
The AMP hand crimping tool shown, is one of the most common type found in the Industry.
The pliers have a self-locking ratchet whilst the handles are colour coded in red, blue or
yellow for cross reference to AWG. In addition the AWG is stamped on the plier jaws. The
colour code and AWG cross references to the actual crimp which is pre-insulated with a
red, blue or yellow sleeve. Also marked on the jaws are the letters PIDG, this refers to the
characteristic of the completed crimp: Pre-Insulated Diamond Grip.

11.52 Module 6.11 Electrical Cables and Connectors

Turkish Technic Inc.
Rev.01 – 31 March 2016 Training Purpose Only © Copyright 2016
 Crimping Procedure

Preparation of Tool
1. Insert insulation adjustment pins into the No 3 position.
2. Locate termination in crimping jaws.
3. Insert an UNSTRIPPED cable into the insulation grip portion of the termination only,
i.e., length “C”.
4. Close handles until certi-crimp ratchet releases.
5. Remove termination and check insulation support as follows: bend the cable back
and forth through 90° once, the terminal sleeve should retain its grip in the cable
insulation.
6. If the cable can be pulled out, set the insulation adjustment pins to the next tightest
position (No 2).

Repeat items 3 to 6.

If required repeat with pins in position No 1.

Note: Always ensure that both insulation adjustment pins are selected to the same position
number.

Insulation Crimping Adjustment

The Double Action Hand Tool has three Insulation Crimping Adjustments. See diagram.

 Position No 3 is for cable having a Large Insulation Diameter.

 Position No 2 is for cable having a Medium Insulation Diameter.

 Position No 1 is for cable having a Small Insulation Diameter.

When making adjustments, make sure that both Insulation Adjustment Pins are in the same
position.

Module 6.11 Electrical Cables and Connectors 11.53

Turkish Technic Inc.
© Copyright 2016 Training Purpose Only Rev.01 – 31 March 2016
 Colour Code
High Temperature Terminals are Colour Coded Orange.
Heat Resistant Terminals ARE NOT COLOUR CODED.

Hashmark Code
A Hashmark Code, see diagram, will appear on the bottom (side opposite crimp indents) of
High Temperature and Heat Resistant Terminals when crimped in the correct AMP Tooling.

11.54 Module 6.11 Electrical Cables and Connectors

Turkish Technic Inc.
Rev.01 – 31 March 2016 Training Purpose Only © Copyright 2016
 Preparation of Cables

 Using approved stripping tool, remove specific length of insulation as indicated

below.
 Inspect stripped end for severed or damaged conductor strands.

 Select the appropriate terminal for the size of cable being terminated and to suit the
stud size of the terminal fitting.
 Select a tool by reference to the colour of the terminal. Check cable size range
stamped on tool face.
 Inspect the tool for serviceability and adjust the insulation crimping adjustment pins
as detailed in the previous paragraph “Preparation of Tool”.
 Insert the terminal into the jaws so that the barrel rests against the locator as in the
diagram.

Module 6.11 Electrical Cables and Connectors 11.55

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© Copyright 2016 Training Purpose Only Rev.01 – 31 March 2016
  Squeeze handles until the terminal is lightly gripped by the jaws.
 Insert prepared cable end into terminal barrel ensuring that all conductor strands
enter.
 Conductor strands must be laying together to allow for 100% insertion, if the lay of
the strands is disturbed they should be re-imposed with a light twist.

Note: Excessive twisting should be avoided as this increases the conductor

diameter.

 Ensure that no insulating materials enter the wrong area of the crimp.
 When fully inserted the conductor should extend beyond the barrel by approximately
1/32".
 Hold cable in position and crimp by squeezing handles until ratchet releases.
 Remove completed crimped joint and inspect for correct protrusion of conductor and
the correctly formed dot code.

Cable Stripping

 Strip cable as shown in diagram.

 Insulation Crimping Adjustment The AMP Hand Tool has three Insulation Crimping
Adjustments. See diagram.

Position No 3 is for cable having a Large Insulation Diameter.

Position No 2 is for cable having a Medium Insulation Diameter.
Position No 1 is for cable having a Small Insulation Diameter.

 To make adjustment, pull Pin out and push it all the way into desired hole.

Crimping Procedure

 To open Crimping Jaws, squeeze handles until Certi-Crimp Ratchet, see diagram,
releases. Open Handles all the way.
 Place terminal in Crimping Jaws as shown in diagram.
 Squeeze Handles until Terminal is held firmly in place, do not deform Terminal
Barrel. Note that once Certi-Crimp Ratchet is engaged, Handles cannot be opened.
 Insert stripped cable into Terminal Barrel.
 Hold cable in position and complete crimp by SQUEEZING Handles until Certi-Crimp
Ratchet releases.

11.56 Module 6.11 Electrical Cables and Connectors

Turkish Technic Inc.
Rev.01 – 31 March 2016 Training Purpose Only © Copyright 2016
 Foot Pump

Operating Instructions

NOTE: Foot pump should only be used in horizontal position.

a. Remove Cap from end of Hose. Pump Foot Pedal slowly until oil appears at end of
hose.
b. Attach Crimping Head to Hose. See instruction sheet packaged with Crimping Head.
c. Place Terminal in Dies. See instructions Sheet packaged with Crimping Head.
d. Lift up Reset Pedal and then push it down.
e. Pump Foot Pedal until Ram in Crimping Head advances and holds Terminal in place. Do
not deform Terminal barrel.
f. Insert stripped cable. See instruction sheet packaged with Crimping Head.
g. Pump Foot Pedal until Internal Bypass Valve opens and Ram in Crimping Head returns
to neutral position.
h. Open Latch on Crimping Head and remove crimped Terminal.
i. Before next crimp is made, push Reset Pedal down then follows steps e, f and g
above.

Module 6.11 Electrical Cables and Connectors 11.57

Turkish Technic Inc.
© Copyright 2016 Training Purpose Only Rev.01 – 31 March 2016
11.58 Module 6.11 Electrical Cables and Connectors
Turkish Technic Inc.
Rev.01 – 31 March 2016 Training Purpose Only © Copyright 2016
 Crimping Head

Crimping Head 69069 Used With Foot Pump 69064

The AMP Crimping Head No. 69069 was designed for Portable Hand Operated use. When
used as a portable Unit, the Crimping Head is mounted on extension hoses to provide a
large working radius and accessibility to confined areas. See diagram.

The Head No 69069, in diagram, crimps Terminals on No 8, 6, 4 and 2 cable. It contains a

single Lower Die (Indenter) and an adjustable 4 position Upper Die (Nest).

NOTE: If you wish to place a guide mark on cylinder to help locate flat after collar has
been attached, use pencil or paints. Do not punch, file or scribe a mark.

 Attach Crimping Head to Power Unit Foot Pump P/No 69064.

 Clean area around Collar on Handle Control and Hose Assembly or Crimping Head
Coupling.
 Remove the Plastic Cap and Clean threaded Base of Crimping Head.

NOTE: It is important that all threaded fittings be thoroughly cleaned before they are
assembled. Any foreign matter entering the oil system could result in poor
performance.

Module 6.11 Electrical Cables and Connectors 11.59

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© Copyright 2016 Training Purpose Only Rev.01 – 31 March 2016
 Crimping Head
 Loosen Set Screw in Collar on either Handle Control or Hose Coupling. See
diagram.
 Screw Collar onto threaded Base of Crimping Head as far as it will go.
 Tighten Set Screw until threads are touched. ‘Back-off’ Collar until Set Screw
engages flat on threaded Base of Crimping Head.
 Tighten Set Screw.

To remove Head, loosen Set Screw and thread Handle or Hose Collar off Crimping Head.

NOTE: If desired, a Guide Mark may be placed on the Crimping Head Cylinder to help
locate the flat after Collar has been attached. Use pencil or paint. DO NOT
PUNCH, FILE OR SCRIBE A MARK. See diagram. If a Guide Mark is used on
Cylinder Head as far as it will go. Then “Back-off’ collar until Set Screw on Collar
is lined up with Guide Mark of Cylinder Base. Tighten Set Screw.

Cable Stripping
Strip cable as shown in the diagram (example only).

11.60 Module 6.11 Electrical Cables and Connectors

Turkish Technic Inc.
Rev.01 – 31 March 2016 Training Purpose Only © Copyright 2016
 In-Line Connectors

General
Sometimes known as splices, these connectors are provided to join two cables. The butt
type is essentially two crimping barrels in series, one conductor entering and being crimped
at each end. The parallel type is a single crimping barrel long enough to accept and be
crimped on two conductors, which may enter from opposite ends or at the same end. Three
or four way connectors can also be designed.

Use of Crimped Splices in Aircraft Electrical Cables

The insertion of a crimped splice is the normal method of repairing a single core electrical
cable when the repair cannot be effected by re-terminating the cable and it is not
considered necessary to replace the cable in its entirety. Additionally, when so authorised in
a modification leaflet or other approved instruction, a crimped splice may be used to
connect an extension to an existing single core cable.

A crimped splice is NEVER to be used in a multicore cable.

Use Forbidden
A crimped splice is not to be used in a cable which is:

 Larger than size 6 or carries more than 240V ac RMS.

 In a designated fire zone.
 In an area subject to flexing.
 A thermocouple or coaxial table.
 The connection between a bonded earth stud and an earth terminal block.
 A cable or circuit specified by the CAA as not permitting in-line crimped splices e.g.
Autopilot and Fire Protection circuits.

Subject to the above restrictions, operators may use a crimped splice as the method of
effecting a permanent repair to an aircraft single core cable.

The following techniques and conditions must be observed:

 Approved tools and appropriate sized materials are to be used in the jointing
process.
 Each barrel of a crimped splice is to contain one cable only.
 After crimping, the LAE undertaking the task is to inspect the joint for freedom of
faults and correct size identification.
 The cable circuit coding is to be fitted adjacent to the splice using printed marker
sleeves or appropriate marker.

Module 6.11 Electrical Cables and Connectors 11.61

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© Copyright 2016 Training Purpose Only Rev.01 – 31 March 2016
 Location of Splices

 The distance between crimped splices in the same cable run is not to be less than
500 mm.
 The maximum number of crimped splices in any 3 metre cable run is 2.
 Crimped splices are not to be located under clips and ties.
 The position of crimped splices made in adjacent cables is to be such that the
splices cannot come into contact with one another.
 An in-line crimped splice is not to be made in a curved table form having a radius of
less than 3 times the overall length of the heat shrinkable tubing to the used for the
splice.

Support of In-Line Splices

An in-line splice in an unloomed cable is to be supported on each side of the splice by clips
or ties to a suitable structure, whilst one in a loomed cable is to be similarly supported by
clips or ties to the loom.

The crimping procedure for an in-line crimp is very much the same as the ring tongue with a
few additions:

Crimp Selection
AWG is not the only factor to be considered, the environment in which the crimp exists is
very important, e.g. in an undercarriage bay where it may be exposed to the element of in
an engine bay where it is subjected to high degrees of temperature. There is a selection of
environmental crimps available.

11.62 Module 6.11 Electrical Cables and Connectors

Turkish Technic Inc.
Rev.01 – 31 March 2016 Training Purpose Only © Copyright 2016
 Crimping Action
Because a splice is a dual crimp it is vital that during the crimping action that the cable and
splice always enter the tool in the correct manner, this may mean turning the cable through
180º an impossible solution on the aircraft which can only be resolved by reversal of the
tool.
 Remove completed crimped joint and inspect. Select the required in-line splice and a
tool of the same colour coding.
 Adjust the insulation crimping adjustment pins as detailed in “preparation of tool”.
 Insert in-line splice into crimping jaws until properly located.
 Squeeze handles until in-line splice is lightly gripped.
 Insert prepared cable into terminal barrel. When inserted the conductors should be
visible in the inspection window, touching the bridge but not crossing it.
 Hold cable in position and complete crimping operation.
 Inspect for correct formation of completed crimp.
 Insert other end of in-line splice into jaws until properly located.
 Complete crimping operation by repeating the above operation.

Module 6.11 Electrical Cables and Connectors 11.63

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© Copyright 2016 Training Purpose Only Rev.01 – 31 March 2016
 Kapton Cables
An earlier section introduced us to the new types of cables in use on modern aircraft.

Cable types such as Kapton (series) have been introduced on aircraft because of the
increased requirement for space and weight saving. They offer a high degree of protection,
whilst using only a thin wall of insulation.

Compared to older types of cable such as Minyvin, the cross-sectional area of the Kapton
(series) is approximately half.

Kapton series cables have two or more layers of insulation, the innermost being a very thin
layer with a tarnished yellow/brown colour which can be mistaken for the conductor under
certain circumstances. It is for this reason that great care must be taken when crimping to
ensure that all the insulation has been removed.

Special cable strippers are required when carrying out crimping tasks on the Kapton series,
and have a very high tolerance on their cutting jaws.

They are identified by an indent code stamped onto each jaw at manufacture, yet look for
all intents and purposes the same as any other set of cable strippers.

Kapton cable strippers may be used for other types of cable however it must be noted:

ONLY USE APPROVED STRIPPERS ON KAPTON SERIES CABLE!

Due to KAPTON cable only having a thin wall of insulation, problems can be encountered
with the insulation being trapped under the conductor crimp.

To ensure this problem does not occur, an improved type of crimp terminal known as the
RESTRICTED ENTRY has been introduced.

Restricted Entry Terminal

The restricted entry terminal uses an inner sleeve which has a higher tolerance than normal
terminals and allows only the conductor to enter through to the conductor crimp section of
the terminal.

Note: Restricted entry terminals do not grip on the insulation they only crimp on the
conductor.

Restricted entry terminals are identified by a thin coloured band along their barrel, the
colour of which related to the size of the restriction and is found by reference to Boeing
Wiring Practices Manual Chapter 20.

It is essential to use the correct termination for the cable in use.

The diagram below shows a cross section through a restricted entry crimp.

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 Other Information
It may be that on certain aircraft system aluminium cable is used, the crimp procedure is the
same with one addition: an anti-oxidising agent must be spread over the crimp or in some
cases the crimp has built in agent which secretes over the conductor during crimping.

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 Sealing of Electrical Pressure Bungs

Introduction
A pressure bung is the seal between the pressurised and non-pressurised areas of the
aircraft. Its purpose is to prevent the de pressurisation of the aircraft, whilst allowing cables
to pass through the pressure bulkheads.

Description
A pressure bung is a two piece device designed to provide a support for sealing compound
which plugs the loom access hole through the pressure bulkhead.

It is manufactured from rigid plastic and the two halves mate using location dowels to
provide positive locking when the bung is secured to the bulkhead.

It is also designed to provide a reasonable degree of flexibility when installing or removing

cables.

The figure below illustrates an electrical loom pressure bung.

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 Assembly
The cables are passed through the pressure bung and structure as the loom is built up and
run into place.

The loom should be completed prior to the pressure bung being sealed, preferably to a
point where the system is considered serviceable.

Where this is not possible, then continuity and insulation resistance checks must be carried
out between the loom breaks fwd and aft of the pressure bung on all concerned systems
prior to the bung being sealed.

It can be a long and difficult task to unseal a pressure bung once the sealant has solidified.
It is therefore much better to know that the cables routing and connection is complete
before starting to seal the bung.

With the cables ready to be sealed they should be prepared in accordance with the relevant
maintenance manual. This is normally includes cleaning and separating the cables.

The fitting should now be taped on both sides using 1 inch wide masking tape. Strong string
should be used as method of removing the tape at a later date.

The pressure bung is now sealed using the approved sealant which is injected through a
hole made in the tape.

The bung should be left for about 16 to 24 hours to set, after this time the tape can be
removed by pulling the string, this completes the making of a pressure bung, however
aircraft pressurisation checks will have to be carried out prior to the aircraft release.

The diagrams illustrate the assembly of multiple seal points. The process is similar for
single or multiple points however we have to seal the edges of the filler plate when working
on multiple point seals.

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11.68 Module 6.11 Electrical Cables and Connectors
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 Pressure Bungs
Pressure bungs permit the passing of unbroken lengths of cables through pressure
bulkheads whilst maintaining a seal between either sides of bulkhead. The pressure bung
housing is flanged and threaded and the holes vary in size to accommodate cables of
various diameters.

The cables are a tight fit in the bung holes which when fully loaded and forced into its
housing by the clamp nut is compressed tightly around the cables. All uncabled holes are
sealed by fitting the appropriate size of filler plug.

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 Method of Wiring of Pressure Bungs

Preparation
Pressure bungs should be cabled with the correct size of threading tool and the fitting of
cables through pressure bung holes, is that the bore diameter and the cable threads should
be as near as possible, whilst allowing the cable to slide through easily.

A small amount of Hellerine Grade M lubricant should be used on the cable threader to
allow for easy piercing of the holes and to ease withdrawal of the threader after cable is
fitted.

All races of the lubricant shall be removed from the bung insert and the housing mating
surfaces before assembly, using a clean cloth, moistened with approved cleaning fluid
(Arklone 'P', Methanol or ISOPROPANOL).

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 After final installation of the bung and a satisfactory pressure test, secure the coupling nut
to the bung with a small fillet of Thiokol (PR1422BT-1/2 or PR1422BT-2).

It is recommended that wiring is from the centre, working outwards. Where the housing is
not assembled to the aircraft structure, loosely assemble the bung into the housing before
wiring.
Fit removable nose to cable threader, lubricate and pierce required hole in bung. Remove
nose from cable threader and pass cable through.

PULL CABLE TO CORRECT DIMENSION IN BUNG BEFORE REMOVING TOOL

This is most important because pulling the cable through the bung can damage the cable
insulation.

Fill all holes not cabled to filler plugs of correct size to ensure sufficient seat.

Form cables into neat looms each side of the bung without crossovers.

Where pressure bungs are cabled and cable is subsequently deleted, to maintain seal, cut
cable 6" - 9" each side of the bung and fit a ¾" - 1" plain sleeve at each end.

Bung inserts will normally be selected with holes of correct size to suit cables. Should it be
necessary to fit cables into larger than the recommended holes, suitable packing sleeve
may be fitted to maintain seal.

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 Inspection
 Check that the correct bore diameter of threading tool is being used.
 Check that the wiring is done from the centre, working outwards.
 Check that the cable has been pulled to the correct dimension in the bung before the
removal of the tool.
 Check that all holes not cabled are fitted with filler plugs or cable of correct size to
seal efficiently.
 Check that the cables have not been damaged.

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 Intentionally Blank

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 Wire Locking of Electrical Connectors

Introduction
Aircraft systems and components are subject to vibration. Over time this vibration can
cause components and connectors to work loose producing system failure endangering
lives.

To prevent this happening, connectors are provided with a positive locking mechanism.

The positive locking mechanism takes the form of:

 Bayonet coupling or
 Ratchet release or
 Locking wire on threaded couplings.

Wire locking on connectors takes the same standard as used with any other component
fitted to aircraft. e.g., number of turns per inch, the angle of approach and the tangential
angle.

Note: It must be noted that these standards may change with the change in aircraft
manufacturer.

As well as locking the connector to the equipment, wire locking is also used to prevent the
cable clamp screws becoming loose under vibration.

Note: It should be noted that any threaded connector in an un-pressurised areas that is not
self-locking, must be wire locked and any connector clamp in an unpressurised area must
be wire locked.

The diagram illustrates the angle of approach of a wire locked connector.

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 The Exception
Any threaded connector in an un-pressurised area that is not self-locking must be wire
locked.

The figure below illustrates the assembly of safety wire on the cable clamp.

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 Electrical Terminal Blocks

Introduction
The joining of separate sections of cable is usually accomplished by means of terminal
strips. Because the possibility of cross connection of cables exists at a terminal strip, it is
essential to obtain positive identification of the cable segment and the appropriate terminal
stud, by reference to the wiring diagram before connection.

Construction
The joining of separate sections of cable is usually accomplished by means of terminal
strips. Because the possibility of cross connection of cables exists at a terminal strip, it is
essential to obtain positive identification of the cable segment and the appropriate terminal
stud, by reference to the wiring diagram before connection. A terminal strip is made of a
strong insulating material with metal studs inserted through or moulded into it.

The studs are of sufficient length to accommodate four terminals and are normally insulated
from each other.

The stud sizes must be adequate to withstand the stresses imposed during installation and
tightening of the nut. In practice 10-32 size 6 and 5/16 UNF stud sizes are in common use.

They are usually in package sizes of 1 to 20 studs and in single or double strips.

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 Assembly
When two or more terminals are fitted to a terminal stud, they should be assembled back to
back as shown below.

When it is necessary to join more than four terminals at a terminal strip, adjacent studs may
be interconnected using an insulated metal bus.

Each stud assembly must be tightened to within specific torque-load limits, dependent upon
the stud size.

The specific tool used for tightening the stud assemblies has a torque drive which ‘slips’
before the torque safe limit can be exceeded and is called a “Wardbrooke” or “Soltorque”
spanner.

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 New Style Terminal Blocks

MS27212 Series
As well as the Wardbrooke type terminal blocks there are a range of more modern terminal
blocks in use on aircraft.

The New Style Terminal Blocks operate in a similar way to that of the Wardbrook type in
that they use Ring Tongue Terminals to secure the cable to the block. They are available in
a range of sizes carrying up to a maximum of 24 terminals on one block. The size is
determined by the diameter of the cable being used and the stud size required on
termination.

Studs and terminals are available in six sizes; 6, 8, 10, 1/4, 5/16 and 3/8 and can be found
by the first dash number on the part number.

SERIES DASH No. SIZE of STUD

MS27212 -(1) 6-32 UNC
-(2) 10-32 UNF
-(3) 1/4 UNF
-(4) 5/16 UNF
-(5) 3/8 UNF
-(6) 8-32 UNC

Example: Part No. MS27212-(4)-(5)

Broken down, this number relates to a MS27212 Series terminal block using 5/16 Studs.

The second dash No. tells us that it contains 5 terminals.

Bussing Strips (MS25226) are available for use with MS27212 Series terminal blocks and
can bus up to the maximum of 24 terminals dependent upon part number.

The bus strips can be plated with Cadmium, Silver, Nickel or Tin dependent upon circuit
requirement.

The figure below (overleaf) illustrates the bare terminal block with all its accessories
removed.

The next figure (overleaf) illustrates the New Style Terminal Block with a 3 terminal bus
connection.

Note: It should be noted that terminals installed onto terminal block MS27212 should be
restricted against movement in the direction of loosening.

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 Securing Terminators
Torque loading of holding screws or nuts should be to the recommended values and should
be marked in accordance with maintenance instructions. The connections should not place
either the cable or the equipment in a state of tension. Twisting and kinking in the vicinity of
the connection should be avoided as this may lead to a fracture if the cable is subjected to
vibration

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 Uninsulated or pre-insulated terminals may be bent to 90° for installation in restricted
spaces where it is impossible to install them flat.

On terminal blocks the bend must not exceed 30°.

CAUTION: BEND TERMINALS ONLY ONCE IN THE DIRECTION AS SHOWN. BEND

RADIUS NOT TO EXCEED 5/32 ± 1/32 INCH. NO CRACKS ARE ALLOWED IN THE
BAND AREA.

Terminals fitted to terminal block MS27212 must be installed so that movement is restricted
to prevent inadvertent loosening of the cable.

For various ways of accomplishing this with one or more terminals. Terminals may be
turned over to facilitate installation.

The figure below illustrates how restriction is obtained on single terminals and terminal
stack-ups. Terminals may be turned over to facilitate installations

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 Bending of Terminals
On terminal blocks the bend must not exceed 30 degrees.

CAUTION: BEND TERMINALS ONLY ONCE IN THE DIRECTION AS SHOWN. BEND

RADIUS NOT TO EXCEED 5/32 ± 1/32 INCH. NO CRACKS ARE ALLOWED IN THE
BAND AREA.

Terminals fitted to terminal block MS27212 must be installed so that movement is restricted
to prevent inadvertent loosening of the cable.

For various ways of accomplishing this with one or more terminals. Terminals may be
turned over to facilitate installation.

Module 6.11 Electrical Cables and Connectors 11.81

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 High Density Module Blocks
High density module blocks are used on aircraft to perform a similar function to that of the
Wardbrook Terminal Block described previously.

High density module blocks are far smaller in size than Wardbrook and are mounted on a
rail which can be adjusted to accept additional blocks as required for any particular task.

High density module blocks are constructed from high density ridged plastic which is
moulded into shape with the electrical connection encapsulated within the moulding.

The “BUSSING” arrangement within the module block depends on the module block Part
number. Bussing is a function of circuit design as was described earlier so great care must
be taken to ensure the correct module block is fitted.

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 Bussing Configuration
The arrangement is of 16 sockets joined together in a configuration of either twos, fours or
eights and can accommodate cables between sizes 20 to 24.

The figures below show how high density module blocks can be arranged to give a different
bussing configuration dependant on part number selected.

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 Contacts
High Density Module Blocks use Pin type contacts as opposed to the Ring Tongue crimps
used in Wardbrook Terminal Blocks.

The pin, as well as the crimp tool used for High Density Module Blocks, can be used for the
whole range of cable between 20 and 24, therefore making the task easier, also reducing
the number of tools required at a work station and so reducing the risk of incorrectly
crimped contacts.

The contacts are of a self-locking type and therefor do not require nuts and washers as in
the Wardbrook type terminal block.

An approved INSERTION/EXTRACTION tool is required to remove and refit the contacts

into the module block. However this will be looked at in greater detail later when we cover
crimping and insertion/extraction techniques. High Density Module Blocks are fitted into a
metal track where they are spaced and clamped into the correct position.

Different types of clamps and spacers are available.

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 Module 6.11 Electrical Cables and Connectors 11.85
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 Environmental Terminal Blocks
These module blocks perform a similar task to those described in later sections, in that they
connect cables together.

Their distinguishing feature is that they provide an environmental seal for the cable contacts
and are therefore used in areas exposed to environmental conditions.

The physical size of this type of module block is relatively small when compared to other
types. They are mounted on a rail and can be added together in any combination that is
required for any particular task. They can also be mounted for single block applications.

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 This type of terminal block is much smaller than the High Density Module Block and much
more solid in construction. They will hold up to 10 connections in each block. These
connections are single sized in any one block. The blocks come in 3 different sizes 20, 16 &
12.

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 The bussing arrangements are similar to the High Density type connecting 2, 4, 6, 8 or 10
contacts together.

The crimp tool for the contact in this terminal block is similar in construction and operation
to that used for the High Density contacts. It is made by the same manufacturer and is in
the family group.

This terminal block also uses an insertion/ extraction tool, again the use of this tool is
similar to that used previously.

The stripping, crimping and the insertion/ extraction will be covered in detail later in this
module.

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 Module 6.11 Electrical Cables and Connectors 11.89
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 Burndy Terminal Blocks
Burndy Terminal Blocks carry out the same function as all of the previously mentioned
Terminal Blocks.

The main difference between Burndy and High Density Terminal Blocks is that they are only
capable of carrying up to eight cables as opposed to sixteen on High Density.

Burndy Blocks are fitted to the same metal rail as is used with High Density Module Blocks
and therefore use the same mounting accessories as mentioned in the previous section.

To enable more cables to be connected, additional Burndy Blocks can be fitted onto the
mounting rail and their bussing arrangement selected by part number.

Burndy Blocks are available with electronic components pre-fitted within the moulding.

Examples of the bussing arrangement of Burndy as compared to that of High Density

Module Blocks is shown in figure below.

This enables the design engineer to select various components for modification and fit them
into circuit with ease without disturbing whole runs of aircraft cable looming.

Resistors, Capacitors and Diodes are normally the components found within selected
Burndy Blocks and are identified by the part number of the particular block.

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 The figure below shows a terminal block consisting of High Density and Burndy Blocks and
the identification listing for the different components.

Burndy Blocks use a pin insert method of connection for the cables, which although similar
to that of High Density Modules, requires specialist tooling.

The crimping and insertion/extraction tool used with Burndy Blocks is the same for all size
cable between 16 and 24.

The pins however have to be selected by part number dependent upon the size of cable
being used. It is essential that the correct pins are used for the cable size to ensure correct
termination takes place and that electrical continuity is maintained.

Boeing Commercial Airplanes Standard Wiring Practices Manual (ATA 20) details all the
relevant information regarding Burndy Terminal Block Contacts and should be referred to at
all times when carrying out any crimping task on the aircraft or its associated equipment.

Module 6.11 Electrical Cables and Connectors 11.91

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 Details all the relevant information regarding Burndy Terminal Block Contacts and should
be referred to at all times when carrying out any crimping task on the aircraft or its
associated equipment.

Burndy Terminal Block Contacts are identified by:

o Individual Part Number

o Colour Code

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 Installation of Cable
The figure below illustrates a typical Burndy Terminal contact (For BACM15C1A/1B/2A or
Burndy YHLZD/YHLZR Terminal Block Family).

Installation of Contacts on Cables - Standard Module Block only - BACM15C1A/1B/2A or

Burndy YHLZD - & YHLZR -.

1. Select the proper cable/contact combination from table 1.

2. Strip single cables to 7/32 ± 1/32 inch and insert into the cable barrel of contact. Make
certain that the cable insulation BOTTOMS in the insulation shroud and that the
conductor is visible in the inspection hole provided in the contact.

3. Prior to inserting the cable into a BACC47DE3 contact, shrink a ½ ± 1/8 inch piece of
RT876 SLEEVING over the cable insulation.

4. Select the proper crimp tool.

(Use a Burndy manufactured M10S-1 crimp tool with an S-1 die and an SL-53 locator to
crimp BACC47DE contacts.)

The insulation of cables terminated to BACC47DE contacts must be crimped and supported
by the four crimp indents of the contact insulation shroud.

Module 6.11 Electrical Cables and Connectors 11.93

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 Crimping Contacts
Installation of Contacts Standard Module Lock only - BACM15C1A/1B/2A or Burndy YHLZD
- YHLZR -

1. Select the insertion tool.

2. Start the cabled contacts into the appropriate sockets of the module block by hand.
3. Use the insertion tip of the insertion/extraction handle to push the contact in until an
audible click is heard and a positive stop is reached.
4. Check for proper locking of the contacts by grasping each cable firmly between the
thumb and forefinger.
5. Pull slowly until the thumb and forefinger slip along the cables.

CAUTION: DO NOT INDENT CABLES WITH FINGERNAILS

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 Insertion/Removal
Table 1 below details the correct contact selection for the different cable gauge selected.

Table 2 below opposite details the correct insertion/removal tooling required for the contact
selected.

Note: All the above information is for training purposes only, reference should be made to
chapter 20 when undertaking any aircraft wiring.

TABLE 1
CONTACT SELECTION
CABLE INSULATION
CABLE SIZE RANGE
DIAMETER RANGE CONTACT
(AAWG)
(INCH)
COLOUR
MIN MAX MIN MAX BOEING FINISH
BAND
BACC47DE1A GOLD BROWN
20 16 0.080 0.110
BACC457DE1 SILVER NONE
BACC47DE3A GOLD NONE
24 22 0.070 0.080
BACC47DE3 GOLD NONE
BACC47DE4A GOLD GREEN
24 22 0.041 0.065
BACC47DE4 GOLD GREEN
BACC47DE5A GOLD BLUE
20 16 0.063 0.083
BACC47DE5 SILVER RED
BACC47DE6A GOLD BLACK
20 18 0.056 0.069
BACC47DE6 SILVER BLACK
BACC47DE7A GOLD RED
22 20 0.047 0.065
BACC47DE7 GOLD RED
BACC47DE8A GOLD VIOLET
24 24 0.032 0.045
BACC47DE8 SILVER GREEN

TABLE 2
INSERTION/REMOVAL TOOLING
CONTACT INSERTION TOOL REMOVAL TOOL SUPPLIER
DHK21 DHK21 DANIELS
BACC47DE ST2220-3-34A-1 ST2220-3-34A-3 BOEING
ST2220-3-34A-2 ST2220-3-34A-8 BOEING

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 Pin Insertion
The figure below illustrates pin insertion for BACM15C1A/1B/2A or BURNDY YHLZD - and
YHLZR - modules.

BACM15C1A/1B/2A or Burndy YHLZD - a n d YHLZR - Standard Module Blocks

1. Select the removal tool. Insert the extraction tip of the Insertion/Extraction tool into
the extraction tool hole in the module bus.

2. Bottom the tool to a definite stop to release the contact retaining spring. With the tool
in this position, remove both the cable and crimped contact by a gentle pull.

3. After the contact/cable assembly has been extracted, remove the extraction tool.

CAUTION: THE USE OF ANY OTHER NON APPROVED TOOL MAY DAMAGE THE
MODULE. ATTEMPTS TO REMOVE THE CONTACT WITHOUT
RELEASING THE RETAINING SPRING MAY DAMAGE THE CONTACT,
MODULE AND CABLE.

11.96 Module 6.11 Electrical Cables and Connectors

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 Burndy Crimping Tool
The figure below shows the approved crimp tool for use the Burndy Contacts detailed
earlier in this section.

The Burndy M10S-1 is a high reliability, eight indent, full cycling, ratchet control crimping
tool conforming to the requirements of MIL-T-22520.

ONLY USE THE APPROVED TOOL FOR THE TASK.

Module 6.11 Electrical Cables and Connectors 11.97

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 Grounding and Earth Points

Introduction
Grounding and Earth points are places where the AC and DC electrical systems find their
respective earth return paths. They are also points where cable screening is connected to
ground.

An Earth Station is a location where electrical earth and neutral terminations are made.
They are usually located adjacent to or included in the connector groups. Single earth and
grounding points will be found around the aircraft.

Testing
When earth posts or terminal blocks are fitted or replaced they must be tested to ensure
they are electrically bonded to the aircraft structure. This test will normally be in two
separate parts. The first part being a bonding test, the second part will be a millivolt drop
test.

The tests must be done in accordance with the maintenance manual. If the results do not
conform to the maintenance manual specification then the post or block must be removed
and the remedial action carried out at various locations depending on system requirement.

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 Component Parts
The figure below illustrates the basic make up of a ground or earth point and shows all the
component parts. The corrosion tag or plate is incorporated in each earth post assembly to
prevent electrolytic action between the base of the assembly and the airframe structure.

Module 6.11 Electrical Cables and Connectors 11.99

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 YHLZG Grounding Modules
The figure below illustrates three basic variations of grounding blocks. The block shown are
from the “Burndy” YHLZG family.

They use the same pins, crimp tool and insertion/ extraction tool. These blocks are
mounted directly onto the airframe.

There are three variations of this block in common use. The type depends on the number of
cables being grounded to a common bus.

Circuit Isolation
AC neutral cables and DC earth cables must not be connected to the same earth post. This
is to prevent possible feeds from the AC neutral through the DC system to earth should the
cables develop a poor connection at the earth post.

When using the YHLZG family of terminal blocks it is not always required that the circuits
are separated as in the paragraph above.

This is due to this type of terminal block having more than one point of connection with the
airframe structure.

Relay returns should not be commoned with lamp earth returns. If a poor earth connection
should develop, it may be possible for the relay to energise through the lamp because the
lamp has a very low resistance.

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 Identification – Earth Stations
Earth stations are identified on the adjacent structure by numerals preceded by an asterisk.

Identification of earth posts within a cluster outside Skydrol areas is:

 By a lettered marker sleeve on the tongue of the corrosion tag in the case of triple
post assemblies.
 By letter transfer fixed to the structure in case of single post assemblies e.g. GD 45.
 Identification of earth stations within Skydrol areas is painted on the structure.

The corrosion tag or plate is incorporated in each earth post assembly to prevent
electrolytic action between the base of the assembly and the airframe structure.

Module 6.11 Electrical Cables and Connectors 11.101

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 Crimping Tools

General
Although several manufacturers produce crimping tools, they are all to the same
specification and are almost identical in appearance and operation. Figures below show
typical crimping tools as produced by Erma/ Buchanan.

When crimping multi contact connectors it may be that some of the contact positions are
not utilised. These positions should be 'blanked off' with the appropriate size blanking
bungs.

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 M22520 Series Crimp Tools
The M22520 series crimp tools are used in conjunction with a very wide range of contacts.
It is for this reason that it is going to be dealt with in quite some detail in this section. This
crimp tool is also known as the Daniels AF8 and AFM8.

M22520/1-01 Crimp Tool

This tool is a high precision hand operated crimp tool. It has interchangeable turret heads
(of which there are over a 1,000) to accommodate the very wide variety of contacts that can
be crimped using this tool.

There is a ratchet control mechanism to control the tool to prevent the handles from being
opened before the crimp cycle is complete. The tool produces an 8 impression crimp which
ensures maximum tensile strength.

The depth of the impressions is controlled by an 8 position selector knob. This knob has
two scales on it, the outer scale is calibrated in cable size and the inner scale is the selector
number.

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 Turret Heads
The purpose of the turret head is to position the contact correctly. This means centrally
between the indentors with the crimp area of the contact in-line with the indentors.

The turret head is held onto the tool body with two Allen bolts. Typically these turret heads
have a rotating contact positioner, this is to accommodate the three different sizes of
contact i.e. RED, BLUE and YELLOW.

There is a data plate affixed to the turret heads. This plate lists the specific contact part
numbers, the positioner colour (if applicable) and the suggested depth selector setting for
the cable size being used.

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 M22520/2-01 Crimp Tool
This tool was originally made for the Military but as the use of miniature and sub-miniature
connectors has grown in civil aircraft the tool has become more widely used. This tool will
crimp cables in the range 20 to 32 AWG.

The tool is similar in many respect in that it has a ratchet mechanism and selector knob but
is much smaller in size then the /1-01. The main difference between this tool and its larger
partner is the turret head it is now called a positioner. This is a single hole, single size
contact adapter.

It has a data plate on the head of the positioner giving the same type of information as the
/1-01 data plate. This type of positioner uses a bayonet quick release lock as opposed to
Allen bolts used on the M22520-1-01.

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 Calibration
Because this is a precision tool it has to be tested and certified periodically. This is carried
out by an approved external organisation.

The test engineers will carry out an examination on test crimps which will be tested for:
resistance, millivolt drop and tensile strength against a laid down standard.

When all of the tests have been completed satisfactorily then a “CALIBRATION TAG” will
be attached to the tool and the tool will be put back into service. If the test proves the tool to
be unserviceable then that tool will be withdrawn from service.

Before using any crimp tool the calibration tag must be checked to ensure that it is still in
date, if the tag is out of date the tool MUST NOT be used.

Gauge Test
Testing of both tools is carried out with a “Go/No Go” gauge. This is a two ended device for
checking the crimp tolerance of a particular tool.

One end of the gauge is coloured red, machined oversize to not fit into the fully closed
crimp tool jaws and is therefore called the ‘No Go’ end of the gauge.

The other end is coloured green, machined under size and is called the ‘Go’ area of the
gauge.

To Test the Crimp Tolerance of a Particular Tool

a) Set cable selector to position No. 4 if you are testing the M22520/1-01 tool or
position No. 8 if you are testing the M22520/2-01 tool.
b) Fully close crimp handles and hold.
c) Insert ‘Go’ gauge fully into the closed jaws.
d) Attempt to insert ‘no-go’ gauge into the closed jaws of the crimp tool. The ‘No-go’
gauge should not enter into the closed jaws on a serviceable crimp tool.

Then carry out a test crimp using the procedure in the next section.

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 Crimping a Contact

a. Select the correct contacts for the connector and the cable.
b. Select the correct tool and turret for the contacts.
c. Check tool calibration tag still in date.
d. Set up the selector knob and the colour coded positioner.
e. Strip the cable to the correct dimensions.
f. Insert the contact fully into the turret/ positioner.
g. Insert the conductor fully into the contact.

Note: Items f. & g. may be combined in the reverse order, i.e. the conductor inserted into
the contact and then both inserted into the turret/ positioner.

h. Close the crimp tool handles together until the ratchet mechanism releases.
Ensure that the contact and cable remain in the correct position.
i. When the action is fully closed allow the handles to open and remove the
crimped contact and cable.
j. The contact and cable assembly must now be inspected. The inspection must
cover position and form of the crimp and that the cable is visible through the
inspection hole.

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 Pneumatic Crimping Tools

PICO Crimping Tools Model 500D1

Model 500D1 crimping tool is used for crimping of Flight Connector contacts, gauge 8 to
4/0.

This is full-cycling pneumatic tool which cannot be opened until full crimp has been
completed.

This tool operates on a supply of clean dry air or inert gas within a pressure range of 6 to 9
bars, depending on the size of contact to be crimped.

 With tool in full operating condition, insert contact and cable.

 Press trigger.

Note that indentors cannot be opened until full crimping cycle is completed.

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 Canon Crimping Tools Model CBT600 and CBT600B
The model CBT600 is an air-operated crimping tool which can be operated with a hand
valve or foot valve. It can also operate as a portable crimping tool.

A basic model CBT600 crimps contacts at the airline pressure of 80 to 100 PSI.

The tool must be equipped with an airline filter and lubricator for optimum performance.

1. Insert the locator into the power unit.

2. Install the correct crimping head in the power unit and screw the collar tight.
3. Cycle the tool twice, tightening the collar after each cycle to insure that the head is in
the proper position for crimping.
4. Places stripped cable into a contact and insert into the locator.
5. Depress either the foot or hand valve to crimp. The tool automatically makes a full
cycle crimp.

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 Pneumatic Hand Tool AMP P/N 69365
This tool has interchangeable dies or jaws and use a compressed air source (6 or 7 bars).

An attachment system enables use at a fixed station, using a foot switch. In this case, the
hand valve is inoperative.

Example of Crimping
With tool equipped with proper die set for the terminal and cable size being used, proceed
as follows:

a) Insert stripped cable in terminal.

b) Slightly lower locator.
c) Position terminal against fixed die.
d) Apply pressure so that moving die advances to complete the crimp.

At end of crimping operation, the die automatically returns to the open position. Remove the
crimped assembly.

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 Module 6.11 Electrical Cables and Connectors 11.111
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 Typical Hand-Operated Hydraulic Crimping Machine
This machine is supplied as a kit containing eight sets of dies for cable size from AWG 6 to
AWG 0000, and an hexagon key used for fitting the dies to the machine. The crimp formed
is a regular hexagon shape and has two code letters impressed on it by the dies during
crimping. These code letters are HG, HH - HN (for cable sizes AWG6, 4 - 0000) and are the
same as those marked on the cable lugs by the manufacturer.

Preparation of Typical Machine

The machine operating handles should be screwed into position and the code letters
stamped on the dies checked for size. If the dies are to be changed carry out the following
procedure.

1. Select the two matched dies bearing the correct code letters for the size of cable in
use. Check that the lugs to be used have the same code letters marked on the
terminal palm.
2. Remove the upper die adaptor by sliding it from the dovetailed head of the tool. This
leaves the slotted head of the tool open to allow the lower die to be fitted to the ram.
Insert the spigot on the upper die into the hole in the die adaptor until it is held in
position by a spring-loaded steel ball.
3. Close the hydraulic valve by turning the knob clockwise. Pump the handles a few
times to move the ram upwards and disclose the hexagon socket screws which hold
the lower die. Slacken these screws using the hexagon key provided with the kit. Fit
the lower die into the ram so that the screws fit into the recesses on either side of the
die. Tighten the screws to hold the die, ensuring that they are below the surface of
the ram body. Open the hydraulic valve to retract the ram.

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 4. Slide the upper die adaptor, complete with die, into the dovetailed grooves until it is
located centrally by a spring loaded steel ball.

Operation of a Typical Machine

1. Check that the two-letter code on the cable lugs and on both dies is correct for the
size of the cable to be terminated.
2. Close the hydraulic valve. Place the lug centrally between the dies and pump the
handles until the lug is lightly gripped.
3. Strip the cable insulation so that when it is inserted in the lug the insulation lies flush
against the end of the barrel and the conductor projects slightly from the other end.
4. Insert the conductor into the barrel of the lug and pump the machine until the dies
are fully closed. A safety valve will operate with an audible click and pressure on the
pump handles is greatly reduced.
5. Open the hydraulic valve to allow the ram to retract. The crimped termination can
then be removed from the machine.

Installation of Crimping Dies or Nests

The head of the tool holds two dies for crimping of cables gauge 8 to 2. Correct positioning
of dies is performed as follows:

 Press latch to open crimping head.

 Pull back nest lock and rotate thumb knob until the desired nest is obtained.
 With nest properly located, nest lock will spring back into position. If not the case,
nest lock will not spring back into position and crimping head will not close.
 Close crimping head.

Example of Crimping
 Open pressure relief valve for a few seconds to ensure that indenter is located in
neutral position. Close pressure relief valve.
 Locate splice between indenter and nest, with brazed seam facing indenter.
 Using short pumping strokes, pump handles sufficiently to hold splice in position
without deforming the barrel.
 Insert stripped end of cable into splice barrel.
 Continue pumping strokes until handles require less effort to pump showing that
pressure relief valve operates and that crimping cycle is complete.
 Open pressure relief valve lever until indenter returns to neutral position.
 Open crimping head and remove crimped assembly.

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 Intentionally Blank

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 Electric/Hydraulic Crimping Machine

Designation
AMP electric/hydraulic crimping machine P/N 69120 is used for crimping:
 Splices
 Terminals
 Crimp sleeves/ferrules

Power control is accomplished by means of a handle or a foot switch, in this case, adapter
Part Number 47206 must be used.

Motor voltage is 110 volts (P/N 69120-1) or 220 volts (P/N 69120-2).

Example of Crimping
Always keep unit in upright position.

Never operate unit without its crimping head.

 Remove protective caps.

 Attach crimping head to handle control or to coupling adapter if foot switch is used.
 Place dies in crimping head.
 Using the hand control to advance the ram, press and release reset button then press
trigger or, using the foot control, press and release reset pedal (LH) and then press ram
advance (RH) pedal.
 Locate terminal or splice in dies and advance ram sufficiently to hold terminal or splice in
the dies, by operating with short strokes trigger or pedal. The ram will not return to
neutral until the crimping cycle is completed unless pressure release button on electrical
control box is pressed.
 Insert stripped cable into terminal or splice.
 Squeeze and hold on trigger or ram advance pedal until crimping cycle is complete and
ram returns to neutral.
 Remove crimped terminal or splice.

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 Module 6.11 Electrical Cables and Connectors 11.117
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 Aircraft Connectors

Introduction
The term “connector” is used to cover a device which provides a semi-permanent
connection to avionic components or equipment. They must have positive location and be
capable of quick connection and disconnection for ease of maintenance.

With the advent of digital systems and fly-by-wire, it has now become of high importance
that all connections in an electrical system are of little or no resistive value.

Any resistance in the system would lead to signal loss and heat build-up, leading to
damage to components and poor reliability.

Construction
The basic crimped contact connector comes in two parts:

1. The Receptacle
This part is normally part of the equipment or structure and is stationary.

2. The Plug
The removable half which mates with the receptacle and is usually at the end of a
cable/lead.

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 Component Parts

Each part can then be further broken down into six component parts:

Shell
The outside case of the connector into which the dielectric material and contacts are
assembled.

Contacts
The conductive element in a connector which makes contact, for the purpose of transferring
electricity. Either in socket form or pin form.

Insert
A dielectric insulator which positions and supports the contacts.

Interfacial Seal
A seal which inhibits the area around each contact from moisture.

Sealing Grommet
A seal used on the cable side of the connector to seal against moisture, air and dirt.

Coupling Mechanism
The ring around the connector which aids in the mating of the plug and receptacle and
locks them together.

The above mentioned parts come together, as shown to make up the connector.

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 Coupling Method
The coupling method is usually one of the following three types:

Screw Thread
The coupling ring is threaded with either a ‘V’ thread or Acme thread. On some connectors
the cable clamp must be loosened before removal or installation of connectors. Figure (a).

Bayonet
The coupling ring has slots which slide over spigots on the receptacle. When fully engaged,
the spigots sit in holes in the coupling ring and master lines on plug and receptacle are
aligned to indicate correct coupling. Figure (b).

Push Pull
Rack mounted connectors are in this category. Most ‘float’ to assist coupling. As the plug is
attached to the component, when the component is locked to the rack, the connector must
be fully coupled. Figure (c).

Circular connectors require only a straight push to install. A number of spring loaded balls
under the coupling ring slip into recesses on the receptacle to lightly lock the connector.
Indication that the connection is correctly engaged and locked is sometimes given by a
painted ring on the plug or by a sighting hole in the outer ring.

Rack and Panel connectors shall be covered in greater detail later.

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 Classification
Connectors are organised in the following fashion:

A. Family Name
(Military Number)

B. Series
(Specific group in the family)

C. Part Number
(Specific Characteristics)

D. Contacts
Family Name

MIL-C-5015 (1939)
Simple design, rugged construction, relatively low cost and high power handling capacity.
Size 16 - 4/0 AWG contacts, circular, screw coupling with rear release contacts, e.g.,
MATRIX 944.

The MIL-C-5015 connector contained the BACKSHELL as a composite part of the

connector.

Later development of connectors moved to enable different manufacturers to design their

own specific Backshell arrangements to enable different types of pins or contacts to be
fitted.

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 To the engineer this complicates the job of recognition and fitment of the correct Backshell
arrangement, however the main rule to remember with regard to any connector family after
MIL-C-5015 is as follows:

The FAMILY name only denotes the connector mating surfaces specification.

Any Backshell arrangement may be fitted as required and is found by a part number once
the Family has been identified.

Connector part number identification will be dealt with later in this section.

MIL-C-26482
Greater density of contacts, smaller cables, lighter in weight than the previous series, both
crimp and solder type contacts between size 12-20 AWG.

Series 1: circular, bayonet coupling, front release contacts.

e.g. CANNON KPSE, BENDIX PTSE , (Where SE relates to CLIP RETENTION FRONT
RELEASE)

Series 2: circular, bayonet coupling, rear release contacts.

e.g. NAS1599, (E0052 /53/54. Now used as a replacement for any existing front release
connector in this Family.)

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 MIL-C-26500
Originally designed for missiles, now used as on aircraft. AWG 20-12 contacts, circular,
screw thread or bayonet, front release.

e.g. BACC45F
F.S. - Threaded Plug
F.P. - Threaded Receptacle
F.T. - Bayonet Plug
F.R. - Bayonet Receptacle Square Flange
etc.

MIL-C-83723
The MIL-C-83723 series connector replaced the previous types and enabled rear release
contacts to be used in conjunction with existing connectors fitted to the aircraft.

SERIES 1 are compatible with MIL-C-26482 (Bayonet).

SERIES 2 are compatible with MIL-C-5015 (Threaded).

SERIES 3 are compatible with MIL-C-26500 (Bayonet or Threaded).

It should be noted that REAR RELEASE connectors are marked with a BLUE LINE on the
moveable locking surface.

The MIL-C-81511 and MIL-C-38999 connectors were developed at the same time in direct
competition but by different manufacturers. They are similar in design but are NOT
COMPATABLE and cannot be used as replacements for each other.

Early Boeing 747 used MIL-C-81511 connectors however it is now commonplace to find the
vast majority of these two types of connectors adopted into service with Boeing Aircraft are
of the MIL-C-38999 family.

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 MIL-C-81511
This family of connectors has a higher pin density for a given shell size and is lighter and
takes smaller cable sizes than previous connectors. The connectors will take AWG20- 12
contacts, are scoop proof (recessed pins) circular and fitted with bayonet couplings and
front release contacts.

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 MIL-C-38999
This family of connectors was developed at about the same time as the MIL-C-81511 family
and are similar in design but are more popular.

The MIL-C-38999 family are widely used on military aircraft hence they have a military part
number (D on part number indicates US Dept. of Defence). On commercial aircraft they will
generally be found in the following places:

Air Conditioning Ducts,

Test Sockets and

Engine Control Systems.

There are three Series:

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 Series 1
Scoop Proof, circular bayonet coupling, rear release contacts. E.g. Amphenol 418

Series 2
Low silhouette, circular, bayonet coupling, rear release contacts. E.g., D38999/40

Series 3
MIL-C-38999 Connectors introduced the threaded TRI-START circular connector. The
threaded part of the connector has three separate threads within the coupling ring that
enables the connection to be made quickly whilst reducing the risk of cross-threading and
therefore pin non-alignment. These types of connectors are generally fitted to Engines and/
or their associated equipment.

The figure below illustrates the thread arrangement for a MIL-C-38999 Tri-start connector.
The MIL-C- 38999 series connectors have a breech lock and will be fitted to the GE90
engine as installed on the Boeing 777 aircraft.

All threaded connectors from the MIL-C-38999 specification family on, must have an
integral locking device fitted within the connector.

This locking device usually takes the form of a locking ratchet mechanism.

Series 4
The series of a connector determines the specific group within the family to which a
connector belongs.

To aid this explanation we look at a series of connectors detailed earlier.

The MIL-C-83723 for example detailed the difference between the series.

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  SERIES ONE are MIL-C-26482 compatible
 SERIES TWO are MIL-C-5015 compatible
 SERIES THREE are MIL-C-26500 compatible

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 Part Number
The part number of a connector is actually a detailed description of the type, size, finish etc.
of it. See example below.

1 MS27467 Identifies a MIL-C-38999, series 1, straight plug.

2 E Describes the service class
(environmental operating characteristics)
3 21 Indicates the shell size,
(the smaller the number the smaller the connector)
4 A Indicates the finish on the connector shell
(plating, colour etc.)
5 41 Indicates the insert arrangement of the contacts by size and
location. The holes can be numbered, lettered or not marked.
In this case they count in a spiral from the inside out, with a
line to guide and each multiple of 10 in parenthesis.
6 P Indicates contact style (P=Pin, S=Socket)
7 A Indicates polarisation (Key/insert orientation) See Figure (c)

Note: Reference must be made to chapter 20 for a detailed breakdown on connector

numbering systems

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 Module 6.11 Electrical Cables and Connectors 11.129
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 Contacts
Contacts are either Pins or Sockets and fall under the military specification MIL-C-39029.
This standardised the documentation system, test methods and a uniform band colour code
identification system.

This is called the BIN (Basic Identification Number) code. Coloured bands, read from the
cable insert end, translated form the standard electrical 10 colour codes give a reference
number. The data can then be found in an appendix to MIL-C-39029.

Civil aircraft use the 2 band civil standard ISO specification. Other contacts only have a
single colour band (E.g. red, blue or yellow) Some contacts may have no colour band. It is
for this reason that great reliance must be placed on obtaining the correct part number.

It is normal to have the 'hot' or live side of a circuit connected to socket contacts, and the
'cold' to pins. This reduces the possibility of short circuits when connecting/disconnecting.

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 Crimped Type Connectors
All connectors currently being manufactured must conform to strict specifications which will
be dependent upon use: e.g. environment, application etc. These specifications are usually
to a standard demanded by the military which will more than meet civilian requirements.
Early US manufactured connectors were normally to a specification laid down by the Air
Force and/or Navy and were termed the ANSPEC, these have since been superseded and
are now termed MIL (Military) SPEC. In UK a similar method has been adopted but termed
the defence specification or DEFSPEC, in addition they must conform to British Standards
(BS 9522).

Each manufacturer of connectors produce a connector catalogue which details each

connectors individual specification. The following are a small example of the many
hundreds of connectors available.

In addition to the Spec No the connector will have a Part No and a manufacturers
identification No. In this example the latter is: TCT Series (Mk 33).

TCT Series Mk 33 is a high density designed to meet the requirements of MIL-C-3899. The
coupling mechanism features a robust quick 3 start thread with an anti-vibration device
within a coarse ribbed coupling nut. A full 360° turn of the coupling nut brings the plug to the
fully mated position. These connectors are available in various sizes and styles.

Specification
Standard Materials and Finishes - SHELL;

Aluminium alloy or stainless steel with the following finishes:

 Nickel, Cadmium Olive Drab (aluminium shells)

 Passivated or nickel plated (stainless steel shells)

Insulator:
High grade rigid plastic/silicon rubber

Contacts:
Copper alloy - gold plates

Polarisation:
Key/Keyway

Contact Arrangement:
37 platforms. 5 to 120 contacts

Electrical Data:
3 to 50 amps

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 Contact Insertion and Extraction
This section of the module covers all the different aspects of connector contact insertion
and extraction. It will cover the basic history of removable contacts, the locking mechanisms
of connectors and the insertion and extraction of contacts from connectors with the
requirements of tooling and processes.

Contact History
As connectors changed with time, so did contacts. Contacts, as an integral part of the
connector system developed through to the current types available.

The earliest connectors used contacts which were not removable from the connector body.
They were fixed into the connector during manufacture and required soldering onto the
cable.

Problems were created using this method in that any task requiring a remake in the centre
of the connector would be difficult because the outer cables or loom would have to be de-
soldered and removed to enable access to the inner contacts.

Following on from the non-removable contact connector the first removable contact
connectors were developed. These connectors used soldered contacts which were held in
place by the shape and size of the rubber insert and could be removed with relative ease
for remakes or modification purposes.

As there was no locking mechanism fitted to these connectors, system failure and even
aircraft fire occurred as contacts became pushed back or detached from their connector. It
became evident that all connectors should have a positive looking mechanism for contacts.

Plessy developed a connector that used removable locked contacts which were soldered to
the cable. This design was then modified to accept crimped contacts.

The process of crimping contacts on to the cable removed the requirement to remake
solder connections when working on cables in the centre of a connector, and in doing so
decreased the aircraft down time.

Modern connectors are manufactured with locking mechanisms built into the inserts.

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 Module 6.11 Electrical Cables and Connectors 11.133
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 Locking Mechanisms
There are two types of locking mechanism, namely FRONT and REAR release. Front
release is the earlier type which has been superseded to some extent by the rear release
type.

Front release connectors are still in wide use to-day, however they may be replaced with
the rear release type (if this is an approved replacement) when the connector is removed
due to either modification or defect.

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 Insertion / Extraction Tools
There is a vast range of electrical connectors used in aircraft electrical/avionics systems.
This section describes a range of plastic removal/insertion tools used to remove or insert
the pins of some connectors.

Typical pins and associated insertion tools

Insertion/Extraction Tool

Plastic insertion and extraction tools were introduced to prevent damage to contact
retaining clips and insert materials, and are colour coded for contact size, i.e. Red, size 20;
Blue, 16 and Yellow 12 and 22. In composite tools the extractor is always White.

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 Use of plastic insertion tool

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 Installing (coloured end):
Figure (a) – Hold the insertion half of the tool (coloured) between the thumb and forefinger
and lay the cable to be inserted along the slot, leaving about ½" protruding from the end of
the tool to the crimp barrel of the contact.

Figure (b) – Squeeze the cable hard into the tool at the tip, between the thumb and
forefinger, and at the same time, quickly pull the protruding cable with the other hand away
from the tool.

Figure (c) – The cable will now have snapped into place. Pull it back through the tool until
the tip seats on the back end of the crimp barrel.

Figure (d) – Holding the connector with the rear seal facing you slowly push the contact
straight into the connector seal.

Figure (e) – A firm stop will be evident when the contact positively seats in the connector.

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 Removal (White end)
Figure (a) – With the rear of the connector facing you, lay the cable of the contact to be
removed along the slot of the removal half (White) of the tool, leaving about ½" from the
end of the tool to the rear of the connector.

Figure (b) – Squeeze the cable hard into the tool between the thumb and forefinger about
¼". From the tip and at the same time quickly pull the connector away from the tool with
the other hand.

Figure (c) – The cable will now have snapped into place. Slide the tool down over the
cable and into the rear seal and push it slowly into the connector until a positive resistance
is felt. At this time the contact retaining clip is in the unlock position.

Figure (d) – Press the cable of the contact to be removed against the serrations of the
plastic tool and pull both the tool and the contact-cable assembly out of the connector.

Caution: Do not tip, spread or rotate the tool while it is in the connector.

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 Figure B below shows a comparison of front release and rear release contacts.

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 Figure a below shows the front release system and 38b shows the front release system.

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 Tweezers type insert/extract tools

Tweezers type extractor tool use

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 Tweezers Type Insert/Extract Tools

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 Installation/Removal Instructions

To Install Contacts:
Open the tool tips by squeezing the handles and the tips around the cable insulation. Slide
the tool along the cable until the tip end butts against the shoulder on the contact.

Carefully push the contact forward and directly in line with the grommet hole until the
contact is felt to snap into position.

Slide the tool back along the cable insulation until it clears the grommet and remove the tool
from the cable.

To Remove Contacts:
Open the tool tips sufficiently to place around the cable insulation. Slide the tool down the
cable until the tool tips enter the grommet and come to a positive stop. A slight increase in
resistance will be noticed just before contact.

Holding the tool tips firmly against the positive stop on the contact, grip the cable and
simultaneously remove the tool, contact and cable.

Caution: The tips on the installing and removal tools used on small contacts have
very thin wall sections. This causes them to have sharp edges which can cut the
cable installation or connector sealing grommet. Do not squeeze, spread, tip or
rotate the tweezers while entering the connector grommet.

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 Insert/Extract Tool Operation

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 Module 6.11 Electrical Cables and Connectors 11.145
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 Installing a Contact
The procedure for installing contacts is common for all types of tool.

All contacts are inserted from the rear of the connector. The pin will recess deeper than the
socket insert in order to protect the pins whilst the connector is uncoupled. Both the plug or
receptacle may hold pins or sockets.

Any backshell or strain relief clamp should be retained on the loom for correct assembly on
completion of the contact insertion.

a) Select correct insertion tool.

b) Fit tool to contact/cable.
c) Push fully into connector. DO NOT ROTATE. Take care not to damage
sealing grommet.
d) Fully seat the contact until a snapping/ clicking is heard/felt.
e) Remove the tool in a straight line. DO NOT ROTATE.

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 Removing a Contact
The procedure for contact removal is determined by the nature of the locking mechanism
employed in the connector, that is whether the connector is front or rear release. Contacts
are removed as follows:

1. Identify the connector as front or rear release. (A blue line on the connector
signifies a rear release mechanism).
2. Remove any Backshell or strain relief clamp.
3. Remove or loosen any compression ring.
4. Select the correct removal tool.

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 Front and Rear Release

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 Terminal Block Contact Installation

Terminal Blocks
So far in this section we have only dealt with contact insertion and extraction with regards to
connectors. Similar contacts are used with some ‘terminal blocks’ fitted to aircraft and
require their own methods of insertion and extraction.

The tooling required for terminal block contacts is identified in exactly the same way as
connectors, and the contacts inserted and extracted in a similar way as detailed for rear
release connectors.

Contact Installation
1. Start the cabled contacts into the appropriate sockets of the module by hand.
2. Using the approved insertion/extraction tool, slide the tool (insertion end) over cable
and position the tool tip against the shoulder on the contact.
3. Align the contact and tool perpendicular to the module face and carefully insert into
the cavity until the contact seats.

This is indicated by a clicking sound, followed by increased resistance to further

forward movement.

4. Remove tool carefully whilst maintaining perpendicular alignment.

5. Check for correct seating of each contact by grasping the cable between thumb and
forefinger and pulling slowly in line with the contact, until the thumb and forefinger slip
on the cable.

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 Terminal Block Contact Removal

1. Remove any support ties on the cable/ contact to be extracted.

2. Using the approved extraction tool, snap the white end of the insertion/extraction
tool (the extraction end) over the cable and carefully slide the extraction tool
straight into the cavity, over the rear of the contact until the tool bottoms.
3. Grip the cable and tool simultaneously and pull out in a straight line.

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 Testing
When the installation is complete, each contact must be tested for satisfactory retention
within the locking device. This is achieved in one of two ways:

 A gentle pull on the cable until both thumb and forefinger slide up the cable, as
explained earlier.
or
 Check with retention test tool.

Note: Uncabled cavities are usually filled to assist in the environmental sealing of the
connector, this is not carried out on terminal blocks. Plastic sealing plugs are
normally used where necessary and normally supplied with the connector and
contacts.

They fit into the connector into the rear of the uncabled contact, providing a seal with the
sealing grommet.

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 Cable Protection
The risk of mechanical damage and of damage by fluids or vapours, to cables must be
minimised. Where possible, cables are so routed as to avoid such risks; otherwise,
adequate protection must be provided for the cables.

Cables must be so installed or protected as to be unaffected by sources of heat which,

together with heat generated within the cable on load, could produce temperatures in
excess of the maximum permissible continuous temperature for which the cable is
designed.

Cables must not be so sharply bent as to cause risk of damage or deterioration.

The ends of all conduits, tubes and ducts which carry electric cables must be so prepared
or bushed with insulating material at the points of entry as to reduce to a minimum the risk
of damage in service and when drawing in the cable. Inspection panels may have to be
provided for continuous ducts.

Cable Environment
Aircraft electrical cables often suffer from the effects of extreme changes in temperature
and this change often takes place very quickly. Not all cables can be kept within the
pressurised compartment and in some installations, the cables may be subjected to
temperature changes of 60ºC. Remember that cables routed along the rear spar of a civil
air transport may be experiencing ambient at altitude (-56º) and then a tropical airport at
30ºC. The cable can get very wet.

Cabin Drainage
Wherever possible, cables connected to apparatus must be arranged to run downwards
from the apparatus. Where this is not possible, the cable must incorporate a download loop
immediately before entering the apparatus.

Where conduits, tubes or ducts are used, they must be so installed that any moisture
accumulating in them will drain safely away; in addition, the cables used in them must be
capable of withstanding such moisture as may nevertheless be encountered.

Cable Support
Particular care in the supporting of cables is necessary at the following points:

 Adjacent to cable terminations.

 Where relative movement is likely to occur between adjacent parts of the structure to
which the cables are fitted.
 Where cables are in proximity to moving parts.
 At bends, especially where several small cables are run together to form a relatively
heavy group.

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 Cable Support at Terminal Fittings
At terminations it is particularly important to guard against cable movement (vibratory or
otherwise) which can lead to fatigue fracture of the conductor or the terminal fitting. Cables
should be secured as near as possible to the terminal fitting and it is recommended that
where practicable the distance from terminal to nearest point of support should not exceed
six inches (measured along the cable). Where it is not possible to provide this degree of
support, the means used for terminating the cable should withstand any stresses resulting
from movement of unsupported cables under vibration.

In older aircraft cable binding and support was achieved by wax string and looming cord,
these methods are very much at the trailing edge of technology. Today tie-wraps are a far
more efficient way of securing cables. The use of 'P' clamps are invaluable in securing
cable looms.

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 Cable Clamps
Cable clamps are designed to meet a specific situation when a cable loom is secured.
There are many types of clamp and many different arrangements.

The following figures show different applications of cable clamping.

Cable troughs and conduits are other methods used to enclose and protect cable looms,
particularly large looms.

Note: When using conduits drainage holes should exist at low points to relieve moisture
caused by condensation.

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 Module 6.11 Electrical Cables and Connectors 11.155
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 Loop Clamps
Loop clamps are used to support cable bundles and prevent the contact of cables on
adjacent structures.

Loop clamps are available in a variety of materials, such as nylon, aluminium alloy, and
stainless steel. They are available in sizes from 0.25” to 1.625”. Metal loop clamps are fitted
with a protective layer of insulating material to prevent damage to the cables.

Loop clamps should always be replaced with the same part number as was originally
installed, options can be used where given in the appropriate manual.

Only use the smallest loop clamp that will:

 Hold the cable bundle secure

 Not allow abrasive movement of the cable bundle
 Not crush or pinch the cable

Do not allow cables other than multiple conductor twisted cables to cross each other under
loop clamps. The cables and cables can be damaged.

When proper grip of the cable cannot be achieved with the loop clamp, one of the following
methods may be used to increase the size of the cable bundle.

 Filler rods or plugs (sometimes known as rubber nails)

 A length of heat shrink (unshrunk)
 Approved insulation tape

The diagrams show the correct use of filler rods and plugs and insulation tape.

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 Module 6.11 Electrical Cables and Connectors 11.157
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 Standoff Supports
A common method of supporting cables is to raise the loop clamp or P clip away from
adjacent structure by the use of a standoff. These are available in a variety of heights.

When plastic or nylon loop-clamps are used washers are normally needed to spread the
load around the mounting hole.

The illustrations below show typical arrangements when using standoff supports.

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 Prevention of Chafing
It is not always possible to prevent cables coming into contact with surfaces subjecting the
cables to chafing. Where the cable is at risk protective strapping is made of use. One of the
more common methods of strapping is 'SP.WRAP' (a helical plastic tape).

‘Cable droop’ of a loom between supports should not be more than 0.5" when light pressure
is applied a midpoint between clamps.

When installing a loom the following points must be considered, the:

 Minimum bend radius of a bundle is five times the outside diameter.

 Minimum bend radius of a coaxial cable is twelve times its outside diameter.
 Cables must be completely insulated from any metal clamps.

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 Looms/Cable Bundles

Introduction
This section will deal with the looming and routing of cables on the aircraft. It will cover the
basic requirements of loom forming, security and attachment to the aircraft as well as the
correct path the loom must take on installation.

A loom or harness is a group of cables tied at regular intervals along its length to form a
semi-rigid assembly. The loom is identified as mentioned earlier with a cable bundle
number and is generally specific to an aircraft system.

The path the loom takes and the specified ‘run’ the loom follows, between equipment or
components within the aircraft, is known as the loom routing.

The general requirements for ‘standard’ cable bundle forming are:

1. Individual cables should lay parallel wherever possible.

2. Where possible, sufficient spare cable should be left at the terminal ends for one
remake.
3. Cable breakouts should not cross over the main loom or harness body.
4. The loom shall be secured with individual ties spaced at regular intervals along its
length.
5. Specific requirements and specifications detailed in any relevant technical
publications and/or drawings should be strictly adhered to.

Materials and dimensions for the installation of cable bundles are to be found by
reference to the appropriate loom installation drawing.

6. Cable breakouts should be supported on both sides with cable ties.

Note: The loom should be formed using finger pressure only, any bends or branches
should be made without creasing the insulation.

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 Ties
The most common methods of securing individual cables together to form a loom is as
follows:

 Tying the cables with nylon or Dacron lacing cord.

 Tying the cables with waxed string.
 Securing the cables by loom strapping with tie wraps.

Note: An approved torque loaded strap gun is available when carrying out loom strapping.

Tying the Looming Cord

The preferred method of tying the looming cord is as follows:

1. Form a CLOVE HITCH around the cable

loom. Figure 1.
2. Finish off with a THUMB KNOT over the
hitch. Figure 2.
3. In high vibration areas finish off with a
REEF KNOT over the hitch. Figure 3.

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 High Vibration Areas
Reference should be made to the Aircraft Maintenance Manual for the definition of “High
Vibration Areas” and the tie separation distances required for specific loom positions.

When tying looms in the engine and pylon areas the spacing between ties is 2 inches. In
other high vibration areas the spacing is between 6 to 8 inches, while for areas outside the
vibration zone the spacing can be as much as 3 feet apart.

Note: Plastic cable ties (tie wraps) are not approved for use in high vibration areas.

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 Loom Assembly Checks
Both during and on completion of looming, the individual cables, including terminals should
be checked for continuity point to point in accordance with the wiring diagram.

On installation of a loom assembly any other check/tests called for will be detailed on the
Job Card, or called up by reference to the appropriate section of a maintenance manual
e.g., insulation test, functional check.

Cable Bundle Breakouts

All cable bundle breakouts should curve smoothly from the bundle in the same plane as the
parent bundle centreline.

The breakout should not lay across any cables when exiting the parent bundle or loom as
vibration could cause chaffing of the cables, which could lead to system failure.

The loom should be tied no more than 1 inch either side of the breakout to give full support
and additional strengthening to both loom and breakout.

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 Made Up Cabling
Cable looms and cabling made up on the bench must be inspected before installation in the
aircraft to verify the following.

That all cables, fittings, etc. have been obtained from an approved source, have been
satisfactorily tested and have not deteriorated in storage or been damaged in handling.

That all crimped joints and soldered joints have been made in accordance with the relevant
drawings, are clean and sound and insulating materials have not been damaged by heat
etc.

That all connectors and cable looms conform to drawing requirements in respect of
materials, terminations, length, angle of outlets, orientation of contact assemblies,
identification and protection of connections.

That cable-loom binding is secure. That continuity, resistance and insulation tests are
carried out in accordance with drawing requirements.

Installation of Electrical Wiring

The following paragraphs describe how cables and cable bundles must be installed and
protected. This is a general description and the maintenance manual of the aircraft you are
fitting cables/cable bundles to must be used.

General

 The cable bundles must be fixed to the structure with cable clamps without extra
protection.

Note: Gas and fluid lines are not part of the structure.

 Use conduits only as a protection for cable bundles.

 Install and protect cable bundles in such a way that they are accessible for
inspection and maintenance.

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  Install and protect cable bundles in such a way as to prevent any form of damage,
such as caused by:

(a) Touching.

(b) Chafing.

(c) Hammering.

(d) Sliding.

(e) Kinking.

(f) High ambient Temperatures.

Cable bundles, including the means for fastening and protection, must be resistant to the
circumstances and substances, which exist in their surroundings.

Installation of Cable Bundles

 Assemble the cable to bundles with bundle ties or bundle lacing tape.

 To prevent damage to the cable bundles, sufficient space must be kept between the
bundles and the surrounding parts.

 Install cable bundles with a minimum clearance of 1cm (0.4inch) to prevent chafing
against sharp edges.

 At least 15cm (6inch) separation is required between cables and lines carrying fuel
or oxygen.

 At least 7.5cm (3inch separation is required between cables and control cables.

 Maintain a minimum 13mm (0.5inch) separation between cables and water lines,
pitot static lines, etc.

Note; where mechanical support is provided which will prevent the actual contact, the
minimum distance can be reduced to less than 13mm.

Maintain a 5cm (2inch) minimum separation between cables and insulated bleed air ducts.
Provide a mechanical support to prevent any possible contact between the cable bundle
and the insulated bleed-air duct.

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 Cable clamps
Metal cable clamps must have a flexible rubber cushion.

Plastic cable clamps must only be used inside the pressure cabin in places where the load
on the clamp is minimal, as in cable trays, panels and Electrical Power Centre (EPC) areas.

Installation

 Make sure that mounting the ends of the flexible rubber cushion are linked together.
This is necessary to prevent the metal of the cable clamps damaging the cables.

 Install the mounting bolt on the top of the clamp.

 Make sure that after mounting, the cable clamp fully encloses the cable bundle. This
is necessary to prevent the bundle from sliding in the cable clamp.

 Make sure that the maximum outer diameter of the cable bundle does not exceed
the inner diameter of the cable bundle.

 Mount the cables at the correct angles.

 Lay the cables parallel and tightly together inside the cable clamp.

 Ensure the correct distance between clamps is used.

Note: The distance between two cable clamps can vary between 10 to 30 cm (4 – 12 inch)
inside the pressure cabin. This depends on the routing, thickness and stiffness of
the bundle.

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 Cable Clamp Spacing

Conduit (Metallic and PVC)

When using conduit for cable bundle protection they must be installed in such a way that
they cannot be used as a hand hold, or as a foot rest by passengers or maintenance
personnel. The use of plastic conduit can only be used if the use of metallic conduits is
impossible.

The inner diameter of the conduit must be 25% larger than the maximum outer diameter of
the cable bundle. To prevent damage to the cables, the ends of the plastic conduits must
be provided with adapters. The end of the metallic conduit must be flared and smooth.

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 Metallic & PVC Conduit

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 Conduit Drainage
Where tubing is used, a drainage hole 1/8 inch diameter should be made at the lowest point
in the tubing, after this is established. This prevents condensed moisture from running
along the cables and finding its way into the electrical apparatus. When this is not possible,
the cable should incorporate a downward loop immediately after leaving the apparatus.
Where conduits, tubes or ducts are used, they should be installed so that any moisture
accumulating in them will drain away harmlessly, and the cables used in them should be
capable of withstanding such moisture as may be encountered.

Conduit Drain Hole

Interference
Cables should be installed so as to reduce electrical interference to a minimum and to avoid
confusion between circuits on different types of services. The spacing between any aircraft
unscreened cable and unscreened radio aerial lead should normally be not less than 18
inches.

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 Heat-Shrinkable Sleeving

Hot Air Heat Guns/Infra-Red Heat Guns

Most wiring tasks carried out on aircraft utilise the use of the electrically heated fan driven
air supply type. It should be noted that in certain areas and circumstances dangerous fuel
vapours exist which require the use of safe heat guns.

Where this safe heat source is required then a nitrogen purged gun can be used.

Precautions when using Hot Air Heat Guns:

 Always ensure Hot Air Gun serviceability and calibration in date.

 Visual check for general condition.
 Always use with extreme caution as expelled air can reach 600°C.
 Always use correct deflection nozzle for work undertaken
 Ensure that expelled air is directed away from aircraft structure as
structural damage could take place
 Never point the gun at other people. Air at 600° can cause 2nd or 3rd
degree burns
 Allow component to cool before touching
 On completion of task run gun with cold air flow to cool nozzle and gun
end prior to placing gun down.

Infra-Red Heat Guns

Infra-red heat guns are the most recently developed type of heat source available to the
aircraft engineer for use with heat shrink components and tubing.

Infra-red guns are normally found in a carrying case and are made up from two main parts:

 Power Supplies.
 Remote portable heat gun complete with interconnecting cables.

The power supplies contain all the necessary voltages to drive the gun and are housed in
an integral unit for the gun.

The heat gun is fitted with a reflector which may dictate the size of job application
undertaken and is appreciatively smaller than that of the largest hot air deflector.

These types of guns are smaller, lighter, quieter and possibly safer to use than hot air
however the same precautions must be observed as with hot air to preserve safety.

The possibility of damage to the aircraft structure is greatly reduced using this type of gun
as inadvertent hot air dissipation is not present - the gun relies on an infra-red beam to heat
up the component.

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 Selection of Heat Shrinkable Sleeving
As with most tasks carried out on aircraft, selection of component or heat shrink sleeving is
a controlled task.

Sleeving is obtained by part No. on certain measurements carried out to the loom over
which it will fit.

Reference will now be made to the maintenance manual for size against material spec.

There are several different material types available and the types applied depend on the
application for which it will be used.

The criteria for selection depends on:

 Temperature of loom environment

 Amount of fluid contamination present
 Flexibility required
 Vibration suffered
 Protection chaffing required
 Fire hazard

Once the type of sleeving required has been selected then reference to the size chart in
chapter 20 can be made.

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11.172 Module 6.11 Electrical Cables and Connectors
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 Selection Criteria

a) Hydrocarbon solvents
Fluid Resistance (Room
Operating Temperature

Size Range (Expanded

b) Aqueous solutions,
Min Shrink Temp oC

Dielectric Strength

Flame Resistance
Standard Colours

(Typical) MV/mo
Continuous oC

diameter mm)

acids, bases
Shrink Ratio
Description
Product

Temp)
Polyolefins
Flexible, highly
flame retarded,
Black,
general
1.5 to white, Highly
purpose -55 to a Good
RNF-3000 0 3:1 red, 120 20-35 flame
polyolefin +135 b Excellent
40.0 blue, retarded
material with
yellow
3:1 shrink
ratio.
Clear, flexible,
modified
1.5 to Not
polyolefin, -55 to a Good
RNF-3000 0 3:1 Clear 120 20-35 flame
general +135 b Excellent
40.0 retarded
purpose
material.
Flexible,
Black,
modified Flame
white,
RNF-100 polyolefin, -55 to 1.2 to Retarded a Good
2:1 red, 120 13-35
TYPE 1 general +135 102.0 b Excellent
blue,
purposes 13-35
yellow
material.
Not
RNF-100
Clear flame
TYPE 2
Flexible, retarded
modified Yellow/
polyolefin, green,
-55 to 1.2 to a Good
general 2:1 other 120 13-35
+135 102.0 b Excellent
purpose, dual colour Flame
DCPT
colour striped combinations retarded
material. available
on
request.
Highly flexible,
polyolefin with -75 to 1.6 to Flame a Good
RT-102 2:1 Black 90 22
low shrink +135 076.0 retarded b Excellent
temperature.
Highly flame
Black,
retarded, very
white, Highly
flexible -55 to 1.2 to a Good
RT-876 2:1 red, 100 20 flame
polyolefin with +135 076.0 b Excellent
blue, retarded
low shrink
yellow
temperature.
CRN Flame
Black
TYPE 1 retarded
Modified
-55 to 1.2 to a Good
polyolefin of 2:1 135 27-38 Not
CRN +135 012.7 b Excellent
high strength. Clear flame
TYPE 2
retarded

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 Connector Sealing
Thermofit tubing is made from a variety of materials e.g. Polyolefin, PTFE, Polyvinyldene
Fluoride and Neoprene. These materials have many useful applications and will increase
the electrical, mechanical and environmental reliability of the aircraft wiring Systems. The
main manufactures are HellermanTM and RaychemTM.

Heatshrink tubing is a polythene based material which is supplied in a stretched form. The
expansion is carried out during manufacture by a process of bombarding the material with
electrons. Application of heat causes the tubing to shrink to a pre-determined (recovered)
diameter with negligible longitudinal shrinkage. The heat should be applied commencing at
centre of the tubing and working towards the ends.

The tubing can also be slipped over cable terminations, in-line splices and irregular shaped
objects and when shrunk, will form a light mechanical bond with the item it covers.

When used in conjunction with moulded parts, a completely encapsulated harness can be
built up.

Thermofit tubing and moulded parts have an indefinite life, if stored below 93°C. Neoprene
has a shelf life of 9 months when stored at temperatures up to 90°C.

Molded Parts
These are made from a semi-rigid Polyolefin material. They are supplied in an expanded or
over-expanded state3 so that they may be positioned prior to shrinking, over an already
terminated connector. They give good flexibility and strain relief.

There are many different shapes and sizes of moulded parts, amongst which are "Y" and
"T" transitions, and “boots”, both expanded and over-expanded.

To ensure a good moisture proof joint between lengths of tubing, tubing to boots and tubing
to transitions, adhesives should be used. e.g. Hot Melt Adhesive Tape.

When shrinking moulded parts, the heat should first be applied at the connector end. The
latter should be held in a gloved hand and rotated slowly to achieve uniform heat
distribution.

Tape Irradiated Heatshrink

This is a dual wall tape used where the conventional heatshrink tubings or transistions, are
impracticable or unsuitable.

With application of heat, tape shrinks to form a continuous tube or boot.

CAUTION: CLEANING SOLVENT - METHYL - ETHYL - KEYOTNE (MEX). IS USED

FOR CLEANING ALL SURFACES PRIOR TO FITTING OF HEATSHRINK
MATERIALS. IT IS HIGHLY INFLAMMABLE AND TOXIC.

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 The Product Range
Some components and mouldings are supplied with a Hot melt glue or environmental
sealant inside the moulding.

On applying an external heat source the sealant melts and seals any gap between loom
and cable. The sealant solidifies once the heat source is removed providing a permanent
environmental seal, which can only be removed by cutting off the component.

The heat shrink range includes:

 heat shrink tubing

 heat shrink component mouldings
 heat shrink identification tags
 environmental splices
 solder sleeves

Note: Solder sleeves and environmental (moisture proof) splices will be covered in
greater detail later.

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 Heat Shrink Heat Sources
There are basically two types of approved heat source for use with aircraft looms, they are:

 Hot Air.
 Infra-Red.

Hot Air Heat Guns

Hot air guns are available in two main types:

 A heat source used to heat a compressed air supply.

 An electrically heated fan driven air supply.

Hot Air Gun Air Deflectors

Hot air guns can be fitted with air deflectors which direct the flow of air around the heat
shrink component or tubing under heat treatment.

Deflectors are available in a range of different sizes to ensure that the hot air flow around
the equipment is kept uniform thus keeping shrinkage of the component or sleeving even.

It is essential that any component or sleeving shrinks in a uniform manor as failure to

ensure uniformity may cause distortion as the heat shrink component shrinks into place. It
may be impossible to remove this distortion once shrinking has begun as the component or
any sealant sticks to the cables or connectors over which it is fitted.

Deflectors are fitted to heat guns to serve a secondary purpose in keeping hot air away
from aircraft components cables and structure etc., deflectors provide protection against
heat and therefore damage to such components. Always select a cold setting on the gun
and run cold air through the nozzle and deflector to cool prior to placing the gun down or
changing deflectors.

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 Heat Shrink Tubing
Heat shrink tubing is available in a variety of sizes and temperature ranges. The example
shown is an extract from the BAe 146 Wiring Manual. This is general purpose, flexible,
heat shrinkable sleeving.

General Characteristics:

Self-extinguishing (Raychem Type 1) (Hellermann Type 1) Spec: MIL I 23053B/5

 Temperature Range: 55°C to + 135°C continuous. Up to 300°C for short duration (1

hour).

 Shrinking Temperature: Min 121°C, Recommended temp 250°C - 300°C.

 Shrink Factor: 50% of supplied diameter.

 Fluid Resistance: Skydrol 500. Kerosene, Hydraulic fluid.

 Colours: Yellow, Black, Red, White, and Blue.

 Length: Four feet lengths.

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 Notes:

Select the largest size, which will snugly fit the item to be covered.

Wall thickness will be less if recovery is restricted during shrinking.

Std Supplied After Wall Part No & Ordering information

Code Dia. Shrinking Dia. Thickness
(Nominal)` Raychem Hellermann
RNF100 Type 1 FP301-1
inch inch inch
3/64" Yellow SFM12 Yellow
001 0.046 0.023 .016
1/16" Yellow SFM16 Yellow
002 0.063 0.031 .017
3/32" Yellow SFM24 Yellow
003 0.093 0.046 .020
1/8" Yellow SFM32 Yellow
004 0.125 0.062 .020
3/16" Yellow SFM48 Yellow
005 0.187 0.093 .020
1/4" Yellow SFM64 Yellow
006 0.250 0.125 .025
3/8" Yellow SFM95 Yellow
007 0.375 0.187 .025
1/2" Yellow SFM127 Yellow
008 0.500 0.250 .025
3/4" Yellow SFM190 Yellow
009 0.750 0.375 .030
1" Yellow SFM254 Yellow
010 1.000 0.500 .035
1½" Yellow SFM381 Yellow
011 1.500 0.750 .040
2" Yellow SFM508 Yellow
012 2.000 1.000 .045
3" Yellow SFM762 Yellow
013 3.000 1.500 .050
4" Yellow SFM1016Yellow
014 4.000 2.000 .055
Table 7.9: Heatshrink codes

Thermoguns
Thermoguns are needed for the shrinkage of the sleeves. The following is a list and
description of various equipment.

THERMOGUN MODEL No 1502A Description: Details of electrical supply stamped

on gun body. Self-contained motor heater and
turbine, i.e., no separate air supply is required.
Four temperature settings, Nos. 1, 2, 3 and 4.
Recommended Use: General purpose.

THERMOGUN MODEL No 1509 Description: Similar to Model

(900W) 1502A temperature (max) 480°C.

THERMOGUN MODEL No 1511 Description: Similar to Model 1509

(1100W) temperature (max) 590°C.

THERMOGUN MODEL No CV1980 Description: Similar to Model 1511

(1200W) (Part No 989540) except for barrel design. Temperature (max) with
air regulator closed 630°C.

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 THERMOPISTOL MODEL 35L Description: Details of electrical supply marked on
pistol. Separate controlled air supply necessary.
Low temperature model, green handle for
identification purposes. Temperature ranges
150°C - 300°C.
Recommended use:
General purpose for small sleeves and small parts.
Not preferred for solder sleeves and high
temperature sleeves.

THERMOPISTOL MODEL P50H Description: Details of electrical supply marked on

pistol. Separate controlled air supply necessary.
High temperature model, yellow handle for
identification purposes.
Temperature range: 240°C - 400°C.
Recommended use:
Preferred for high temperature sleeves and
solders sleeves.

MINI-GUN CV5302 (680W) Temperature range

(Part No 991831) Without reflector 175°C
With reflector 340°C

MINI-GUN CV5720 (700W) Temperature range

(Part No 991608) without reflector 240°C
with PR25 reflector 430°C

Use of a thermogun on heatshrink

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 Reflectors for use with Thermoguns

The figure below shows different reflectors.

REFLECTOR PR13C

Recommended Use: For smaller sizes of all types of sleeve and solder sleeves.

REFLECTOR PR24

Recommended Use: For molded parts and tubes up to 1½ in supplied bore.

REFLECTOR PR25

Recommended Use: For low temperature solder sleeves and smaller products.

REFLECTOR PR26

Recommended Use: For miniature solder sleeve terminations and small products.

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 Heat Shrinkable Sleeves
Always use the smallest possible size that slides easily over the assembly. The sleeves
are to be cut to a length, so that, when shrunk, they completely cover the connections and
extend approximately 10mm (0.4inch) over the insulation. The figure below shows
insulation sleeve before and after shrinking.

Heat Shrink Sleeving

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 Aircraft Coaxial Cables

Introduction
Aircraft Coaxial Cables or Transmission Lines, are the means by which radio frequency
(RF) energy is guided from one point to another.

A typical application is the transmission or transfer of energy from transmitter to its

associated aerial or from aerial to receiver.

Aircraft Coaxial Cables are used for the same purpose to that of Waveguide however it
should be noted that Waveguide operates at a higher frequency than that of Coaxial Cable
and will not be dealt with in this module.

Generally, in aircraft applications, transmission lines are used for frequencies below 5000
MHz (5GHz) whereas above 5 GHz, a waveguide is used.

A transmission line consists of two cables, of any length suitably insulated from each other.

The insulation between the two cables is called the di-electric and can take different forms.

For instance the dielectric used in modern cable is made from a foam material whereas
polyethylene or nylon was used in earlier coaxial cables.

The earliest types of transmission line took the form of a rigid coaxial cable which consisted
of a central conductor which was supported by metallic insulators of quarter wavelength the
frequency being transferred.

The di-electric consisted of an air filled space within the interior which was pressurized to
keep moisture out. The second conductor used the outer case.

The figure below (overleaf) illustrates a rigid coaxial Cable with metallic insulators and also
it illustrates the later type of flexible coaxial cable in use on aircraft.

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 As mentioned earlier, flexible coaxial cable employs either foam or polyethylene as the
dielectric material.

Both foam and polyethylene are unaffected by such fluids as acids, alkalis, aviation fuel oil,
hydraulic fluid or sea water.

The use of foam gives considerable weight saving and also enables cables of smaller
diameter to be fitted thus adding to the overall performance of the aircraft.

As with both foam and polyethylene/nylon cables at the lower RADAR frequencies, (of the
order of 2GHz), the cable losses are low and therefore maximum power transfers can take
place between equipment and their associated aerials or antenna.

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 Cable Losses
Transmission line losses may be of three types:

 Copper losses.
 Dielectric losses
 Radiation or Induction losses

Copper Losses
Copper losses can take the form of power loss (I R) resulting from the resistance value of
the copper conductor.

Since the resistance value of the transmission line can never be zero, there will always be
some losses.

A further loss results from Skin Effect.

Skin effect is the tendency for AC currents to flow near the surface of a conductor.

Since the resistance of a conductor varies inversely with cross-section then it follows that
there will be a higher conductivity at the surface.

Skin effect is increased with higher frequencies.

The conductivity of an RF line or conductor can be increased by plating it with silver. The
majority of the current will flow in the silver layer and the copper will serve mainly for
mechanical support.

Dielectric Loss
Dielectric loss results from heating the dielectric material (insulation) between the
conductors. The heating is caused by disturbance of the orbits of the electrons as a result
of potential difference between the conductors. The change in the paths of the electrons
requires power which is supplied from the RF input for the line.

Dielectric losses can be reduced by selecting materials whose atomic structure is readily
distorted.

Foam Nylon or Polyethylene are used extensively in modern coaxial cables.

Radiation (Induction) Losses

Radiation or Induction loss result from the fields surrounding the conductors.

When the field surrounding the conductor is cut by a nearby metallic object, a current is
induced in the object with result that power is dissipated by the object.
The power lost is supplied by transformer action from the RF source of the line.

Radiation losses result from the fact that some lines of force about the conductor do not
return to it when the frequency cycle changes. These lines of force project into space as
radiation and as they do not return, the energy they use must be supplied by the RF source.

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 Generally in modern coaxial cables there is minimal radiation loss since both the
electrostatic and magnetic fields are effectively confined within the cable.

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 Types of Coaxial Cable

As would be expected, with regards to cables designed for fitment, or fitted to aircraft, there
are hundreds in circulation around the world.

MIL-C-17 Specification Cables

As was mentioned in earlier sections, MIL-C Spec laid down detailed specifications to which
all equipment fitted to U.S. Military aircraft had to conform.

The MIL Specification series, were later adopted into commercial aircraft and have since
become a benchmark for production standards on American aircraft.

MIL-C-17 SPEC detailed the specification for coaxial cable, with MIL-C-17D detailing
specifications for Polythene, Nylon and Polyethylene cables MIL-C-17F detailing
specifications for the later foam type cables.

RG Type Coaxial Cables

They conform to the American MIL-C 17 Specification and are found on most of the current
aircraft types.

The RG number in itself does not relate to a manufacture specification it does however
identify a particular cable manufactured to MIL-C-17 specification.

RG numbers are given to consecutive designs and do in no way relate to the cables
characteristic impedance

For example: Coaxial cable RG 302 is a 75 ohm characteristic impedance.

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 Co-axial Connectors
General
Co-axial connectors are used within aircraft applications to connect/disconnect equipment
or systems utilising radio frequency (RF) voltage and current.

They are designed to maintain the integrity and performance of the cable and should not
affect the characteristic impedance of the coaxial cable to which they are attached.

There are many different configurations and sizes of co-axial connector fitted to aircraft,
however they generally fall into two types:

 Single connectors which are attached individually to specific items of

equipment.
 Single connectors which are fitted with multiple contact connectors, and as
such are a sub-assembly or sub-component of the main connector body.

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 Co-axial Connector Families and Series
Co-axial connectors are the same as circular connectors in that they are identified by their
family name and series.

The MIL-C-39012 spec sub divides into series which detail more information on use, size
and performance of the various connectors within that particular series.

MIL-C39012 Series Co-Axial Connectors

The N series Co-axial Connectors, see Figure 3.

The N series of coax connector was the original microwave series developed to meet
urgent needs during World War 2.

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 Designed for use up to 500MHz they suffered in that they were not of a constant
impedance.

Later developments improved the connector series to give a true 50 ohm characteristic
impedance and also manufacturers increased the operating frequency range of the
connector to 11 GHz.

N series connectors use a threaded coupling nut for mating and are quite common on older
aircraft.

C Series, see Figure 4.

The C series was the first series designed from its inception to be a constant 50 ohm
characteristic impedance series.

Mating is carried out with a bayonet lock as opposed to thread and allows for positive
locking without the use of any external locking device.

The C series connectors have an operating frequency range of 0-11 GHz and are available
in a high voltage version with a 0-2 GHz frequency range.

BNC Series, see Figure 5.

The BNC series of connectors are available in two types:

 Non constant impedance (for use below 300 MHz)

 50 ohm 0-4 GHz BNC Connectors

BNC connectors are generally found on aircraft aerials and radio equipment where quick
release is required.

TNC Series, see Figure 6.

The TNC (threaded nut coupling) series connector is a threaded version of the BNC and
operates to the same specification as the BNC connector.

The TNC series of connectors are used predominately where vibration is a major factor as
they rely on external locking for security.

TNC series connectors are also less susceptible to electrical noise interference than BNC
connectors in high vibration areas due to the reduction of axial movement of the threaded
coupling on the TNC series.

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 SIC Series
The SC series of connectors operate to the same specification as the 'C' series except they
use a threaded coupling (screw C series).

SM Series
The SM (sub miniature) series of connectors are now weather proof and were developed
for use with co-axial cables of ¼" overall diameter and smaller e.g., foam type co-axial
cables. They may be used where electrical matching is not required.

SM series connectors are considerably smaller and contain fewer parts than the BNC
series of connectors making them ideal for modern aircraft 747-400, 757/767 etc.

A brief series listing is shown below which highlights the range of series available and
therefore the danger of incorrect connector identification.

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 Construction
Each of the connector series will be manufactured or constructed in a different way
however most connectors will consist of the basic components. These components can be
seen from the exploded view below.

ARINC 600 type co-axial connectors use similar components to the single connector
application however they differ in that they are designed to lock into place by a locking
plate.

Both single applications and ARINC 600 co-axial connectors consist of an inner conductor
contact and an outer braid conductor contact. The inner contact can be either crimped or
soldered to the conductor where the braid is generally clamped into place with the use of a
ferrule and locking device.

The ferrule is locked into place by crimping with specialist tools or can be held by tightening
lock nuts. (ARINC 600 are crimped).

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 Styles
As mentioned earlier co-axial connectors are available in different series, each series are
further broken into styles which can be utilised for the run of cable required.

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 Crimped Connection
Crimped co-axial connectors require specialised tools for contact fitment. The tool consists
of a main body with interchangeable jaws that several different size contacts to be crimped
with same tool.

Reference must be made to the maintenance manual chapter 20 for the method and tooling
employed by each series of connector.

Note: It should be noted that on some occasions one crimp tool (with two or more die
openings) can be used to crimp both the centre contact and the jacket. On other occasions
it will be necessary either to use two different crimp tools or to interchange the jaws.

The shape of the crimp varies with the jaws used and will typically produce hexagonally
shaped crimped joints.

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 Cable Preparation
Correct cable preparation is vital to ensure the quality of a co-axial connection.

Co-axial cable is prepared in five main stages which are:

1. Removal of the outer jacket

2. Braid cut to the correct length
3. Di-electric cut to correct length
4. Inner conductor cut to correct length
5. Braid is opened out

A craft knife is used to strip the outer jacket and dielectric and so great care must be taken
to ensure that no damage is created to the other surfaces of the cable.

The stripping dimensions are found by reference to the chapter 20 under the series of
connector or type of connector in use.

In some circumstances tolerances of ±0.010 inch are maintained to ensure good

connection. Failure to comply with the tolerance will result in an unacceptable crimp and
may be subject to the following connection faults:

1. Intermittent connection of centre conductor

2. Intermittent connection of outer braid
3. Short circuit between centre and braid conductors
4. Environmental contamination
5. Excessive system noise

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 Assembly of a Typical Coaxial Connector
There are many different types of coaxial connectors fitted to aircraft and the assembly of
each type of connector will vary.

The following example demonstrates the method of finding cable trim dimensions and
crimping tools for a common coaxial connector. The connector part number is KC-59-61
and the cable part number is RG58C/U.

The information next contains selected portions of the applicable tables and only covers
areas which include the example connector.

Assembly of Kings K-59-61Connector

1. Cut cable end square, slide clamp nut, gland gasket and K-Grip sleeve over jacket,
make Cut 1 and 2 through jacket only.
2. Remove end of jacket to Cut 2, flare or bulge back braid and trim with scissors at edge
of jacket.
3. Remove jacket between Cuts 1 and 2 exposing 7/32 length of braid. Push K-Grip over
dielectric and under braid, slide K-Grip sleeve over K-Grip and braid to within 1/ 64 of
flange on K-Grip, crimp sleeve using designated crimp die.
4. Trim dielectric and centre conductor to indicated dimension. Note, when using a
bushing on cable the .110 dimension is changed to .075 and the 7/64 dim is changed
to 9/64.
5. Solder centre contact to centre conductor. (Male contacts may be crimped.)
6. Thread assembly into connector body. Recommended torque: 55 - 60 in lbs.

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 Coaxial Cable Testing
The relationship to the length of a coaxial cable and its impedance is critical. If the
impedance of the line does not match the load impedance, not all the energy fed down the
line flows into the load. Some of the energy is reflected back to the source, forming
standing waves on the line. Every half wave along the line, high V and Low I points appear,
also between these points will be Low V and High I. The ratio of the voltage across the line
at the High V points to that at the Low V points is known as the “Voltage Standing-Wave
Ratio” (VSWR).

If a coaxial cable is damaged (either crushed, pinched or cut), it will affect the impedance of
the cable; this in turn will result in low power transmissions. Measuring the VSWR on the
line will identify the position of the damage. To measure the VSWR a “Time Domain Meter”
(TDM) is used.

Time Domain Reflectometer (TDR)

A Time Domain Meter is a sampling oscilloscope using Time Domain Reflectometry
method. It sends a narrow pulse down the line measuring the time it takes for a return
reflected signal from any anomalies (either crushed, pinched or cut.) in the line to appear.
Time is then converted into distance to locate the discontinuity.

Types of TDRs
There are two ways a TDR can display the information it receives. The first and more
traditional method is to display the actual waveform or "signature" of the cable. The display,
which is either a CRT or an LCD, will display the outgoing (transmitted) pulse generated by
the TDR and any reflections which are caused by impedance changes along the length of
the cable.

The second type of display is simply a numeric readout which indicates the distance in feet
or meters to the first major reflection caused by a fault along the cable. Some instruments
also indicate if the fault is an OPEN or SHORT indicating a high impedance change or a
low impedance change respectively, or if POWER is detected on the cable.

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 The speed of light in a vacuum is 186,400 miles per second. This speed is represented by
the number 1 (100%). All other signals are slower. A coaxial cable with a VOP of .85 would
transmit a signal at 85 percent the speed of light. A twisted pair cable, which typically has a
lower VOP (such as .65), would transmit a signal at 65 percent the speed of light.

Variations in the VOP of the same type of cable are not uncommon. The VOP of a cable
can change with temperature, age, and humidity. It can change approximately 1% for every
ten degrees centigrade of change from room temperature. It can also vary from one
manufacturing run to another. Every new cable can vary as much as +/-3%. With this
change in the dielectric constant, the VOP changes and therefore the apparent length of the
cable also changes. When using a known length of cable to determine VOP, be certain to
use at least 100 feet (33 m). The longer the test-cable the better.

Fortunately, there are ways to minimize error. When trying to pinpoint a fault, the most
common technique used to reduce VOP error is to test the faulty cable from both ends. The
procedure follows.

Determine the path of the cable. With a measuring wheel or tape, measure the exact length
of the cable being tested. Set the VOP according to the manufacturer’s specifications, test
the cable from one end, and record the distance reading. If the sum of the readings is the
exact length of the cable that was measured, the VOP is correct and the fault has been
located.
However, if the sum of the readings is more than the measured distance, reduce the VOP
setting and retest. If the sum of the two readings is less than the measured distance,
increase the VOP setting and re-test. If the two sums add up to less than the known length,
the operator must also consider the possibility of two faults. Keep changing the VOP
settings until the distance readings total the known length.

The same result can also be obtained mathematically. Take the actual cable length and
divide by the sum of the two TDR readings obtained by the tests from each end. This
produces an adjustment factor. Next, multiply each of the TDR readings by the adjustment
factor. The result will be the corrected length readings.

Locating Multiple Faults

Sometimes a cable contains more than one fault. Multiple faults in a cable can be caused
by many factors, including rodent damage, improper or faulty installation, construction,
ground shift, or even structural flaws from the manufacturing process.

If a fault is a complete open or a dead short, the TDR will read only to that point and not
beyond. If the fault is not an open or short, the TDR may indicate the first fault and other
faults further down the cable. In the case of a waveform TDR, the waveform signature of
the cable will show most of the discontinuities, both large and small, along the length of the
cable.

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 Cable Wrap Connections

General
A wrapped cable connection consists of a helix of continuous solid, and uninsulated cable
tightly wrapped around a terminal post to produce a mechanically and electrically stable
connection. The number of turns required depends on the cable size used.

In addition to the uninsulated cable wrap turns, an additional turn of insulated cable is
wrapped around the terminal to absorb vibration. The insulated turn is at the bottom of the
wrapped section. The wrap proceeds upward on the terminal post to the end of the cable.

 Wrapped connections must meet the cable turn requirements of Table 1 for both the
stripped and insulated portions of the cable.
 There must be no damage that exposes base metal which is visible under 5x
magnification.
 Cuts, tears, or crushing of the insulation on the insulated turns are acceptable,
except that any conductor must not be visible to the unaided eye on the last half turn
before the cable leaves the terminal.
 The space between adjacent turns of the wrap must not exceed one half the
diameter of the bare conductor, except on the first and last turns where the space
must not exceed one diameter of the bare conductor.
 The sum of all gaps must not exceed one diameter excluding the first and last turn.
 The maximum distance between the start of the insulated cable turn and the bushing
or base of the terminal post is 1/16 inch. The maximum distance between wraps is
1/16 inch.

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  High turns, open turns and overwrap turns are not acceptable

 The last turn (end tail) must not extend more than one conductor diameter
beyond the outer diameter of the stripped cable.

o A blunt tool may be used to bend the excess end tail around the post.
o Make sure to avoid damage to the terminal, cable and wrap.

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  Wrapped cable must not extend over the rounded, tapered, or bevelled end of
the terminal post.

 There must be a minimum of one conductor diameter between the completion of

the wrap and the beginning of the post tip configuration.

 The first turn of insulated cable may overlap the turns of uninsulated cable in a
connection below it one the same terminal post.

o On the first wrapping level, the first turn of insulated cable may overlap the
terminal post bushing below.

o The requirements for insulated cable covering corners still apply.

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 Changes to the Cable Integration Unit (WIU)
In almost all cases, repairs, changes, or maintenance of the WIU will consist of either the
removal or addition or cable, or both. If sufficient length is available, existing cable can be
utilised for a cable change.

CAUTION: OBSERVE INSTRUCTIONS LISTED ON THE DECAL LOCATED ON THE

WIU COVER. REMOVE THE COVER ONLY AFTER IT HAS BEEN
VERIFIED THAT THE POWER IS TURNED OFF.

CAUTION: DO NOT REUSE ANY CABLE SEGMENTS WHICH HAVE BEEN

PREVIOUSLY WRAPPED.

Repair of Damaged Cable Wrap Posts

If the connector post is damaged, remove and replace the post. Use the process in Subject
20-72-17 (Boeing Standard Wiring Practices Manual).

If the ground bus post is bent, it may be straightened in place. Ground bus posts are not
removable.

Replacement of Existing Cable

Note: If the replacement cable is to be routed the same way as the replaced cable, use the
same gauge and same type of cable.

1. Remove existing cable.

2. Add a shielded and jacketed solid conductor cable to replace the original cable.

Note: The gauge of the shielded replacement cable must be the same as the gauge of the
original cable.

3. If a change originates from a Boeing Service Bulletin, the cable type and the cable
routing will be specified in the Service Bulletin.
4. Install ground cables to the closest ground post available on the same grounding
bus.

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© Copyright 2016 Training Purpose Only Rev.01 – 31 March 2016
 Cable and Terminal Specifications

Distribution of Stress
By bending the cable around the sharp corner of the terminal the oxide layer on both cable
and terminal is crushed or sheared and a clean, oxide free metal-to-metal contact is
obtained.

Cross section through the terminal edge shows stress distribution produced in the cable
wrapped with high tension around a terminal.

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 Easy Removal
Although cable wrapped connections are quick and permanent, having superior mechanical
and electrical qualities, they may be easily removed if necessary without damage to the
terminal.

To remove the connection an unwrapping tool is placed over the terminal, engaging the first
turn of the connection. Rotation of tool removes the connection in seconds.

Quality Assurance

Pull Test - consists of a stripping or removal test which is performed to check that the cable
is being wound tightly enough around the terminal.

Unwrapping Test - determines whether or not the cable is being wound to tightly around
the terminal. This is done by unwrapping the cable from the terminal - if the cable breaks
during the unwrap test, it has been wound too tightly and the cable wrapping bit should be
rejected.

Cable Specifications
Any good grade solid conductor with normal ductility can be used as the wrapping cable but
the most common choice is tin plated copper cable. The tinning makes no difference in the
quality of the connection but it is helpful if the connection is to be soldered later. Minimum
elongation of 15% is required for 24 to 32 AWG, while 20% is necessary for larger sizes.

Mechanical and Electrical Stability

Solderless wrapped connections have an excellent mechanical and electrical stability due
to their "Gas-tight" contact area. They remain stable through exposure to severe
temperature changes, humidity, corrosive atmospheres and vibration.

The high shearing force of the cable at the corner of the terminal and high contact pressure
remove surface contamination from the cable and the terminal, producing an intimate,
clean, oxidation free, metal-to-metal contact with a large contact area. Initial pressure at the
centre of the contact area may go as high as 100,000 psi. After wrapping is complete, cold
flow causes pressure to drop to about 30,000 psi, where the metal stabilises and the
pressure remains constant.

Module 6.11 Electrical Cables and Connectors 11.213

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© Copyright 2016 Training Purpose Only Rev.01 – 31 March 2016
 Hand Cable Wrapping Tool
This tool fits those applications where on-the-site, low volume wraps are required.

The type of bit is defined by the wrap it makes.

The tool is available in a variety of sizes for 18 to 32 AWG cable.

Standard Wrap-Only the bare cable is wrapped around the terminal.

Modified Wrap - The first ½ to 2 turns are made with insulation wrapped around the
terminal. These turns are in addition to the recommended turns made with bare
cable.

This type of wrap greatly increases the ability of the connection to withstand vibration
and also reduces cable breakage.

Note: Plastic tools are available also.

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 Module 6.11 Electrical Cables and Connectors 11.215
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© Copyright 2016 Training Purpose Only Rev.01 – 31 March 2016
 Manual Unwrap

Type A
These tools have plastic handles with a spring loaded insulated sleeve for ease of cable
pick-up and removal of close connections without damaging the terminal or adjacent
connections.

Type B
This aluminium handle tools is designed to unwrap tight matrices where a very slim profile
is required. Tool will retain cable in sleeve and remove from pin. It will unwrap in both left
and right hand direction.

Type C
The spiral unwrappers give clear visibility and allow delicate operator control. Handle is ¼
inch Hex anodised aluminium.

Type D
A double ended version of the Type C tool for unwrapping in both left and right hand
direction.

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Rev.01 – 31 March 2016 Training Purpose Only © Copyright 2016
 Cable Wrapping Tools

Manual
The Model 963 Manual cable wrapping tool is a precision made tool for short production
runs by servicemen, electronic technicians and telephone installers. One squeeze of the
handle and you get a quality wrapped connection. Accommodates all standard wrapping
bits and sleeve. Ten revolutions of the wrapping bit with each squeeze make fast reliable
connections. The 963 offers minimum maintenance and long life.

Durable lightweight model 967 also available.

A variety of bits are available for varying size of terminal posts.

Module 6.11 Electrical Cables and Connectors 11.217

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© Copyright 2016 Training Purpose Only Rev.01 – 31 March 2016
 Four Steps to a Standard Cable Wrapped Connection

There are four simple steps involved in making mechanically and electrically sound
solderless wrapped connections.

Step 1
Insertion of the pre-stripped cable into the cable slot of the wrapping bit.

Step 2
Anchoring of the cable in the notch of the wrapping sleeve.

Step 3
Insertion of terminal into the centre hold of the wrapping bit.

Step 4
Finished wrap is achieved by activating the cable wrapping tool which rotates the wrapping
bits and wraps the cable around the terminal.

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Rev.01 – 31 March 2016 Training Purpose Only © Copyright 2016
 Don't Press Too Hard!
Pressing down too hard on the tool during the cable wrapping operation results in
"overwrapping", where one or more turns of cable can slip over the preceding turns. An
Anti-Backforce device is helpful in preventing overwrap.

Select Proper Bit and Sleeve

The particular cable wrapping bit and sleeve selected depends among other criteria upon
the size (terminal diagonal) of the terminal to be wrapped. If the terminal hole diameter of
the bit is improperly matched to the terminal diagonal, defects ranging from loose turns or
deformed cable to "pigtails" can result.

Push Cable All the Way Into Cable Slot!

Improper feeding of cable into the cable slot of the bit results in insufficient turns of cable for
regular wraps or insufficient insulation turns for modified wraps.

Don't Remove Tool Too Quickly!

Removal of the wrapping tool before the wrap is completed can result in "spiral" or "open"
wraps, where one turn of cable is more than .005" from another turn. "Pigtails" where the
final turn of cable is not completely wrapped are also caused by too rapid a removal of the
wrapping tool. An Anti-Backforce will help reduce this problem.

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 Intentionally Blank

11.220 Module 6.11 Electrical Cables and Connectors

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Rev.01 – 31 March 2016 Training Purpose Only © Copyright 2016