Percentages are fractions having 100 as their

denominator.

For example, the fraction

40

100 is written as 40% and is

read as ‘forty per cent’.

The easiest way to understand percentages is to go

through some worked examples.

Problem 20. Express 0.275 as a percentage.

0.275 = 0.275 × 100% = 27.5%

Problem 21. Express 17.5% as a decimal number.

17.5% = 17.5

100 = 0.175

Problem 22. Express

8 as a percentage.

8 = 58 × 100% = 5080% = 62.5%

Problem 23. In two successive tests a student

gains marks of 57/79 and 49/67. Is the second mark

better or worse than the first?

57/79 =

57

79

57 100% = 79 × 5700% = 79

= 72.15% correct to 2 decimal places.

49/67 =

49

67
49 100% = 67 × 4900% = 67

= 73.13% correct to 2 decimal places.

Hence, the second test is marginally better than the

first test.

This question demonstrates how much easier it is

to compare two fractions when they are expressed as

percentages.

Problem 24. Express 75% as a fraction.

75% =

75

100 = 34

The fraction 75

100 is reduced to its simplest form

by cancelling, i.e. dividing numerator and denominator

by 25.

Problem 25. Express 37.5% as a fraction.

37.5% =

37.5

100

375

1000 by multiplying numerator and

denominator by 10

15

40 by dividing numerator and

denominator by 25

3
8 by dividing numerator and

denominator by 5

Problem 26. Find 27% of £65.

27% of £65 =

27 65 100 × = £17.55 by calculator

Problem 27. A 160 GB iPod is advertised as

costing £190 excluding VAT. If VAT is added at

20%, what will be the total cost of the iPod?

VAT = 20% of £190 = 12000 × 190 = £38

Total cost of iPod = £190 + £38 = £228

A quicker method to determine the total cost is:

1.20 × £190 = £228

Problem 28. Express 23 cm as a percentage of

72 cm, correct to the nearest 1%.

23 cm as a percentage of 72 cm =

23 100% 72 ×

= 31.94444...%

= 32% correct

to the nearest

1%

Problem 29. A box of screws increases in price

from £45 to £52. Calculate the percentage change

in cost, correct to 3 significant figures.

% change =

new value original value 100% original value

52 45 100 45
−

× % = 475 × 100

= 15.6% = percentage change in cost

Revisionary mathematicsâ•… 11

Part One

Problem 30. A drilling speed should be set to

400 rev/min. The nearest speed available on the

machine is 412 rev/min. Calculate the percentage

over-speed.

% over-speed

= available speed correct speed correct speed 100%

= 412400400 100%

= 41020 × 100% = 3%

Now try the following Practise Exercise

Practise Exercise 7â•… Percentages

In problems 1 and 2, express the given numbers

as percentages.

1. 0.057 [5.7%]

2. 0.374 [37.4%]

3. Express 20% as a decimal number

[0.20]

4. Express 11

16 as a percentage [68.75%]

5. Express 5

13 as a percentage, correct to 3
decimal places [38.462%]

6. Place the following in order of size, the

smallest first, expressing each as percentages,

correct to 1 decimal place:

(a) 12

21 (b) 9

17 (c) 5

9 (d) 6

11

[(b) 52.9%, (d) 54.5%,

(c) 55.6%, (a) 57.1% ]

7. Express 65% as a fraction in its simplest

form [13

20 ]

8. Calculate 43.6% of 50 kg [21.8 kg]

9. Determine 36% of 27 m [9.72 m]

10. Calculate correct to 4 significant figures:

(a) 18% of 2758 tonnes

(b) 47% of 18.42 grams

(c) 147% of 14.1 seconds

[(a) 496.4 t (b) 8.657 g (c) 20.73 s]

11. Express: (a) 140 kg as a percentage of 1 t

(b) 47 s as a percentage of 5 min (c) 13.4 cm

as a percentage of 2.5 m

[(a) 14% (b) 15.67% (c) 5.36%]

12. A computer is advertised on the internet at

£520, exclusive of VAT. If VAT is payable

at 20%, what is the total cost of the computer?

[£624]
13. Express 325 mm as a percentage of 867

mm, correct to 2 decimal places.

[37.49%]

14. When signing a new contract, a Premiership

footballer’s pay increases from

£15,500 to £21,500 per week. Calculate the

percentage pay increase, correct 3 significant

figures.

[38.7%]

15. A metal rod 1.80 m long is heated and its

length expands by 48.6 mm. Calculate the

percentage increase in length.

[2.7%]

1.8â•… Laws of indices

The manipulation of indices, powers and roots is a crucial

underlying skill needed in algebra.

Law 1: When multiplying two or more numbers

having the same base, the indices are added.

For example, 22 × 23 = 22+3 = 25

and 54 × 52 × 53 = 54+2+3 = 59

More generally, am × an = am+n

For example, a3 × a4 = a3+4 = a7

Law 2: When dividing two numbers having the

same base, the index in the denominator is subtracted

from the index in the numerator.

For example,

53

3
22

= − = 22

and

853

777

=−=

More generally,

= am–n

12â•… Mechanical Engineering Principles

Part One

For example,

523

ccc

=−=

Law 3:When a number which is raised to a power is

raised to a further power, the indices are multiplied.

For example, ( )22 3 = 22×3 = 26

and ( )34 2 = 34×2 = 38

More generally, (am)n = amn

For example, ( )d 2 3 = d 2×3 = d 6

Law 4: When a number has an index of 0, its value is 1.

For example, 30 = 1

and 170 = 1

More generally, a0 = 1

Law 5: A number raised to a negative power is the

reciprocal of that number raised to a positive power.

For example, 3–4 = 4

and 3

2− = 23

More generally, a–n = n a

For example, 2

a1

−=

Law 6: When a number is raised to a fractional

power the denominator of the fraction is the root

of the number and the numerator is the power.

For example, 8

23

= 3 82 = (2)2 = 4

and 25

1
2 = 2 251 = 251

= ± 5 (Note that ≡ 2 )

More generally,

a n = n am

For example,

x 3 = 3 x4

Problem 31. Evaluate in index form 53 × 5 × 52

53 × 5 × 52 = 53 × 51 × 52 (Note that 5 means 51)

= 53+1+2 = 56 from law 1

Problem 32. Evaluate

From law 2

= 35−4 = 31 = 3

Problem 33. Evaluate

4
2

= 24−4 from law 2

= 20 = 1 from law 4

Any number raised to the power of zero equals 1

Problem 34. Evaluate

33

33

12

33

12

=
3

= 33−4 = 3−1 from laws 1 and 2

3 from law 5

Problem 35. Evaluate

32

10 10

10

32

10 10

10

32

10

10

10
10

from law 1

= 105−8 = 10−3 from law 2

=3

10+ = 1

1000 from law 5

Hence,

32

10 10

10

= 10−3 = 1

1000 = 0.001

Problem 36. Simplify: (a) (23)4 (b) (32)5

expressing the answers in index form

From law 3: (a) (23)4 = 23×4 = 212

(b) (32)5 = 32×5 = 310

Problem 37. Evaluate:

23

42

(10 )

10 × 10

From laws 1, 2, and 3:

23

42

(10 )

10 × 10
=

(2 3)

(4 2)

10

10

10

10

= 106–6

= 100 = 1

Revisionary mathematicsâ•… 13

Part One

Problem 38. Evaluate (a) 41/2 (b) 163/4

(c) 272/3 (d) 9–1/2

(a) 41/2 = 4 = ±2

(b) 163/4 = 4 163 = (2)3 = 8

(Note that it does not matter whether the 4th root

of 16 is found first or whether 16 cubed is found

first; the same answer will result)

(c) 272/3 = 3 272 = (3)2 = 9

(d) 9–1/2 = 1/ 2

=1

9
=1

±3 = ±

Problem 39. Simplify a2b3c × ab2c5

a2b3c × ab2c5 = a2 × b3 × c × a × b2 × c5

= a2 × b3 × c1 × a1 × b2 × c5

Grouping together like terms gives:

a2 × a1 × b3 × b2 × c1 × c5

Using law 1 of indices gives:

a2+1 × b3+2 × c1+5 = a3 × b5 × c6

i.e. a2b3c × ab2c5 = a 3 b5 c6

Problem 40. Simplify

52

23

xyz

xyz

5252

2323

xyzxyz

x yz x y z

××

××

52

213

xyz

xyz
××

= x5−2 × y 2−1 × z1−3 by law 2

= x3 × y1 × z −2 = x3 y z − 2 or x y

Now try the following Practise Exercise

Practise Exercise 8â•… Laws of indices

In questions 1 to 18, evaluate without the aid of

a calculator

1. Evaluate 22 × 2 × 24 [27 = 128]

2. Evaluate 35 × 33 × 3 in index form

[39 ]

3. Evaluate

[24 = 16]

4. Evaluate

3[2

3 1 13 9

−==]

5. Evaluate 70 [1]

6. Evaluate
36

222

××

[23 = 8]

7. Evaluate

10 10

10

[102 = 100]

8. Evaluate 104 ÷ 10 [103 = 1000]

9. Evaluate

34

10 10

10

[2

10 1 1 0.01 10 100

−===]

10. Evaluate 56 × 52 ÷ 57 [5]

11. Evaluate (72)3 in index form [76]

12. Evaluate (33)2 [36 = 729]

13. Evaluate

74
5

33

in index form [36]

14. Evaluate

23

(9 3 )

(3 27)

in index form [34]

15. Evaluate

(16 4)

(2 8)

[1]

16. Evaluate

− [52 = 25]

17. Evaluate
24

33

×−[5

3 1 1 3 243

−==]

18. Evaluate

23

77

77

[72 = 49]

In problems 19 to 36, simplify the following,

giving each answer as a power

19. z 2 × z6 [z8]

20. a × a2 × a5 [a8]

21. n8 × n−5 [n3]

22. b4 × b7 [b11]

23. b2 ÷ b5 [ 3

b or 1

−]
24. c5 × c3 ÷ c4 [c4]

14â•… Mechanical Engineering Principles

Part One

25.

56

43

mm

mm

[m4]

26.

(x )(x)

x[3

x or 1

−]

27. ( )x3 4 [x12]

28. ( ) y 2 3 − [ 6

y or 1

−]

29. ( )t × t 3 2 [t8]

30. ( ) c 7 2 − − [c14]

31.
23



 

[9

a or 1

−]

32.



  [ 12

12

1 or b

−]

33.

22

−

 
[b10]

34. ( )3 3

s[9

1 or s

−]

35. p3qr 2 × p2q5r × pqr 2 [ p6q7r 5]

36.

32

53

xyz

xyz[22

2 2 or x y z y

xz

−−]

1.9â•… Simultaneous equations

The solution of simultaneous equations is demonstrated

in the following worked problems.

Problem 41. If 6 apples and 2 pears cost £1.80

and 8 apples and 6 pears cost £2.90, calculate how

much an apple and a pear each cost.

Let an apple = A and a pear = P, then:

6A + 2P = 180 (1)

8A + 6P = 290 (2)

From equation (1), 6A = 180 – 2P

and A = 180 2

6
−P

= 30 – 0.3333P (3)

From equation (2), 8A = 290 – 6P

and A =

290 6

−P

= 36.25 – 0.75P (4)

Equating (3) and (4) gives:

30 – 0.3333P = 36.25 – 0.75P

i.e. 0.75P – 0.3333P = 36.25 – 30

and 0.4167P = 6.25

and P =

6.25

0.4167 = 15

Substituting in (3) gives: A = 30 – 0.3333(15)

= 30 – 5 = 25

Hence, an apple costs 25p and a pear costs 15p

The above method of solving simultaneous equations

is called the substitution method.

Problem 42. If 6 bananas and 5 peaches cost

£3.45 and 4 bananas and 8 peaches cost £4.40,

calculate how much a banana and a peach each

cost.

Let a banana = B and a peach = P, then:

6B + 5P = 345 (1)

4B + 8P = 440 (2)

Multiplying equation (1) by 2 gives:

12B + 10P = 690 (3)

Multiplying equation (2) by 3 gives:

12B + 24P = 1320 (4)

Equation (4) – equation (3) gives: 14P = 630

from which, P =

630

14 = 45

Substituting in (1) gives: 6B + 5(45) = 345

i.e. 6B = 345 – 5(45)

i.e. 6B = 120

and B =

120

6 = 20

Hence, a banana costs 20p and a peach costs 45p

The above method of solving simultaneous equations

is called the elimination method.

Revisionary mathematicsâ•… 15

Part One

Problem 43. If 20 bolts and 2 spanners cost £10,

and 6 spanners and 12 bolts cost £18, how much

does a spanner and a bolt cost?

Let s = a spanner and b = a bolt.

Therefore, 2s + 20b = 10 (1)

and 6s + 12b = 18 (2)

Multiplying equation (1) by 3 gives:

6s + 60b = 30 (3)

Equation (3) – equation (2) gives: 48b = 12

from which, b = 12

48 = 0.25

Substituting in (1) gives: 2s + 20(0.25) = 10

i.e. 2s = 10 – 20(0.25)

i.e. 2s = 5

and s = 5

2 = 2.5

Therefore, a spanner costs ｣2.50 and a bolt costs

｣0.25 or 25p

Now try the following Practise Exercises

Practise Exercise 9â•…_Simultaneous

equations

1. If 5 apples and 3 bananas cost £1.45 and

4 apples and 6 bananas cost £2.42, determine

how much an apple and a banana each

cost. [apple = 8p, banana = 35p]

2. If 7 apples and 4 oranges cost £2.64 and

3 apples and 3 oranges cost £1.35, determine

how much an apple and an orange each cost.

[apple = 28p, orange = 17p]

3. Three new cars and four new vans supplied

to a dealer together cost £93000, and

five new cars and two new vans of the same

models cost £99000. Find the respective

costs of a car and a van.

[car = £15000, van = £12000]

4. In a system of forces, the relationship

between two forces F1 and F2 is given

by:

5F1 + 3F2 = – 6

3F1 + 5F2 = – 18

Solve for F1 and F2

[F1 = 1.5, F2 = – 4.5]

5. Solve the simultaneous equations:

a+b=7

a – b = 3 [a = 5, b = 2]

6. Solve the simultaneous equations:

8a – 3b = 51

3a + 4b = 14 [a = 6, b = – 1]

Practise Exercise 10â•…_Multiple-choice

questions on

revisionary

mathematics

(Answers on page 297)

1. 73º is equivalent to:

(a) 23.24 rad (b) 1.274 rad

(c) 0.406 rad (d) 4183 rad

2. 0.52 radians is equivalent to:

(a) 93.6º (b) 0.0091º

(c) 1.63º (d) 29.79º

3. 3π/4 radians is equivalent to:

(a) 135º (b) 270º

(c) 45º (d) 67.5º

4. In the right-angled triangle ABC shown in

Figure 1.8, sine A is given by:

(a) b/a (b) c/b

(c) b/c (d) a/b

Figure 1.8

5. In the right-angled triangle ABC shown in

Figure 1.8, cosine C is given by:

(a) a/b (b) c/b

(c) a/c (d) b/a

6. In the right-angled triangle ABC shown in

Figure 1.8, tangent A is given by:

(a) b/c (b) a/c

(c) a/b (d) c/a__