UNIT 1- Acoustics, Ultrasonics & Dielectrics

Acoustics: Introduction, Reflection of sound (reverberation and echo),

absorption coefficient, Sabine’s formula, Acoustical planning of building and
factors affecting architectural acoustics of building.
Ultrasonic Waves: properties, Production of ultrasonics waves:
Magnetostriction method and Piezoelectric method, Applications (any three in
detail).
Dielectrics: Polar and non-polar dielectrics, Polarization, Types of Dielectric
polarization.

Acoustics
Introduction: The science concerned with the production, control, transmission, reception,
and effects of sound.
The branch of the science which deals with the planning of a building or a hall with a view
to provide best audible sound to the audience is called Acoustics of a building or
architectural acoustics.
Many fascinating phenomena, such as echo and reverberation, are caused by sound
reflection. The reflection of sound, like the reflection of light, obeys laws. When a sound hits
a hard surface, it bounces back to its source.
Reflection of Sound: Sound waves occur when there is a mechanical disturbance created in
a stabilized condition. This disturbance grows across an elastic medium, creating sound. It is
nothing but energy created by air vibrations. Sound waves can travel through gasses, liquids,
and solids before reaching our ears.
While traveling, sound waves can meet some hindrances. These hindrances are the main
reason for the reflection of sound. Usually, when a sound wave encounters a hard surface,
its direction changes, and it goes back to the same medium. This is known as the reflection
of sound.
Just as light reflects off surfaces, sound also reflects when it encounters an obstacle. The
reflection of sound plays an important role in how we perceive and navigate our acoustic
environment. Let’s take the example of an empty room. Since the room is used to be
completely empty, there is a repetition of our sound within the room. We call this
phenomenon as Echo. This phenomenon is due to the reflection of sound. The concept of
reflection of sound is similar to that of reflection of light.
The reflection of Sound led to various of interesting and useful phenomena such as echo,
reverberations, diffraction, etc. that led to invention of numerous of devices like
Stethoscope, Megaphone, Hearing, aids, etc.
What is Reflection of Sound?
Reflection of sound can be defined as the bouncing back of sound waves after striking the
surface and within the same media. This medium can be either solid or liquid. Similar to
light, sound also follows the same laws of reflection.

It gives rise to phenomena like echo, reverberations, and diffraction. It takes place both on
the plane as well as on rough surfaces (that we term symmetric or asymmetric reflection)
depending upon the reflecting power of the surfaces that are categorized using the
absorption coefficient or the coefficient of reflection. Concave surfaces concentrate sound
waves by focusing on a specific area whereas convex surfaces scatter the waves promoting
a good level of diffusion.
Applications of Reflection of Sound
Following are the applications of sound reflection.
Echo
An echo is a repeated sound or series of sounds caused due to reflection of sound from a
smooth or hard surface back to the listener. The reflected echo sound is usually heard more
than once because the time difference lies in the initial productions of the sound waves and
their return from the reflecting surface.
Soundboard
A soundboard is actually a curved board, usually, a concave board, placed behind speakers
in large auditoriums or seminar halls such that a person sitting at a considerable distance
can get the speech easily and clearly without any interference and even with enhanced
quality. It works on the principle of reflection of sound and reflects back the sound of the
speaker towards the audience. Thus, prevents the sounds from spreading in various
directions.
Hearing aid
Hearing aids are electronic devices used by people with hearing issues. It functions on the
principle of laws of reflection of sound waves. It reflects the received sound wave to the
narrow portions leading to the ears and thus help the people having difficulty in hearing.
Megaphones
Megaphone is a funnel-shaped instrument that helps in amplifying sound by channelling
your sound and focusing it toward the target. It works on the principle of multiple reflections
of sound waves. When sound is produced in a megaphone, because of its funnel-shaped
structure the sound waves have to be reflected multiple times while traveling to the opening
of the funnel. With every reflection the sound gets amplified as a result it leads to an overall
increase in input volume.
Stethoscope
Stethoscope is a medical instrument used to hear the sound of internal organs of the body.
It is a working mechanism based on the principle of multiple reflections of sound. A
stethoscope has an air-filled tube with a circular shaped object attached at its one end called
as Diaphragm. At the point when this diaphragm is put on the chest of a patient, it vibrates
because of weak sound coming from the organ, these vibrations are channelised through
the air-filled tube and enhanced by multiple reflections by the inward walls of the tubes
resulting in hearing of amplified sound which helps the doctors in the analysis of sound and
the condition of the organs.
FAQS
Q1. Is an echo a reflection of sound?
Reflection of sound occurs when sound waves hit a firm surface and change their direction
to bounce back at the source.
Yes, an echo is a repeating sound caused by waves reverbing from the surface. The
reflection of sound occurs due to a difference in time between the initial sound produced
and the waves returning from the reflecting surface. Thus, a reflection of sound is received
by the person who produced it after a delay.
The technique of echo is used by bats, which produce echolocation. They do this by
emitting high-frequency sounds through their nose and mouth. It helps them locate their
prey, objects, and things of different sizes and shapes, even during the dark.

Q2. What are the laws of reflection of sound?

As per physics, there are two laws of reflection of sound:
1. The angle of incidence is always equal to the angle of reflection of sound.
2. All three sound waves, i.e., the incident, the normal, and the reflected sound wave, lie in
the same plane.
Here, Incident sound waves are the waves that travel towards the reflecting surface. The
sound waves that bounce back from the reflecting surface are reflected sound waves. The
reflected wave creates an equal angle with the normal surface wave to the point of
incidence. Moreover, the laws of reflection of sound and light are the same.

Q3. What type of materials reflect sound?

Any material that does not absorb sound is the best surface for the reflection of sound.
This includes both hard and smooth surfaces like walls, mountains, glass, metal, marble,
tiles, and rocks. The hard surface of a thermocol, steel, and concrete creates a rippling
echo effect through noise barriers.
To ensure that sound does not get reflected, auditoriums have thick curtains, carpets, and
sound-absorbing surroundings to ensure clear vocals during the show. Following the same
principle, musical instruments are made from wood, which creates a reflection of sound to
produce a striking effect.
On the contrary, no matter how dense foam is, it will never be able to create noise barriers
due to its porous nature.

Q4.A system of detecting reflected sound waves is?

The SONAR System (Sound Navigation and Ranging) is used to locate objects under the
water by way of sound reflection. This is the reason sailors develop nautical charts to spot
transit hazards underwater or shipwrecks. Initially, during World War- I, SONAR was used
by sailors to determine the location of icebergs in the sea.
Multiple reflections of sound in the form of SONAR echo are well seen in the medical field,
where a patient’s heartbeat and illness can be heard and identified by the doctor through a
stethoscope.
Recent trends in SONAR are fish finding, mine spotting, tracking the sea bottom, and
diving, which are to be further evolved & explored in the years to come.

Reverberation: Reverberation is the persistence of sound after it has been stopped due to
multiple reflections from surfaces such as furniture, people, air, etc., within a closed surface.
These reflections build up with each reflection and decay gradually as they are absorbed by
the surfaces of objects in the enclosed space.
Absorption of Sound: The parameter that best describes the sound absorption of materials
is the absorption coefficient α. It is defined as the ratio of the sound energy absorbed by a
surface to the sound energy incident on that surface, taking values between 0 and 1. The
sound absorption coefficient depends on the angle of incidence.
Absorption Coefficient: The coefficient of absorption of a material is defined as the ratio
of the sound energy absorbed by the surface to that of total incident sound energy on the
surface.
𝑺𝒐𝒖𝒏𝒅 𝑬𝒏𝒆𝒓𝒈𝒚 𝒂𝒃𝒔𝒐𝒓𝒃𝒆𝒅 𝒃𝒚 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒔𝒖𝒓𝒇𝒂𝒄𝒆
Absorption Coefficient (α) =
𝑻𝒐𝒕𝒂𝒍 𝒔𝒐𝒖𝒏𝒅 𝒆𝒏𝒆𝒓𝒈𝒚 𝒊𝒏𝒄𝒊𝒅𝒆𝒏𝒕 𝒐𝒏 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒔𝒖𝒓𝒇𝒂𝒄𝒆

OR
The absorption coefficient of a material is defined as the rate of the sound energy absorbed
by a certain area of the surface to that of an open window of the same area.
Sabine’s formula : According to Sabine’s law, the reverberation time T in second ( the time
taken by the intensity of sound to fall to one millionth 10-6 of its original value after the
source of sound in cut off) is expressed as
0.165𝑉
T= ∑ 𝑎𝑆

Where V is the volume of the half in m3 and ∑ 𝑎𝑠 is given by

∑ 𝑎𝑠 = 𝑎1 𝑆1 + 𝑎2 𝑆2 + ⋯ + 𝑎𝑛 𝑆𝑛
Here a1 ,a2 ,a3 … an are the absorption coefficients of the materials in the hall whose surfaces
exposed to sound are S1 , S2 ,S3 ….. Sn respectively measured in m2. The derivation of the
above formula due to Jaeger’s is as follows:
The average value of absorption coefficient ā is given by

𝑎1 𝑆1 +𝑎2 𝑆2 +⋯+𝑎𝑛 𝑆𝑛 ∑ 𝑎𝑠
ā= =
𝑆1 +𝑆2 +⋯+𝑆𝑛 𝑆

or ∑ 𝑎𝑆 = ā𝑆 (1)
4𝑉
By statistical method Jaeger showed that sound travels on an average a distance ( )
𝑆
between two successive reflections. This is known as mean free path. Hence V is the volume
of the room and S is the total surface area of all surfaces exposed to that sound in the room.
4𝑉
Time taken by two successive reflections= where v=velocity of sound
𝑆𝑣
𝑆𝑣𝑡
The average number of reflections in time is
4𝑉

Let ā be the fraction of sound absorbed at a single reflection. Then fraction of sound reflected
be
𝑆𝑣𝑡
(1-ā). After two reflections the fraction of sound reflected is (1-ā)2 . Similarly after time ,
4𝑉
the fraction of sound sound reflected be
(1-ā)( Svt/4V)
If I0 be the initial intensity of sound and It be the intensity of sound after time t then
It=I0 (1-ā) ( Svt/4V) (2)
When t=T ( Reverberation time) then
𝐼𝑡
= 10−6
𝐼0
Substituting these values in equation (2) we get
𝐼𝑡
= 10−6 = (1 − ā)( SvT/4V) (3)
𝐼0

Taking natural logarithms of both sides of equation (3) we have

𝑇
log 𝑒 (10−6 ) = (𝑆𝑣 ) log 𝑒 (1 − ā)
4𝑉
4𝑉
Or T=log 𝑒 10−6 [ ]
𝑆𝑣 log𝑒 (1−ā)

4𝑉
Or T=2.3026 log10 10−6 ⌊ ⌋
𝑆𝑣 log𝑒 (1−ā)

2.3026×(−6)×4𝑉
= (where v=330 m/sec)
𝑆×330×log𝑒 (1−ā)

−55.26𝑉
=
330×𝑆×log𝑒 (1−ā)

0.165 𝑉 0.165 𝑉
=− = (4)
𝑆(−ā) 𝑆ā

log 𝑒 (1 − ā) = −ā
Substituting the value of āS from equation (1) we have as ā𝑆 = ∑ 𝑎𝑆
Hence equation (4) becomes

𝟎.𝟏𝟔𝟓 𝑽
T= ∑ 𝒂𝑺

This is Sabine’s formula for reverberation time.

Acoustical Planning of Building: Building acoustics is the science of controlling sound in

buildings. With acoustics services, sound is controlled within specific spaces and noise
transmission from one space to the other is minimized.
Factors affecting acoustics of buildings and their remedies:
The factors affecting acoustics of buildings and their remedies are as follows
 1. Reverberation time: If the reverberation time is very small, the sound intensity
decreases very fast and makes the sound appear dead. On the other hand, a large
reverberation time causes mixing of different syllables and hence causes confusion.

For good quality sound, optimum reverberation time is required Remedies:

i) Heavy curtains with folds are used to reduce reverberation time by increasing
absorption of sound
ii) Floor is covered with carpets to absorb sound.
iii) Windows and openings are provided in the hall which can be opened or closed
to control the reverberation time.
iv) Walls and ceilings are covered with sound absorbing materials. v)If the hall is
filled to its maximum capacity of audience, reverberation time is less.

2.Loudness: There should be adequate loudness in all parts of the hall.

Remedies: i) Large sounding boards are used behind the speaker facing the audience.
ii)Loudspeakers are used to increase the loudness.
iii) Low ceilings help to reflect the sound towards the audience.
IV) Sound absorbing materials are used in those parts of the hall where sound
intensity is large.

3.Echo: The reflection of sound from a distant reflecting surface is known as echo. If the
echo reaches the listener about 1/15 th of a second after the direct sound, the
listener hears two sounds instead of one which causes confusion. Such echoes
mush be eliminated in halls.
Remedy: High ceilings and distant walls are covered with second absorbing materials.

4. Echelon effect: Succession of echoes produced by a set of regularly spaced reflecting

surfaces like staircase causes confusion in original sound. This effect is known
as echelon effect.
Remedy: The regularly spaced reflecting surfaces like stairs are covered with sound
absorbing materials like carpets.

5.Focusing: Concave and parabolic surfaces in the hall focus sound. This causes
concentration of sound in certain regions of the hall which is not desirable.
Remedies: Curved surfaces are avoided, If there are curved surfaces, they are covered with
sound absorbing materials.

6.Resonance: Loose fitting window panels and some other objects resonate at some
audible frequencies creating more sound of these frequencies. This distorts the
original sound.
Remedies: Window panels are fixed properly; Vibrating objects are placed on sound
absorbing materials.

7. Noise: Noise from different sources adversely affects the quality of sound in a hall. The
noise can be air borne, structure borne or inside noise.

a) Air borne noise: the external noise, for example of traffic, which enters the halls through
doors, windows and ventilators is known as external noise.
Remedies: i) Openings for ventilators inside the hall are avoided. ii)Doors and windows are
provided with rubber covering on frames so that they shut without any gaps. iii)Double
doors and windows having separate frames enclosing sound absorbing materials are used.

b) Structure borne noise: Noise produced by activities like drilling and hammering or the
vibrations of heavy machinery is transmitted through the structure of the building. This
is known as structure borne noise.
Remedies: i) Heavy machinery is mounted on sound absorbing materials like wood or
rubber.
ii)Double walls are used with space between them.
c)Inside noise: It is the noise produced inside the hall by machinery, fans, air conditioners
etc.
Remedies: i)Sound absorbing materials and curtains are provided near the sources of
noise.
ii)The sources of noise are mounted on sound absorbing materials.

Ultrasonic Waves

Definition: The sound waves having frequency greater than 20KHz (above Audible
range) are known as ultrasonic waves.
 Dogs, bats and dolphins can listen ultrasonic waves and they can also generate
ultrasonic waves and bats use the reflection of the waves to find their way.

Properties:
1. They are highly energetic.
2. They having very high frequency.
3. They having very low wavelength.
4. They can be transmitted over large distances with no appreciable loss of
energy.
5. The speed of propagation of ultrasonic waves increases with increase in
frequency.
6. Due to their small wavelength, they show negligible diffraction.
7. They can produce stationary waves in a liquid bath when reflection of waves
takes place.
8. The density of liquid layers varies along the direction of propagation of
ultrasonic waves.

Infrasonic wave: The sound waves having frequency less than 20Hz (below Audible
range) are known as infrasonic waves.
Whales, Elephants, Giraffes, rhinos and hippos can listen infrasonic waves
Audible waves/Sound: The sound waves having frequency between 20Hz to 20KHz
are known as Audible waves.

Production of ultrasonic waves

Magnetostriction Effect: When a rod of ferromagnetic material such as iron or nickel
is placed in magnetic field parallel its length, the rod suffers a change in its length. The
change in length is independent of the direction of the magnetic field and depends
only on the magnitude of the field. This phenomenon is known as magneto-striction
effect.
Nickel exhibits a large magnetostriction effect compared to other ferromagnetic
materials.
Diagram :
If the rod is placed inside a coil carrying an alternating current, then it
undergoes the same change in length for each half cycle of alternating current.
This results in setting up vibrations in the rod whose frequency is twice that of
alternating current.
An experimental arrangement is shown in figure. There is a short nickel
rod which is clamped at the centre. This rod is permanently magnetized in the
beginning by passing a direct current in the coil which is wrapped round the
rod.There are two other coils L1 & L2 which are wrapped round the rod shown
in the figure.The coil L2 is connected in the plate circuit of valve V while L1 is
connected in the grid circuit. The frequency of te oscillating plate circuit is
adjusted with the help of a variable condenser C connected across the coil L2.
The milliammeter reads the plate current . When the frequency of plate circuit
is same as the natural frequency of the rod,resonant vibrations are produced
in the surrounding medium. The vibrations are produced in the surrounding
medium. The vibrations are maintained due to the coupling provided by coil
L1.

𝑘 𝑌
𝑛= √
2𝑙 𝜌

where l = length of the rod, Y = Young’s modulus,  =density of rod

material,
k = 1,2,3,…etc

Piezoelectric Effect :

• When certain crystals like quartz, tourmaline are stretched or

compressed along certain axis (Mechanical axis) an electric
potential difference is developedacross the crystal which is
proportional to the applied pressure (electrical axis). This
phenomenon is known as Piezo-electric Effect.

• Also, if the potential difference is applied along the electric axis,

the crystal is set into elastic vibration along the corresponding
mechanical axis. This is calledInverse Piezo-electric Effect.
 Construction and Working:
This method is based on Piezo electric effect. According to this effect when
certain crystals like quartz, Tourmaline etc are stretched or compressed along
certain axis ,an electric potential difference is produced along a perpendicular
axis.
The converse of this effect is also true i. e when an alternating potential
difference is applied along the electric axis,the crystal is set into elastic
vibrations along the corresponding mechanical axis. If the frequency of electric
oscillations coincides with the natral frequency of the crystal ,the vibrations will
be of large amplitude. This is used for the production of ultrasonic waves.

The experimental arrangement is as shown in figure. The high frequency

alternating voltage is obtained by Hartley oscillator circuit. It consists of
inductance L1 and variable condenser C1 in parallel. One end of the tuned
circuit is connected to the plate of valve V while the other is connected to the
grid.The coil L1 is tapped near the centre and joined to the cathode. The Quartz
crystal Q is connected in parallel of variable condenser C1.

The proper grid bias is obtained by means of grid leak registor Rg and grid
condenser Cg. The d.c. volatage is applied to the plate through radio frequency
choke. The radio frequency choke prevents the radio frequency current to pass
through high tension battery. Cb is the blocking capacitor which prevents the
direct current to pass through the tank circuit which bypasses the radio
frequency current . The capacity of variable condenser C1 is adjusted so that
the frequency of the oscillating circuit is tuned to the natural frequency of the
crystal. Now the quartz crystal is set into mechanical vibrations and ultrasonic
waves are produced. The ultrasonic waves upto a frequency of 500 KHz with a
moderate size crystal can be produced by this metod. However frequency upto
15 ×10 7 Hz can be produced by Tourmaline crystal.

Applications of ultrasonic waves

1. Ultrasonic waves are used to detect cracks in metal.

2. They can be used to detect submarines, icebergs and other bodies in the
sea.
vt
3. They can be used to find depth of the sea. Using formula d =
2
4. Ultrasonic waves are used clean lenses, watches, dental instruments,
surgical
instruments etc.
5. They can be used in drilling and cutting, soldering process in metal.
6. They can be used for formation of alloys.
7. They can be used for signaling in particular direction.
8. Ultrasonic waves are used to measure the thickness of the material.
9.Animals like rat, frog, fish etc. can be killed or injured through
ultrasonic waves. 10.Abnormal growth in brain, certain tumor which
cannot be detected by X-rays can be detected by ultrasonic waves.

Applications of Ultrasonic Waves:

Ultrasound Identification (USID) is a Real-Time Locating System
(RTLS) or Indoor Positioning System (IPS) technology used to
automatically track and identify the location of objects in real time
using simple, inexpensive nodes (badges/tags) attached to or
embedded in objects and devices, which then transmit an ultrasound
signal to communicate their location to microphone sensors.
Motion sensors and flow measurement
A common ultrasound application is an automatic door opener, where
an ultrasonic sensor detects a person's approach and opens the door.
Ultrasonic sensors are also used to detect intruders; the ultrasound
can cover a wide area from a single point. The flow in pipes or open
channels can be measured by ultrasonic flowmeters, which measure
the average velocity of flowing liquid.
Ultrasonic range finding: A common use of ultrasound is in
underwater range finding; this use is also called Sonar. An ultrasonic
pulse is generated in a particular direction. If there is an object in the
path of this pulse, part or all of the pulse will be reflected back to the
transmitter as an echo and can be detected through the receiver path.
By measuring the difference in time between the pulse being
transmitted and the echo being received, it is possible to determine
the distance.
1. Sound Navigation And Ranging (SONAR):

SONAR stands for Sound Navigation And Ranging. In this system,a

sharp ultrasonic beam is directed in various directions into the sea. If
there is any object in the path,these waves are reflected back. The time
interval between the generation of ultrasonic waves and their
reflection gives the idea about the distance. The speed of ultrasonic
waves in air is 330 m/sec and speed of ultrasonic waves in water is
1400 m/sec.
The distance/depth of the sea can be calculated as

𝒗𝒕
d=
𝟐

2. Detection of Flaws in Metals:

The flaw in metal produces a change in the medium due to which

reflection of ultrasonic waves takes place. When ultrasonic waves are
passed through a metal having hole or crack inside it,reflection occurs.
It also takes place at the back surface of metal. The reflected pulses
are picked up by receiver,amplified and then applied as an input to
Cathode Ray Oscilloscope. The transmitted signal and reflected signal
produce a peak. The peak on CRO gives the distance of flaw on the
metal surface. The intensity of the receiver is very weak. If there is any
crack in the specimen,the transmitted waves will have extremely small
intensity.
3. Smart Glasses for Blind People using Ultrasonic Waves:

Ultrasonic guidance for blind people uses ultrasonic sensors to help

people navigate by detecting obstacles and providing audio or
vibration feedback.
This system uses an ultrasonic sound transmitter to deliver a place
location to the receiver. The receiver converts the ultrasonic sound to
an audible frequency. It effectively calculates distance of object and
prepares navigation path accordingly by avoiding obstacles. It uses
speech feedback to aware the person about the obstacle and its
distance.
Dielectrics: Polar and non-polar dielectrics, Polarization, Types of
Dielectric polarization.
Dielectrics are materials that don't allow current to flow. They are
more often called insulators because they are the exact opposite of
conductors. There are no free charge carriers in a dielectric. When
dielectric materials are placed in an electric field. They modify the
electric field and they themselves undergo appreciable changes
because of which they act as stores of electric charges .When charge
storage is the main function ,the materials are called dielectrics.
Polar & Non Polar Dielectrics:
Polar dielectrics: Polar dielectrics are those in which the possibility of
center coinciding of the positive as well as negative charge is almost
zero i.e. they don’t coincide with each other. The reason behind this is
their shape. They all are of asymmetric in shape. Some of the examples
of the polar dielectrics are NH3,HCl, water etc.
Non-polar dielectrics: In the case of non-polar dielectrics the centres
of both positive, as well as negative charges, coincide. Dipole moment
of each molecule in non polar system is zero. All those molecules
which belong to this category are symmetric in nature. Examples of
non polar dielectrics are: methane, benzene etc.
Dielectrics are broadly divided into two major groups polar and non
polar dielectrics based on dipole moment.
A molecule is a neutral system in which the algebric sum of all the
charges is equal to zero.However the spatial arrangement of charges
in a molecule may differ from material to material. All positive charges
of a molecule may be replaced by one equivalent positive charge
located at the center of gravity of all negative charges. The two
resultant charges are equal in magnitude. Their points of action in
space may coincide or may not coincide . When the points of action
coincide ,the molecule will not possess a permanent dipole moment.
Such molecules are called nonpolar molecules and the materials are
known as non polar dielectric. Their permittivities are low and range
from 1 to 2.2
If the points of the resultant charges of a molecule do not coincide in
space,the molecule possess an intrinsic dipole moment. Such
molecules are called polar molecules and the materials made up of
polar molecules are called polar dielectrics.The permittivities of polar
dielectrics are high ranging from 3 to 8 and more.Whether a molecule
is a polar or non polar can be judged from its structure. It is obvious
that symmetric molecules are non polar since the centres of gravity of
positive and negative charges coincide with each other.
Example H2 ,N2 ,Cl2 are non polar.
On the other hand asymmetric molecules are polar.
Example: KI
Polarization: The application of an electric field to a dielectric
produces a displacement of charge within the material through a
progressive orientation of intrinsic or induced dipoles. This is known
as dielectric polarization.
Types of dielectric polarization: Dielectric polarization is classified into
four basic types
i) Electronic polarization
ii) Ionic polarization
iii) Orientation Polarization
iv) Space charge polarization

i) Electronic polarization: This is the polarization that results

from the displacement of the electron clouds of atoms,
molecules and ions with respect to heavy fixed nuclei to a
distance that is less than the dimensions of the atoms,
molecules or ions. It occurs in all dielectrics for any state of
aggregation. The phenomenon is illustrated in figure. The
 electronic polarization sets in over a very short period of time
10-14 to 10-15 Sec. It is independent of temperature.

Ionic Polarization: Ionic polarization occurs in ionic crystals. It occurs

due to the elastic displacement of positive and negative ions from their
equilibrium positions.
Let us consider the example of Sodium Chloride crystal. A sodium
Chloride molecule . A sodium chloride molecule consists of Na+ ions
bound to Cl- ions through ionic bond.If the interatomic distance is d
the molecule exhibits an intrinsic dipole moment equal to ed. When a
dc electric field is applied to the molecule,the sodium and chlorine
ions are displaced in opposite directions until ionic bonding forces stop
the process. The dipole moment of the molecule increases
consequently. When the field direction is reversed ,the ions move
closer and again the dipole moment undergoes a change. Thus the
dipoles are induced.The induced dipole moment is propotional to the
applied field and is given by
µi=αi E
Where αi is known as ionic polarizability.
Orientation Polarization: The Orientation polarization is characteristic
of polar dielectrics which consists of molecules havig permanent
dipole moment, In absence of external electric field ,the orientation of
dipole is random resulting in a complete cancellation of each other’s
effect as shown in fig.
When the electric field is applied the molecular dipoles rotate about
their axis of symmetryto align with the applied field. In case of
electronic and ionic polarizations,the force due to external field is
balanced by a restoring force due to coulomb attraction,but for
orientation polarization restoring forces do not exist. This polarization
is strongly dependent on temperature. It occurs in gases,liquids and
amorphous viscous substances. It takes te time of the order of 10-10
sec or more.

Space Charge Polarization: Space charge polarization occurs in

heterogeneous materials in which there is a change of electrical
properties between different phases and in the homogeneous
dielectrics that contain impurities,pores filled with air,inclusions of
hygroscopic water etc .When an electric field is applied ,those migrate
within the impurity regions store up at the interfaces as shown in fig.
The space charge polarization takes generally a longer time and thus it
occurs at lower frequencies. Space charge polarization is also known
as interfacial polarization or migrational polarization.It is observed in
Ceramics and Glasses.

Total Polarization: The total polarization is equal to the sum of the

electronic, ionic, orientation and migartional polarization.

PTotal=Pe + Pi +Po +Pm

Numericals: Unit 1 Acoustics, Ultrasonics & Dielectrics

List of Formulae
0.165 𝑉
1) T=
∑ 𝑎𝑆

𝑘 𝑌 𝑘 𝑌
2) 𝜂 = √ or 𝜂= √
2𝑙 𝜌 2𝑡 𝜌

𝑣𝑡
3) 𝑑= 2
 1) A cinema hall has a volume of 7500 m3 . It is required to have
reverberation time of 1.5 sec. What should be the total absorption in the
hall?
The reverberation tie is given by
𝟎.𝟏𝟔𝟓 𝑽 𝟎.𝟏𝟔𝟓 𝑽
T= =
∑ 𝒂𝑺 𝑻𝒐𝒕𝒂𝒍 𝒂𝒃𝒔𝒐𝒓𝒑𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝒊𝒏 𝑯𝒂𝒍𝒍

𝟎.𝟏𝟔𝟓 𝑽 𝟎.𝟏𝟔𝟓 ×𝟕𝟓𝟎𝟎

𝑻𝒐𝒕𝒂𝒍 𝒂𝒃𝒔𝒐𝒓𝒑𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝒊𝒏 𝑯𝒂𝒍𝒍 = = =
𝑻 𝟏.𝟓
𝟖𝟐𝟓 𝑶. 𝑾. 𝑼.

2) A hall has a volume of 1200 m3 . Its total absorption is equivalent to 480

m2 of open window. What will be the effect on the reverberation time if
audience fill the hall and thereby increase the absorption by another 480
m2 of open window?

0.165 𝑉 0.165×1200 0.165 ×1200

T=
∑ 𝑎𝑆
= = =0.4125
480 (480)
0.165 𝑉 0.165 ×1200
T=
∑ 𝑎𝑆
= = 0.2062 𝑆𝑒𝑐
(480+480)

3) A classroom has dimensions 20 × 15 ×5 m3 . The reverberation time is 3.5

sec. Calculate the total absorption of is surfaces and the average
absorption coefficient.
0.165 𝑉 0.165×(20 × 15 ×5)
∑ 𝑎𝑆= = = 70.71
𝑇 3.5
The surface areas of the walls ceiling and floor of the room=2(20
×15+15×5+5×20)
70.71 70.71
α= = = 0.0744
2(20 ×15+15×5+5×20) 950
4) Calculate the length of iron rod which can be used to produce ultrasonic
waves of 20 KHZ. Density of iron is 7.23 X 10^ 3 kg/m^3 ,Young’s
modulus is 11.6 X 10^10 N/m^2

𝑘 𝑌
𝜂= √
2𝑙 𝜌

𝑘 𝑌
𝑙= √
2𝜂 𝜌

1 11.6×1010
= 2×20×103 √ 7.23 ×103 = 0.1001 m

I= 0.1001 m

5) Calculate natural frequency of 40 mm length of pure iron. Given the

density of pure iron is 7.25 X 10^3 kg/m^3 and Young’s modulus is 115 X
10^ 9 N/m^2.

𝑘 𝑌
𝜂= √
2𝑙 𝜌

1 115 × 109
= √
2 × 40 × 10−3 7.25 × 103

=49784.01 Hz

𝜼 = 𝟒𝟗. 𝟕𝟖𝟒 𝑲𝑯𝒛

6) Calculate the thickness of quartz plate which is used to produce
ultrasonic waves of 2 MHz. Density of quartz is 2.65 X 10^ 3 kg/m^3 and
Young’s modulus is 8 X 10^10 N/m^2

𝑘 𝑌
t= √
2𝜂 𝜌

1 8 × 1010
= √
2 × 2 × 106 2.65 × 103

t=1.37 mm
t = 1.37 × 10−3 m

7) Calculate the fundamental frequency of quartz crystal 1 mm thick &

density 2650 kg/m^3, Y=8 X 10^10 N/m^2

𝑘 𝑌
𝜂= √
2𝑡 𝜌

1 8 × 1010
= √
2 × 1 × 10−3 2650

= 2747211.27 Hz

η=2.7472MHz η=2.7472MHz
8) Calculate the length of Nickel rod required to produce frequency of 100
kHz. Density of nickel is 8908 kg/m^3 and Young’s modulus is 2.14 X
10^11 N/m^2

𝑘 𝑌
𝜂= √
2𝑙 𝜌

𝑘 𝑌
l= √
2𝜂 𝜌

1 2.14 × 1011
= √
2 × 100 × 103 8908

𝐥 = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟐𝟒𝟓𝟎 𝐦

9) Calculate the frequency of piezoelectric crystal using the following data

Vibrating length=3 mm, Young’s modulus=8 X 10^10 N/m^2 and density of
crystal =2.5 gm/cm^3

𝑘 𝑌
𝜂= √
2𝑙 𝜌
 1 8 × 1010
= √
2 × 3 × 10−3 2500

𝜂 = 942809.04 𝐻𝑧

𝜂 = 0.942 𝑀𝐻𝑧

𝜼 = 𝟎. 𝟗𝟒𝟐 𝑴𝑯𝒛

10) Calculate the length of Ni rod require to produce ultrasonic waves of

frequency 40 KHz. Given Density of Nickel =8.9 gm/cm3,Y= 20.8×1010
N/m2)

𝑘 𝑌
𝜂= √
2𝑙 𝜌

𝑘 𝑌
l= √
2𝜂 𝜌

1 20.8 × 1010
= √
2 × 40 × 103 8900

l = 0.06042 m

𝐥 = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟔𝟎𝟒𝟐 𝐦
11) Certain piezoelectric crystal of thickness 4 mm produces ultrasonic
waves of frequency 400 KHz. Calculate the thickness of this crystal to
produce ultrasonic frequency of 500 KHz

𝑘 𝑌
𝜂= √
2𝑙 𝜌

𝑘 𝑌
𝜂1 = √
2t1 𝜌

𝑘 𝑌
𝜂2 = √
2t 2 𝜌

η1 t 2
=
𝜂2 t1

η1 × t1 400 × 103 × 4 × 10−3

t2 = =
η2 500 × 103

t 2 = 3.2 × 10−3 m

t2=3.2 mm
t2=3.2 mm

12) Calculate the natural frequency of the ultrasonic waves generated by

a quartz crystal having thickness of 5.5 mm.( Given Y= 8 ×1010 N/m2,ρ(
density )=2650 Kg/m3)
4 Marks
 𝑘 𝑌
𝜂= √
2𝑙 𝜌

1 8 × 1010
= √
2 × 5.5 × 10−3 2650
= 499492.95 𝐻𝑧

𝜂 = 499.49 𝐾𝐻𝑧

𝜼 = 𝟒𝟗𝟗. 𝟒𝟗 𝑲𝑯𝒛

13) A quartz crystal having 3mm thickness is vibrating at resonance.

Calculate the fundamental frequency of vibrations for which ultrasonic
waves are generated. Given for quartz, 7.9 ×1010 N/m2,ρ( density )=2650
Kg/m3)

𝑘 𝑌
𝜂= √
2𝑙 𝜌

1 8×1010
= −3
√
2×5.5×10 2650

=909995.738 KHz

𝜂 = 909.995 𝐾𝐻𝑧

𝜼 = 𝟗𝟎𝟗. 𝟗𝟗𝟓 𝑲𝑯𝒛

14) An ultrasonic source of 0.07 MHz sends down a pulse towards

the sea bed, which returns after 0.65 sec . The velocity of sound
 in sea water is 1700 m/sec. Calculate the depth and the
wavelength of pulse.

f=0.07 X 106Hz
t=0.65 Sec
v=1700 m/sec
𝑣𝑡 1700×0.65
Distance 𝑑= =
2 2

Depth of Seabed=552.5 m Depth of Seabed=552.5 m

𝑣 1700
To calculate wavelength 𝑣 = 𝑓𝜆 = =
𝑓 0.07×106

Wavelength=0.0243 m Wavelength=0.0243 m

15) Find the echo time of ultrasonic pulse travelling with velocity
5.9X 103 m/sec in a mild steel whose correct thickness displayed
by guage is 18 mm.

𝑣𝑡 2 × 18 × 10−3
𝑑= =
2 5.9 × 103

2×𝑑 2×18×10−3
Echo Time= = = 6.1 × 10−6 𝑆𝑒𝑐
𝑣 5.9×103

Echo Time=6.1 × 10−6 𝑆𝑒𝑐

Echo Time=𝟔. 𝟏 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟔 𝑺𝒆𝒄