DIGITAL COMMUNICATION LAB

BECL504

V SEMESTER

2022 scheme

DEPARTMENT OF ELECTONICS
AND COMMUNICATION
ENGINEERING
Dr. Latha
Rajagoplan Head of
Department

Lab InCharges: Lab Instructors:

Deepika vijayan
Prof. Rashmi Rani S Swathi M

#22/1,Opp. Manyata Tech Park, Nagavara, Bengaluru, Karnataka

560045
A) PROGRAMOUTCOMES (POs) Engineering Graduates will be able to:

1. Engineering knowledge: Apply the knowledge of mathematics, science,

engineering fundamentals, and an engineering specialization to the solution of complex
engineering problems.

2. Problem analysis: Identify, formulate, review research literature, and analyze complex
engineering problems reaching substantiated conclusions using first principles of
mathematics, natural sciences, and engineering sciences.

3. Design/development of solutions: Design solutions for complex engineering problems

and design system components or processes that meet the specified needs with
appropriate consideration for the public health and safety, and the cultural, societal, and
environmental considerations.

4. Conduct investigations of complex problems: Use research-based knowledge and

research methods including design of experiments, analysis and interpretation of data,
and synthesis of the information to provide valid conclusions.

5. Modern tool usage: Create, select, and apply appropriate techniques, resources, and
modern engineering and IT tools including prediction and modeling to complex
engineering activities with an understanding of the limitations.

6. The engineer and society: Apply reasoning informed by the contextual knowledge to
assess societal, health, safety, legal and cultural issues and the consequent responsibilities
relevant to the professional engineering practice.

7. Environment and sustainability: Understand the impact of the professional

engineering solutions in societal and environmental contexts, and demonstrate the
knowledge of, and need for sustainable development.

8. Ethics: Apply ethical principles and commit to professional ethics and responsibilities
and norms of the engineering practice.

9. Individual and team work: Function effectively as an individual, and as a member or

leader in diverse teams, and in multidisciplinary settings.

10. Communication: Communicate effectively on complex engineering activities with

the engineering community and with society at large, such as, being able to comprehend
and write effective reports and design documentation, make effective presentations, and
give and receive clear instructions.

11. Project management and finance: Demonstrate knowledge and understanding of the
engineering and management principles and apply these to one’s own work, as a member
and leader in a team, to manage projects and in multidisciplinary environments.
12. Life-long learning: Recognize the need for, and have the preparation and ability to
engage in independent and life-long learning in the broadest context of technological
change.

B) PROGRAM SPECIFIC OUTCOMES (PSOs)

1. Professional Skills: An ability to understand the basic concepts in Electronics &

Communication Engineering and to apply them to various areas, like Electronics,
Communications, Signal processing, VLSI, Embedded systems etc., in the design and
implementation of complex systems.

2. Problem-Solving Skills: An ability to solve complex Electronics and communication

Engineering problems, using latest hardware and software tools, along with analytical
skills to arrive cost effective and appropriate solutions.

3. Entrepreneur: An ability to become an entrepreneur or to contribute to industrial

services and / or Govt. organizations in the field of Electronics and Communication
Engg.

4. Multidisciplinary Programming: An ability to work on multidisciplinary teams

with efficiency in different Programming techniques
 VISVESVARAYA TECHNOLOGICAL UNIVERSITY, BELAGAVI
B.E: Electronics & Communication Engineering / B.E: Electronics & Telecommunication
Engineering NEP, Outcome Based Education (OBE) and Choice Based Credit System (CBCS)

V Semester
Digital Communication Lab Semester 5
Course Code BECL504 CIE Marks 50
Teaching Hours/Week (L:T:P: S) 0:0:2:0 SEE Marks 50
Credits 01 Total SEE+CIE 100
Exam Hours 2 Hours
Examination type (SEE) Practical
Course objectives:
This laboratory course enables students to
 Design of basic digital modulation techniques using electronic hardware.
 Simulation of vector computations and derive the orthonormal basis set using Gram
Schmidt procedure.
 Simulate the digital transmission and reception in AWGN channel
 Simulate the digital modulations using software and display the signals and its vector
representations.
 Implement the source coding algorithms using a suitable software platform.
 Simulate the channel coding techniques and perform decoding for error detection and
correction.
Sl. Experiment
N s
O
Hardware Experiments
1
Generation and demodulation of the Amplitude Shift Keying signal.
2
Generation and demodulation of the Phase Shift Keying signal.
3
Generation and demodulation of the Frequency Shift Keying signal.
4
Generation of DPSK signal and detection of data using DPSK transmitter and receiver.
Simulation Experiments (Use MUKU:GO / MATLAB / Scilab /LabVIEW or any other suitable
software)
5 Gram-Schmidt Orthogonalization: To find orthogonal basis vectors for the given set of
vectors and plot the orthonormal vectors.
6 Simulation of binary baseband signals using a rectangular pulse and estimate the BER for
AWGN channel
using matched filter receiver.
7 Perform the QPSK Modulation and demodulation. Display the signal and its constellation.
8 Generate 16-QAM Modulation and obtain the QAM constellation.

9 Encoding and Decoding of Huffman code.

10 Encoding and Decoding of binary data using a Hamming code.

11 For a given data, use CRC-CCITT polynomial to obtain the CRC code. Verify for the cases, a)
Without error
b) With error
12 Encoding and Decoding of Convolution code
Assessment Details (both CIE and SEE)
The weightage of Continuous Internal Evaluation (CIE) is 50% and for Semester
End Exam (SEE) is 50%. The minimum passing mark for the CIE is 40% of the
maximum marks (20 marks). A student shall be deemed to have satisfied the
academic requirements and earned the credits allotted to each course. The student
has to secure not less than 35% (18 Marks out of 50) in the semester-end
examination (SEE).
Continuous Internal Evaluation (CIE):
CIE marks for the practical course is 50 Marks.
The split-up of CIE marks for record/ journal and test are in the ratio 60:40.
 Each experiment to be evaluated for conduction with observation sheet and
record write- up. Rubrics for the evaluation of the journal/write-up for
hardware/software experiments designed by the faculty who is handling the
laboratory session and is made known to students at the beginning of the
practical session.
 Record should contain all the specified experiments in the syllabus and each
experiment write-up will be evaluated for 10 marks.
 Total marks scored by the students are scaled downed to 30 marks (60% of
maximum marks).
 Weightage to be given for neatness and submission of record/write-up on time.
 Department shall conduct 02 tests for 100 marks, the first test shall be
conducted after the 8th week of the semester and the second test shall be
conducted after the 14th week of the semester.
 In each test, test write-up, conduction of experiment, acceptable result, and
procedural knowledge will carry a weightage of 60% and the rest 40% for
viva-voce.
 The suitable rubrics can be designed to evaluate each student’s performance
and learning ability. Rubrics suggested in Annexure-II of Regulation book
 The average of 02 tests is scaled down to 20 marks (40% of the maximum marks).

The Sum of scaled-down marks scored in the report write-up/journal and average
marks of two tests is the total CIE marks scored by the student.
Semester End Evaluation (SEE):
SEE marks for the practical course is 50 Marks.
SEE shall be conducted jointly by the two examiners of the same institute,
examiners are appointed by the University
All laboratory experiments are to be included for practical examination. (Rubrics)
Breakup of marks and the instructions printed on the cover page of the answer
script to be strictly adhered to by the examiners. OR based on the course
requirement evaluation rubrics shall be decided jointly by examiners. Students can
pick one question (experiment) from the questions lot prepared by the internal
/external examiners jointly.
Evaluation of test write-up/ conduction procedure and result/viva will be
conducted jointly by examiners.
General rubrics suggested for SEE are mentioned here, writeup-20%, Conduction
procedure and result in -60%, Viva-voce 20% of maximum marks. SEE for
practical shall be evaluated for 100 marks and scored marks shall be scaled down
to 50 marks (however, based on course type, rubrics shall be decided by the
examiners).Change of experiment is allowed only once and 15% Marks allotted to
the procedure part to be made zero.
Digital Communication Lab BECL504

EXPERIMENT - 2
PHASE SHIFT KEYING GENERATION AND DETECTION
AIM: To study Phase Shift Keying generation and detection.
COMPONENTS REQUIRED: Transistor SL100, resistor, capacitor, OP Amp µA 741, signal
generator, diode.

THEORY: Phase shift keying is the digital modulation technique in which the phase of the
carrier signal is changed by varying the sine and cosine inputs at a particular time. PSK
technique is widely used for wireless LANs, bio-metric, contactless operations, along with
RFID and Bluetooth communications. PSK uses a finite number of phases, each assigned a
unique pattern of binary digits.

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

PSK MODULATOR:

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PSK DEMODULATOR:

PROCEDURE:

1. Connect the circuit as shown in the figure above.

2. Give square wave signal frequency 200 to 500Hz and 5V peak-to-peak amplitude as the
binary digital data input.
3. The carrier signal of frequency 2 to 5KHz sine wave is applied
4. Observe the PSK output waveform obtained on the CRO.
5. Connect the PSK signal to the PSK demodulator circuit shown in figure below and also
the carrier.
6. Observe the demodulated output of the decision logic on the CRO. Compare this with the
original modulating signal used in the PSK modulator. Record the results.

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WAVEFORMS:

RESULT:

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EXPERIMENT - 3
FREQUENCY SHIFT KEYING GENERATION AND DETECTION

AIM: FSK generation and detection.

APPARATUS: Transistor SL100 and SK100, resistors, capacitors, op amp μA 741, 0A79
diode, Power supply, CRO.

THEORY: Frequency Shift Keying (FSK) is a modulation scheme used in digital

communication systems to transmit digital data over a carrier wave by varying the frequency of
the carrier wave based on the digital input. In FSK, the binary data is represented by shifting
the frequency of the carrier signal between two predefined frequencies, typically denoted as f1
and f2. This modulation technique is widely used in various applications such as wireless
communication systems, telemetry, and data transmission over telephone lines.

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:
FSK MODULATOR:

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DESIGN:
Ic = 2.5mA

VRE = 2.5V

RE = VRE / IE = 2.5 / 2.5mA = RE = 1KΩ

VRB = Vm(t)p-p / 2 –VBE(sat) – VRE(sat)
= 3.5 – 0.7 – 2.5
VRB = 0.3V

Ib = Ic / hfe = 2.5 / 100

= 2.5µA Ib(sat) =
1.2Ib Ibsat = 30µA
RB = Vrb / Ibsat = 0.3 / 30 = Rb = 10KΩ

FSK DEMODULATOR:

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fm = 1 / 2 RC

C= 0.1µF
R = 15.9KΩ
fm = 100Hz
fc1 = 1 / 2 R1C1
fc1=1 kHz
R1 = 1.59
KΩ C1=
0.1µF

PROCEDURE:

Modulation:

1. Connection is made as shown in circuit diagram [figure. 2(c)]

2. The modulating signal m(t) is chosen to be low freq (50 Hz to 300Hz) square wave.
3. The 10K pot is varied so as to get proper FSKoutput.
4. Record the results bytracing the waveforms obtained.

Demodulation:

1. Rig up the circuit as shown in figure 2 (d).

2. Feed the FSK input fromthe FSK modulator output to the OPAMP peak detector.
3. Adjust the reference voltage suitably (between 0 to 1 Volt) to get an undistorted
demodulated output. Compare it with the data input used in modulation. Record all the
waveforms as observed

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WAVE FORMS:

t
t

Modulated waveform

Demodulated waveform

RESULT:

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EXPERIMENT - 4
DPSK GENERATION AND DETECTION

AIM: To conduct an experiment to generate DPSK signal and also design a circuit to
demodulate it.

COMPONENTS REQUIRED: Power supply, kit ADCL-0 I, Connecting wires

THEORY: Differentially phase shift keying (DPSK) is differentially coherent modulation.

DPSK does not need a synchronous (coherent) carrier at the demodulator. The input sequences
of binary bits are modified such that the next bit depends upon the previous bit. Therefore in
the receiver the previous received bits are used to detect the present bit. The input sequence is
d(t). Output sequence is b(t) and b(t-Tb) is the previous output delayed by on J bit period.
Depending upon values of d(t) and b(t-Tb) exclusive OR gates generates the output sequence
b(t).DPSK does not need carrier at its receiver. Hence the complicated circuitry for generation
of local carrier is avoided.

.
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

PROCEDURE:
1. Refer the block diagram and carry out the following connections and switch settings.
2. Connect the power supply in proper polarity to the bit ADCL-0 I and switch to UN.
3. Select data pattern of simulated data using switch 1.
4. Connect SDAT A generator to DATA JN of differential encoder.
5. Connect NRZ-L data output to DATA JN of differential encoder.
6. Connect the north generator to S-CLK to CLK IN of the differential encoder.
7. Connect differentially encoded data to control input C 1 at carrier modulator.

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8. Connect carrier components SIN 1 to IN 1 of carrier modulator.

9. Connect carrier components SIN2 to IN2 of carrier modulator.
10. Connect DPSK modulated signal MO DO UT to MODIN of BPSK demodulator.
11. Connect output of BPSK demodulator b(t) out to input of delay section b(t) and
input b(t)IN of decision device.

12. Connect output of delay section. B(t-Tb) out of the input b(t-Tb) In of decision device.
13. Compare the DPSK decoded data at data out with respect to Input SDA TA
14. Input NRZ-L data in differential encoder.
15. Connect carrier components SIN 1 to IN 1 of carrier modulator.
16. Connect carrier components SIN2 to IN2 of carrier modulator.
17. Connect DPSK modulated signal MO DO UT to MODIN of BPSK demodulator.
18. Connect output of BPSK demodulator b(t) out to input of delay section b(t) and
input b(t)IN of decision device.

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WAVEFORM:

RESULT:

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EXPERIMENT - 5
Huffman Coding and Decoding
AIM: Write a program to encode binary data using Huffman code and decode it.

SOFTWARE: MATLAB

THEORY: Huffman Coding is a technique of compressing data to reduce its size without
losing any of the details. It was first developed by David Huffman.
Huffman Coding is generally useful to compress the data in which there are frequently
occurring characters. Huffman coding is widely used in applications where compression is
essential, such as file compression algorithms (e.g., ZIP) and image compression (e.g., JPEG).
1 Frequency Analysis
Huffman coding starts with a frequency analysis of the input data. The frequency of each
symbol (character or group of characters) in the input is determined. This step helps identify the
most common symbols, which will be assigned shorter codes.
2 Building the Huffman Tree
Once the frequencies are determined, a binary tree called the Huffman tree is constructed. The
tree is built in such a way that the more frequent symbols have shorter binary codes. The
process involves iteratively combining the two least frequent symbols into a new node until
only one node remains—the root of the Huffman tree.
3 Assigning Binary Codes
After constructing the Huffman tree, binary codes are assigned to each symbol based on their
position in the tree. Traversing left or right in the tree corresponds to appending '0' or '1' to the
code, respectively. The result is a set of variable-length codes for each symbol.

Program:

x= input('Enter the number of

symbols:'); N=1:x;

disp('The number of symbols are

N:'); disp(N);

P=input('Enter the probabilities:');

disp('The probabilities are P:');

disp (P);

S=sort (P, 'descend');

disp('The sorted probabilities are:');

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disp (S);

[dict, avglen]=huffmandict(N,S);

disp('The average length of the code is:');

disp (avglen);

H=0;

for i=1:x

H=H+ (P(i) *log2 (1/P (i)));

end

disp('Entropy is:');

disp (H);

disp('bits/msg');

E=(H/avglen) *100;

disp('Efficiency is:')

disp(E);

codeword=huffmanenco(N,dict);

disp('The codewords are:');

disp(codeword);

decode=huffmandeco(codeword,dict);

disp('The decoded output:');

disp(decode);

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Expected Output

Enter the number of symbols: 5

The number of symbols are N:

12345

Enter the probabilities: [0.1 0.1 0.2 0.2 0.4]

The probabilities are P: 0.1000 0.1000 0.2000 0.2000 0.4000

The sorted probabilities are:

0.4000 0.2000 0.2000 0.1000 0.1000

The average length of the code is:

2.2000

Entropy is:

2.1219 bits/msg

Efficiency is:

96.4513

The codewords are:

Columns 1 through 14

1 000 0 1 0 0 1 1 0 0 10

The decoded output:

12345

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EXPERIMENT - 6
Hamming Coding and Decoding
AIM: Write a program to encode binary data using Huffman code and decode it.

SOFTWARE: MATLAB

THEORY: The Hamming Code method is a network technique designed by R.W.Hamming,

for damage and error detection during data transmission between multiple network channels.

The Hamming Code method is one of the most effective ways to detect single-data bit errors in
the original data at the receiver end. It is not only used for error detection but is also for
correcting errors in the data bit.

Here are some of the features of Hamming code:

Error Detection and Correction: Hamming code is designed to detect and correct single-bit
errors that may occur during the transmission of data. This ensures that the recipient receives
the same data that was transmitted by the sender.

Redundancy: Hamming code uses redundant bits to add additional information to the data
being transmitted. This redundancy allows the recipient to detect and correct errors that may
have occurred during transmission.

Efficiency: Hamming code is a relatively simple and efficient error-correction technique that
does not require a lot of computational resources. This makes it ideal for use in low-power and
low-bandwidth communication networks.

Single Error Correction: Hamming code is capable of correcting a single-bit error, which
makes it ideal for use in applications where errors are likely to occur due to external factors
such as electromagnetic interference.

Program:
clear
n = 7%# of codeword bits per block k = 4%# of message bits per block
A = [ 1 1 1;1 1 0;1 0 1;0 1 1 ];%Parity submatrix-Need binary(decimal combination of
7,6,5,3)
G = [ eye(k) A ]%Generator matrix

H = [ A' eye(n-k) ]%Parity-check matrix

% ENCODER%
msg = [ 1 1 1 1 ] %Message block vector-change to any 4 bit sequence

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code = mod(msg*G,2)%Encode message
% CHANNEL ERROR(add one error to code)%
%code(1)= ~code(1);
code(2)= ~code(2);
%code(3)= ~code(3);

%code(4)= ~code(4);%Pick one,comment out others

%code(5)= ~code(5);

%code(6)= ~code(6);

%code(7)= ~code(7);

recd = code %Received codeword with error

% DECODER%

syndrome = mod(recd * H',2)

%Find position of the error in codeword (index)

find = 0;

for ii = 1:n
if ~find
errvect = zeros(1,n);

errvect(ii) = 1;

search = mod(errvect *H',2);

if search == syndrome

find = 1;

index = ii:

end

end

end

disp(['Position of error in codeword=',num2str(index)]);

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correctedcode = recd;

correctedcode(index) = mod(recd(index)+1,2)%Corrected codeword

%Strip off parity bits

msg_decoded=correctedcode;

msg_decoded=msg_decoded(1:4)

Expected output:
n=7

k=

G=

1 0 0 0 1 1 1
0 1 0 0 1 1 0
0 0 1 0 1 0 1
0 0 0 1 0 1 1

H=

1 1 1 0 1 0 0
1 1 0 1 0 1 0
1 0 1 1 0 0 1

msg =

1 1 1 1

code =
1 1 1 1 1 1 1
recd =

1 0 1 1 1 1 11

syndrome =

1 1 0

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Position of error in

codeword=2 correctedcode =

1 1 1 1 1 1 1

msg_decoded =

1 1 1 1

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EXPERIMENT - 7
Convolution Coding and Decoding

AIM: Write a program to encode binary data using a ((3,1,2)/suitably designed) Convolution
code and decode it.

SOFTWARE: MATLAB

THEORY: In convolutional coding, the coder input and output are continuous streams of
digits. The coder outputs n output digits for every k digit input, and the code is described as 'a
rate k/n code'. If the input digits are included unmodified in the coder output the code is
described as systematic.

The convolutional coding technique is used to encode and decode a continuous stream of bits.
The basic concept behind the convolution is the overlapping of two signals to form the other
one. A convolutional code can be used to detect or correct infinite sequences of errors or to
correct infinite sequences of erasures. First, erasure correction is shown to be related to error
detection, as well as error detection to error correction.

A binary convolutional code of rate 1/v bits per symbol can be generated by a linear finite-
state machine consisting ofan L-stage shift register, v modulo-2 adders connected to some of
the shift registers, and a commutator that scans the output of the modulo-2 adders.

Program:

clc;

close all;

clear all;

k=3;

G1=7;% First sequence polynomial

G2=5;% Second sequence

polynomial msg=[1 0 1 1 0];

trel=poly2trellis(k,[G1 G2]);

disp('message sequence :');

disp(msg);

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coded=convenc(msg,trel);

disp('encoder output :');

disp(coded);

tblen=length(msg);

decoded=vitdec(coded,trel,tblen,'trunc','hard');

disp('encoder output :');

disp(decoded);

Expected Output:
message sequence:
1 0 1 1 0
encoder output:
1 1 1 0 0 0 0 1 0 1
encoder output:
1 0 1 1 0

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Digital Communication Lab BECL504
PART C & D NCTUNS SIMULATION

Introduction to Simulation

To study the network performance two things you can use. They are:

Emulator
Simulator

Emulator

A device on the [LAN], Real network, actual equipment, real software or a part of the real
system is replaced by a model. This model is called Emulator. Properties of an existing part are
simulated (only the part of the real system). A network emulator emulates the network, imitates
the behavior of application traffic.

Objective:

 To test control systems, under realistic condition.

 To do analysis.
 To access the performance.
 To predict the impact of change
 To optimize technology decision-making.

Advantage:

 Reflect results precisely

Disadvantage:

 Must run in real time

 Expensive
 Requires a lot of setup
 We won’t use emulation for experimentation.

Simulator

Network simulators are typically programs which run on a single computer, take an
abstract description of the network traffic (such as a flow arrival process) and yield
performance statistics (such as buffer occupancy as a function of time).

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Objective:

 To test and develop different solutions and finally to arrive at a best solution.

Advantage:

 Cost effective
 Flexible.
 No risk involved. Extensive experiments can be done.
 Easier to analyze
.
Disadvantage:

 Not just a part but a complete network simulator needs to simulate networking
devices and application programs.
 Needs network utility programs to configure and monitor.
 Simulation model maintains its own simulation clock. When a decision is taken
within the model, the simulation clock does not advance until the necessary
calculations have been performed.
 Results are not convincing.

Different types of simulators:

 REAQL
 NS
 OPNET
 NCTUns

NCTUns
 Open source,
 high quality
 support many type of networks
 Extensible. Can be used as emulator also.
 Uses real-life Linux’s TCP/IP protocol
 Uses real-life UNIX network configuration.
 Can simulate various networking devices.
 Can simulate various network protocols
 Simulation speed is high.
 It uses kernel re-enter methodology. For this it uses tunnel network interface. Tunnel
devices are available in most UNIX machines.

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 NCTUns modifies the kernel to use a special virtual timer. The kernel code is modified.
Each kernel on which NCTUns runs need to be patched. Kernel needs to be patched on all
simulation machines.

NCTUns Architecture

NCTUns uses distributed

Architecture. NCTUns has following

components:

GUI Operating Environment (nctunsclient)

a. Simulation Engine
b. Protocol and job Dispatcher
c. Coordinator
d. Kernel modification
e. User-level daemon and real-world application program
f. Remote, concurrent and Parallel simulation

i. GUI Operating Environment:

1. It is a GUI program which generates the simulation job.
2. It uses TCP/IP sockets to communicate with other components.
3. The simulation job generated is submitted to remote simulation machine for
execution. When the simulation is finished, the simulation results and generated
log files are transferred back to the GUI. The user then examines the logged data
and plots the graphs, play back packet transfer animations.
ii. Simulation Engine:
1. It is a user level program. It is compiled along with Protocols to form Simulation
server. Simulation server takes simulation job and generates data and log files.
iii. Protocol and job Dispatcher:
1. It is a user level program. It takes simulation jobs from the GUI user and
dispatches it to the simulation server machine.
2. It coordinates large number of GUI users and a large number of simulation
machines.
iv. Coordinator:
1. It is a user level program.
2. It is executed on every simulation machine where simulation server resides.
3. It takes simulation jobs from the dispatcher and executes the simulation
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server to process the simulation job.
4. Coordinator informs the dispatcher whether machine is busy or not.
5. It communicates with the dispatcher and GUI on behalf of server.
6. Message exchange between simulation server and GUI are performed
through coordinator.

v. Kernel Modification
vi. User-level Daemon and real-world application program:
The NCTUns real-world application programs run at the user level to generate network
traffic, configure network, or monitor network traffic, etc. For example, the tcp dump
program can run on a simulated network to capture packets flowing over a link and the
trace route program can run on a simulated network to find out the routing path
traversed by a packet.
vii. Remote, concurrent and parallel simulations.
NCTUns uses a distributed architecture, by which simulation machines can be far
away from the machines where the GUI programs are run. For example, the simulation
service machines may reside at NCTU in Taiwan while the GUI users come from
many different places of the world. Multiple simulation jobs can be concurrently
simulated on different machines (one machine serves one job) to increase the total
simulation throughput. When the NCTUns simulation jobsare run on multiple
machines, we say that NCTUns is operating in the “multiple machine‟ mode [13].
This mode supports remote and concurrent simulations. In the “single-machine‟

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mode, the simulation jobs run on the same machine. With the inter-process
communication (IPC) design, NCTUns can be used for either mode without changing
its program code. Only the mode parameter in its configuration file needs to be
changed.

STEPS TO START NCTUNS

Three things we are going to start. They are:
 Dispatcher (With ADMIN privilege)

 Coordinator (With ADMIN privilege)

 Nctunsclient (With ADMIN or user privilege)
But after drawing the topology, you should submit the simulation with user privilege only we
need three terminals.
1st terminal to execute. /dispatcher at the server
2nd terminal to execute. /coordinator at the
server 3rd terminal to execute. /nctunsclient at
the client

STEP 1: # cd /usr/local/nctuns/bin

STEP 2: #. /dispatcher <enter

key>

Right click on the blank space of the screen and select open tab

STEP 3: #. /coordinator <enter key>

Right click on the blank space of the screen and select open tab

STEP 4: #. /nctunsclient <enter key>

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To submit the simulation, you should be the normal user

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WORKING WITH NCTUNS

There are 4 steps in doing the NCTUNS experiments. They are as below

1. Drawing a network topology D

2. Editing node’s properties E

3. Running the simulation R

4. Post analysis P

Drawing a network topology:

Identification of tools on the toolbar:

Select

D Draw topology

E Edit property

R Run Simulation

Play back
P

X Delete

Point – to – point link

Moving path

Hub

X Switch (Green color)

Host (Black color)

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Router (Red color)

WLAN mobile node (Infra-structure mode) Yellow color – Top row

A user can draw a new network topology or change an existing simulation topology only in the
Draw topology mode. Draw topology mode is the default mode of NCTUNs.

To check whether the mode is in draw mode or not do as follow.

Choose Menu  File  Operating mode  and make sure that the “Draw Topology” mode is
checked.

1. Move the cursor to the toolbar.

2. Left-click the router icon on the toolbar.
3. Left-click anywhere in the blank working area to add a router to the current network
topology. In the same way we can add switch, hub, WLAN access pointed.
4. Left-click the host icon on the toolbar. Add the required number of hosts to the current
topology.
5. To add links between the hosts and the router, left-click the link icon on the toolbar to
select it.
6. Left-click a host and hold the mouse button. Drag this link to the router and then release
the mouse left button on top of the router. Now a link between the selected host and the
router has been created.
7. Add the other, required number of links in the same way. This completes the creation of
a simple network topology.
8. Save this network topology by choosing Menu File Save. It is saved with a .tpl
extension.

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Editing Node’s Properties:

A network node (device) may have many parameters to set. Some parameters are

 Bandwidth
 Queue size
 IP address

The GUI automatically finds subnets in a network and generates and assigns IP and MAC
addresses to layer 3 network interfaces.

If the user switches the mode back to the “Draw Topology” mode and when the user
again switches the mode back to the “Edit topology” mode, node’s IP and MAC
addresses will be regenerated and assigned to layer 3 interfaces.

Therefore the application programs now may use wrong IP addresses to communicate with
their partners.

Start up

1. Open three terminals

a. in terminal 1 at command prompt run dispatcher(root@localhost# dispatcher)
b. in terminal 2 at command prompt run coordinator(root@localhost# coordinator)
c. in terminal 3 at command prompt run nctunsclient( root@localhost# nctunsclient)
2. After the above steps NCTUns starting screen will appear.

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3. To draw the network topology perform the following steps
4. Choose Menu-> File-> Operating Mode-> D(draw mode), draw the required
topology or change the existing simulation topology.(drag and drop)
5. Once topology is drawn, set the node property by switching to “Edit property” mode E
6. Configure the node with appropriate commands at source and destination
7. Run the Simulation menu simulation run
8. Play back the simulation.

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EXPERIMENT - 11
CRC

AIM: For a given data, use CRC – CCITT polynomial to obtain the CRC code. Verify the
program for the cases a) Without error b) With error.

SOFTWARE: NCTUNS 4.0

THEORY: The cyclic redundancy checks or CRC, are a technique for detecting errors in
digital data, but not for making corrections when errors are detected. It is used primarily in data
transmission.

In the CRC method, a certain number of check bits, are appended to the message being
transmitted. The receiver can determine whether or not the check bits agree with the data,to
ascertain with a certain degree of probability whether or not an error occurred in transmission.

In this method, the message is divided by an agreed upon polynomial called generator
polynomial. The obtained reminder is called CRC and is appended with the message bits and
transmitted. If: x div y gives remainder c that means: x = n y + c

Hence (x-c) = n y, (x-c) div y gives remainder 0 E.g.: 14%3=2, therefore (14-2) =12, 12%3=0.

When the transmitted message is received by the receiver, the received message is divided by
generator polynomial. If the remainder is zero, the received data is error free else the received
data has errors.

STEPS:

1. Given a bit string, append 0s to the end of it (the number of 0s is the same as the degree
of the generatorpolynomial). Let it be (𝑥).
2. Divide (𝑥) by agreed on generated polynomial (𝑥) and determine the
remainder(𝑥).This division is to bedone using Modulo-2 Division.
3. Append the remainder to given data, using modulo-2 XOR operation let it
be (𝑥) = (𝑥)–(𝑥).
4. Transmit (𝑥). This is the data that is transmitted ((𝑥)⁄(𝑥) => remainder 0).
5. At Receiver: Let 𝑇 ′ represent the bit stream the receiver gets and 𝑇 ′ (x). The receiver
also will be knowing the generator polynomial. The receiver divides T1(x) by G(x). If
there is a 0 remainder, the receiver concludes 𝑇 = 𝑇 ′ has no error otherwise, the receiver
concludes an error occurred.

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PROGRAM:
#include<stdio.h>
#include<string.h>
#define N
strlen(g)
Char t[28],cs[28],g []="10001000000100001";

int a,e,c;
void xor()
{
for(c=1;c<N;c++)
cs[c]=((cs[c]==g[c])?'0':'1');
}
void crc()
{
for(e=0;e<N;e++)
cs[e]=t[e];
do
{
if(cs[0]== '1')
xor();
for(c=0;c<N-1;c++)
cs[c]=cs[c+1];
cs[c]=t[e++];
}
while(e<=a+N-1);
}
int main()
{
printf("\n enter
data:"); scanf("%s",t);
printf("\n generator polynomial: %s",
g); a=strlen(t);

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//#define a
strlen(t)
for(e=a;e<a+N-1;e++)
t[e]='0';
printf("\n modified data is :
%s",t); crc();
printf("\n checksum is :%s",
cs); for(e=a;e<a;e++)
t[e]=cs[e-a];
printf("\n frame transmnitted msg(mode word)is :%s",t);
printf("\n test error detection 0(yes), 1(no) ?:");
scanf("%d",&e);
if(e==0)
{
do
{
printf("enter the position where error is to be inserted :");
scanf("%d",&e);
}
while(e==0||e>a+N-1);
t[e-1]=(t[e-1]=='0')? '1' : '0';
printf("\n erroreous data recieved : %s\
n",t); crc();
for(e=0;(e<N-1) && (cs[e]!='1');e+
+); if(e<N-1)
printf("\n error detected");
}
else
printf("\n no error
detected"); return 0;
}

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Expected Output:
enter data:1101
generator polynomial:
10001000000100001 modified data is :
11010000000000000000 checksum
is :1101000110101101
frame transmitted msg(mode word) is
:11010000000000000000 test error detection 0(yes), 1(no) ?:0
enter the position where error is to be inserted : 2
erroreous data received:
10010000000000000000

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VIVA QUESTIONS

1. What do you mean by data communication?

Ans: It is the exchange of data between two devices via some form of transmission medium
such as wire cable. The communicating system must be part of a communication system made
up of a combination of hardware and software. The effectiveness of a data communication
system depends on three fundamental characteristics: delivery, accuracy and timeliness.

2. What is simplex?
Ans: It is the mode of communication between two devices in which flow of data is
unidirectional. i.e. one can transmit and other can receive. E.g. keyboard and monitor.

3. What is half-duplex?
Ans: It is the mode of communication between two devices in which flow of data is bi-
directional but not at the same time. ie each station can transmit and receive but not at the same
time. E.g walkie-talkies are half-duplex system.

4. What is full duplex?

Ans: It is the mode of communication between two devices in which flow of data is bi-
directional and it occurs simultaneously. Here signals going in either direction share the
capacity of the link. E.g. telephone

5. What is a network?
Ans: It is a set of devices connected by communication links. A node can be a computer or any
other device capable of sending and/or receiving data generated by other nodes on the network.

6. What is distributed processing?

Ans: It is a strategy in which services provided by the network reside at multiple sites.

7. What is point to point connection?

Ans:It provides a dedicated link between two devices. The entire capacity of the link is
reserved for transmission between the two devices e.g. when we change the TV channels by
remote control we establish a point to point connection between remote control and TV control
system.

8. What is multipoint connection?

Ans: In multipoint connection more than two specific devices share a single link. Here the
capacity of the channel is shared either separately or temporally.

9. What is a topology?
Ans: Topology of a network is defined as the geometric representation of the relationship of all
the links and linking devices (node) to one another. Four basic topologies are star, bus, ring and
mesh. Star – Here each device has a dedicated point to point link only to a central controller

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called hub. Bus -It is multipoint. One long cable acts as a backbone to link all the devices in the
network. Ring -Here each device has a dedicated point to point connection only with the two

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devices on either side of it. Mesh -Here every device has a dedicated point to point link to
every other device.

10. Define LAN, MAN and WAN.

Ans: LAN- A local area network (LAN) is a privately owned and links the devices in a single
office, building or campus. It allows resources to be shared between personal computers and
work stations. MAN- A metropolitan-area network (MAN) spreads over an entire city. It may
be wholly owned and operated by a private company, eg local telephone company. WAN – A
wide area network (WAN) provides long distance transmission of data, voice, image and video
information over large geographic areas that comprise a country, a continent or even whole
world.

11. Define internet?

Ans: It is a network of networks.

12. What is a protocol?

Ans: It is a set of rules that governs data communication. A protocol defines what is
communicated, how it is communicated, and when it is communicated. The key elements of
protocol are syntax, semantics and timing.

13. What is TCP/IP protocol model?

Ans: It is a five layered model which provides guidelines for the development of universally
compatible networking protocols. The five layers are physical, data link, network, transport
and application.

14. Describe the functions of five layers?

Ans: Physical- It transmits raw bits over a medium. It provides mechanical and electrical
specification. Data link- It organizes bits into frames. It provides hop to hop delivery. Network-
It moves the packets from source to destination. It provide internetworking. Transport-It
provides reliable process to process message delivery and error recovery. Application-It allows
ti access to network resources.

15. What is ISO-OSI model?

Ans: Open Systems Interconnection or OSI model was designed by the International
Organization for Standardization (ISO) .It is a seven layer model. It is a theoretical model
designed to show how a protocol stack should be implemented. It defines two extra layers in
addition to TCP/IP model. Session -It was designed to establish, maintain, and synchronize the
interaction between communicating system. Presentation-It was designed to handle the syntax
and semantics of the information exchanged between the two systems. It was designed for data
translation, encryption, decryption, and compression.

16. What is multiplexing?

Ans: Multiplexing is the process of dividing a link, the physical medium, into logical channels
for better efficiency. Here medium is not changed but it has several channels instead of one.

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17. What is switching?
Ans: Switching in data communication is of three types Circuit switching Packet switching
Message switching

18. How data is transmitted over a medium?

Ans: Data is transmitted in the form of electromagnetic signals.

19. Compare analog and digital signals?

Ans: Analog signals can have an infinite number of values in a range but digital signal can
have only a limited number of values.

20. What are the factors on which data rate depends?

Ans: Data rate i.e. how fast we can send data depends upon i) Bandwidth available ii) The
levels of signals we can use iii) The quality of the channel (level of noise)

21. Define bit rate and bit interval?

Ans: Digital signals are aperiodic.so instead of using period and frequency we use bit interval
and bit rate respectively. Bit interval is the time required to send one single bit. Bit rate is the
number of bit intervals per second.

22. What is sampling?

Ans: It is the process of obtaining amplitude of a signal at regular intervals.

23. Define pulse amplitude modulation?

Ans: It is an analog to digital conversion method which takes analog signals, samples it and
generates a series of pulse based on the results of the sampling. It is not used in data
communication because the series of pulses generated still of any amplitude. To modify it we
use pulse code modulation.

24. Define pulse code modulation?

Ans: Pulse code Modulation modifies pulses created by PAM to create a completely digital
signal. For this PCM first quantizes the PAM pulse. Quantization is the method of assigning
integral values in a specific range to sampled instances. PCM is made up of four separate
processes: PAM, quantization, binary encoding and line encoding.

25. What is Nyquist Theorem?

Ans: According to this theorem, the sampling rate must be at least 2 times the highest
frequency of the original signal.

26. What are the modes of data transmission?

Ans: Data transmission can be serial or parallel in mode. In parallel transmission, a group of
bits is sent simultaneously, with each bit on a separate line. In serial transmission there is only
one line and the bits are sent sequentially.

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27. What is Asynchronous mode of data transmission?
Ans: It is a serial mode of transmission. In this mode of transmission, each byte is framed with
a start bit and a stop bit. There may be a variable length gap between each byte.

28. What is Synchronous mode of data transmission?

Ans: It is a serial mode of transmission. In this mode of transmission, bits are sent in a
continuous stream without start and stop bit and without gaps between bytes. Regrouping the
bits into meaningful bytes is the responsibility of the receiver.

29. Define bandwidth?

Ans: The range of frequencies that a medium can pass is called bandwidth. It is the difference
between the highest and lowest frequencies that the medium can satisfactorily pass.

30. What are the different types of multiplexing?

Ans: Multiplexing is of three types. Frequency division multiplexing and wave division
multiplexing is for analog signals and time division multiplexing is for digital signals.

31. What is FDM?

Ans: In frequency division multiplexing each signal modulates a different carrier frequency.
The modulated carrier combines to form a new signal that is then sent across the link. Here
multiplexers modulate and combine the signal while demultiplexers decompose and
demodulate. Guard bands keep the modulating signal from overlapping and interfering with
one another.

32. What is TDM?

Ans: In TDM digital signals from n devices are interleaved with one another, forming a frame
of data. Framing bits allow the TDM multiplexer to synchronize properly.

33. What are the different transmission media?

Ans: The transmission media is broadly categorized into two types

i)Guided media(wired) ii)Unguided media(wireless)

34. What do you mean by wireless communication?

Ans: Unguided media transport electromagnetic waves without using a physical conductor.
This type of communication is referred as wireless communication. Here signals are
broadcaster through air and thus available to anyone who has a device to receive it. are
connected to one another efficiently. A switch is intermediary hardware or software that links
devices together temporarily.

35. What are the switching methods?

Ans: There are three fundamental switching methods: circuit switching, packet switching, And
message switching. In circuit switching, a direct physical connection between two devices is
created by space division switches, time division switches or both. In packet switching data is

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transmitted using a packet switched network. Packet switched network is a network in which
data are transmitted in independent units called packets.

36. What are the duties of data link layer?

Ans: Data link layer is responsible for carrying packets from one hop (computer or router) to
the next. The duties of data link layer include packetizing, addressing, error control, flow
control, medium access control.

37. What are the types of errors?

Ans: Errors can be categorized as a single-bit error or burst error. A single bit error has one bit
error per data unit. A burst error has two or more bits errors per data unit.

38. What do you mean by redundancy?

Ans: Redundancy is the concept of sending extra bits for use in error detection. Three common
redundancy methods are parity check, cyclic redundancy check (CRC), and checksum.

39. Define cyclic redundancy check (CRC)?

Ans: C RC appends a sequence of redundant bits derived from binary division to the data unit.
The divisor in the CRC generator is often represented as an algebraic polynomial.

40. What is hamming code?

Ans: The hamming code is an error correction method using redundant bits. The number of
bits is a function of the length of the data bits. In hamming code for a data unit of m bits, we
use the formula 2r >= m+r+1 to determine the number of redundant bits needed. By
rearranging the order of bit transmission of the data units, the hamming code can correct burst
errors.

41. What do you mean by flow control?

Ans: It is the regulation of sender’s data rate so that the receiver buffer doesn’t become
overwhelmed. Flow control refers to a set of procedures used to restrict the amount of data that
the sender can send before waiting for acknowledgement.

42. What do you mean by error control?

Ans: Error control refers primarily to methods of error detection and retransmission. Anytime
an error is detected in an exchange, specified frames are retransmitted. This process is called
automatic repeat request (ARQ).

43. Define stop and wait ARQ.

Ans: In stop and wait ARQ, the sender sends a frame and waits for an acknowledgement from
the receiver before sending the next frame.

44. Define Go-Back-N ARQ?

Ans: In Go-Back-N ARQ, multiple frames can be in transit at the same time. If there
is an error, retransmission begins with the last Unacknowledged frame even if
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subsequent frames arrived correctly. Duplicate frames are discarded.

45. Define Selective Repeat ARQ?

Ans: In Selective Repeat ARQ, multiple frames can be in transit at the same time. If there is an
error, only unacknowledged frame is retransmitted.

46. What do you mean by pipelining, is there any pipelining in error control?
Ans: The process in which a task is often begun before the previous task has ended is called
pipelining. There is no pipelining in stop and wait ARQ however it does apply in Go-Back-N
ARQ and Selective Repeat ARQ.

47. What is HDLC?

Ans: It is a bit oriented data link protocol designed to support both half duplex and full duplex
communication over point to point and multi point links. HDLC is characterized by their
station type, configuration and their response modes.

48. What do you mean by point to point protocol?

Ans: The point to point protocol was designed to provide a dedicated line for users who need
internet access via a telephone line or a cable TV connection. Its connection goes through three
phases: idle, establishing, authenticating, networking and terminating. At data link layer it
employs a version of HDLC.

49. What do you mean by point to point protocol stack?

Ans: Point to point protocol uses a stack of other protocol to use the link, to authenticate the
parties involved, and to carry the network layer data. Three sets of protocols are defined: link
control protocol, Authentication protocol, and network control protocol.

50. What do you mean by line control protocol?

Ans: It is responsible for establishing, maintaining, configuring, and terminating links.

51. What do you mean by Authentication protocol?

Ans: Authentication means validating the identity of a user who needs to access a set of
resources. It is of two types i)Password Authentication Protocol(PAP) ii)Challenge Handshake
Authentication Protocol (CHAP) PAP is a two step process. The user sends a authentication
identification and a password. The system determines the validity of the Information sent.
CHAP is a three step process. The system sends a value to the user. The user manipulates the
value and sends the result. The system verifies the result.

52. What do you mean by network control protocol?

Ans: Network control protocol is a set of protocols to allow the encapsulation of data coming

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from network layer protocol that requires the services of PPP.

53. What do you mean by CSMA?

Ans: To reduce the possibility of collision CSMA method was developed. In CSMA each
station first listen to the medium (Or check the state of the medium) before sending. It can’t
eliminate collision.

54. What do you mean by Bluetooth?

Ans: It is a wireless LAN technology designed to connect devices of different functions such
as telephones, notebooks, computers, cameras, printers and so on. Bluetooth LAN Is an adhoc
network that is the network is formed spontaneously? It is the implementation of protocol
defined by the IEEE 802.15 standard.

55. What is IP address?

Ans: The internet address (IP address) is 32bits that uniquely and universally defines a host or
router on the internet. The portion of the IP address that identifies the network is called net id.
The portion of the IP address that identifies the host or router on the network is called host id.

56. What do you mean by subnetting?

Ans: Subnetting divides one large network into several smaller ones. It adds an intermediate
level of hierarchy in IP addressing.

57. What are the advantages of fiber optics cable?

Ans: The advantages of fiber optics cable over twisted pair cable are Noise resistance-As they
use light so external noise is not a factor. Less signal attenuation-fiber optics transmission
distance is significantly greater than that of other guided media. Higher bandwidth-It can
support higher bandwidth.

58. What are the disadvantages of fiber optics cable?

Ans: The disadvantages of fiber optics cable over twisted pair cable are Cost-It is expensive
Installation/maintenance-Any roughness or cracking defuses light and alters the signal
Fragility-It is more fragile.

59. What are the propagation type of radio wave?

Ans: Radio wave propagation is dependent upon frequency. There are five propagation type.
i)surface propagation ii)Tropospheric propagation iii)Ionospheric propagation iv)Line of sight
propagation v)space propagation

60. What do you mean by Geosynchronous Satellites ?

Ans: Satellite communication uses a satellite in geosynchronous orbit to relay signals. The

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Satellite must move at the same speed as the earth so that it seems to remain fixed above a
certain spot. Only one orbit can be geosynchronous. This orbit occurs at the equatorial plane
and is approximately 22,000 miles from the surface of earth.

61. What are the factors for evaluating the suitability of the media ?
Ans: The factors are cost, throughput, attenuation, Electromagnetic interference (EMI),
security.

62. What do you mean by medium access control (MAC) sub layer?
Ans: The protocols used to determine who goes next on a multi-access channel belong to a sub
layer of the data link layer is called the multi-access channel (MAC) sub layer. It is the bottom
part of data link layer.

63. What do you mean by ALOHA ?

Ans: It is the method used to solve the channel allocation problem .It is used for: i)ground
based radio broadcasting ii)In a network in which uncoordinated users are competing for the
use of single channel. It is of two types: 1.Pure aloha 2.Slotted aloha

64. What is pure ALOHA?

Ans: It lets users transmit whenever they have data to sent. Collision may occur but due to
feedback property sender can know the status of message. conflict occur when at one time
more bits are transmitted. The assumptions are : i)all frame size is same for all user. ii)collision
occur when frames are transmitted simultaneously iii)indefinite population of no of user.
iv)N=number of frames/frame time iv)it obeys poisson’s distribution if N>1 there will be
collision 0<1

65. What is slotted ALOHA?

Ans: In this method time is divided into discrete intervals, each interval corresponding to one
frame. It requires user to agree on slot boundaries. Here data is not send at any time instead it
wait for beginning of the next slot. Thus pure ALOHA is turned into discrete one.

66. What do you mean by persistent CSMA(carrier sense multiple access) ?

Ans: When a station has data to send, it first listens to the channel to see if anyone else is
transmitting at that moment. If channel is busy it waits until the station becomes idle. When
collision occurs it waits and then sends. It sends frame with probability 1 when channel is idle.

67. What do you mean by non persistent CSMA(carrier sense multiple access) ?
Ans: Here if no one else is sending the station begins doing so itself. However if the channel is
already in use, the station doesn’t continuously sense it rather it waits for a random period of
time and then repeats. It leads better channel utilization but longer delay.

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68. What do you mean by p persistent CSMA(carrier sense multiple access) ?
Ans: It applies to slotted channels. When a station becomes ready to send, it senses the
channel. If it is idle it transmits with a probability P, with a probability Q=P-1 It defers until
the next slot. If that slot is also idle, it either transmits or defers again with probability P and Q.
The process is repeated until either the frame has been transmitted or another station begins
transmitting.

69. What is FDDI?

Ans: It is high performance fiber optic token ring LAN running at 100Mbps over distance up
1000 stations. FDDI access is limited by time. A FDDI cabling consist of two fiber rings. i)one
transmitting clockwise ii)one transmitting counterclockwise

70. What is Firewalls?

Ans: It is an electronic down bridge which is used to enhance the security of a network. It’s
configuration has two components. i)Two routers ii)Application gateway the packets traveling
through the LAN are inspected here and packets meeting certain criteria are forwarded and
others are dropped.

71. What is Repeaters ?

Ans: A receiver receives a signal before it becomes too weak or corrupted, regenerates the
original bit pattern, and puts the refreshed copy back onto the link. It operates on physical layer
of OSI model.

72. What is Bridges?

Ans: They divide large network into smaller components. They can relay frames between two
originally separated LANs. They provide security through partitioning traffic. They operate on
physical and data link layer of OSI model.

73. What is Routers?

Ans: Router relay packets among multiple interconnected networks. They receive packet from
one connected network and pass it to another network. They have access to network layer
addresses and certain software that enables them to determine which path is best for
transmission among several paths. They operate on physical, data link and network layer of
OSI model.

74. What is Gateway ?

Ans: It is a protocol converter. A gateway can accept a packet formatted for one protocol and
convert it to a packet formatted for another protocol. It operates on all the seven layers of OSI
model.

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75. What do you mean by Data Terminal Equipment(DTE) ?
Ans: It is any device that is source of or destination for binary digital data. At physical layer it
can be a terminal computer. They generate or consume information.

76. What do you mean by Data Terminating Equipment (DCE) ?

Ans: Data circuit terminating equipment includes any functional unit that transmits or receives
data in the form of an analog or digital signal through a network. DTE generates digital data
and passes them to a DCE, the DCE converts the data to a form acceptable to the transmission
media and sends the converted signal to another DCE on the network.

77. What do you mean by protocol stack?

Ans: The list of protocols used by certain system, one protocol per layer is called protocol stack.

78. What do you mean by peer?

Ans: Entities comprising the corresponding layers on different machines are called peers. It
may be • hardware device. • processes • human being peers communicate by using protocol.

79. What do you mean by broadcasting ?

Ans: Broadcast system allows addressing a packet to all destination by using a
special code in address field. When packet is transmitted it is received and processed
by every machine on the network.

80. What are the advantages of broadcast network?

Ans: • a single communication channel is shared by all computers. • packets are
transmitted and received by all the computer. • address field is attached to whom it is
intended. • multicasting is used in network.

81. What do you mean by point to point network?

Ans: Point to point network consist of many connections between individual pair of
machines. Large networks are point to point. Routing algorithm plays an important in
point to point network. It uses stored ad forward technique. It is a packet switching
network.

82. What are the design issue of layers ?

Ans: The design issue of layer are • Addressing technique.ie source and destination address •
Types of communication • Error control • Order of message. • Speed matching • Multiplexing
and demultiplexing.

83. What are the protocols in application layer ?

Ans: The protocols defined in application layer are • TELNET • FTP • SMTP • DNS

84. What are the protocols in transport layer ?

Ans: The protocols defined in transport layer are • TCP • UDP

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85. Define TCP ?
Ans: It is connection oriented protocol. It consist byte streams originating on one machine to
be delivered without error on any other machine in the network. While transmitting it
fragments the stream to discrete messages and passes to internet layer. At the destination it
reassembles the messages into output stream.

86. Define UDP ?

Ans: It is unreliable connectionless protocol. It is used for one-shot, client- server type,
request-reply queries and applications in which prompt delivery is required than
accuracy.

87. Define IP ?
Ans: Internetwork protocol (IP) is the transmission mechanism used by TCP/IP protocol. It is an
unreliable and connectionless datagram protocol. It provides no error checking and tracking.

88. What do you mean by client server model ?

Ans: In client server model, the client runs a program to request a service and the server runs a
program to provide the service. These two programs communicate with each other. One server
program can provide services to many client programs.

89. What are the information that a computer attached to a TCP/IP internet
must possesses?
Ans: Each computer attached to TCP/IP must possesses the following information
Its IP address • Its subnet mask • The IP address of the router. • The IP address of the name
server.

90. What is domain name system (DNS)?

Ans: Domain Name System (DNS ) is a client server application that identifies each
host on the internet with a unique user friendly name.

91. What is TELNET ?

Ans: TELNET is a client –server application that allows a user to log on to a remote
machine, giving the user access to the remote system. TELNET is an abbreviation
of terminal Network.

92. What do you mean by local login and remote login ?

Ans: When a user logs into a local time-sharing system ,it is called local login. When
a user wants to access an application program or utility located on a remote machine,
he or she performs remote login.

93. What is Network Virtual Terminal ?

Ans: A universal interface provided by TELNET is called Network Virtual Terminal
(NVT) character set. Via this interface TELNET translates characters (data or
command) that come from local terminal into NVT form and delivers them to the
network.

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94. What do you mean by Simple Mail Transfer Protocol ?
Ans: The TCP/IP protocol that supports electronic mail on the internet is called
Simple Mail Transfer Protocol. SMTP provides for mail exchange between users on
the same or different computer and supports Sending a single message to one or more
recipient Sending message that include text, voice, video or graphics. Sending
message to users on network outside the internet.

95. What is Hypertext Transfer Protocol (HTTP) ?

Ans: It is the main protocol used to access data on the World Wide Web .the protocol
transfers data in the form of plain text, hypertext, audio, video and so on. It is so
called because its efficiency allows its use in a hypertext environment where there are
rapid jumps from one document to another.

96. What is URL ?

Ans: It is a standard for specifying any kind of information on the World Wide Web.

97. What is World Wide Web ?

Ans: World Wide Web is a repository of information spread all over the world and
linked together. It is a unique combination of flexibility, portability and user-friendly
features .The World Wide Web today is a distributed client-server service, in which
a client using a browser can access a service using a server. The service provided is
distributed over many locations called web sites.

98. What is HTML ?

Ans: Hypertext Markup Language (HTML) is a language for creating static
web pages.

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HKBK COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING

Department Of Electronics and Communication

Subject code:BECL504
Semester: V

Digital Communication Lab Question Bank

1. Conduct the experiment for Frequency Shift Keying generation and detection
2. Conduct the experiment for Phase Shift Keying generation and detection
3. Conduct the experiment for Amplitude Shift Keying generation and detection
4. Conduct the experiment for Differential Phase Shift Keying Transmitter and receiver
5. Write a program to encode binary data using Huffman code and decode it.
6. Write a program to encode binary data using a (7,4) Hamming code and decode it.
7. Write a program to encode binary data using a ((3,1,2)/suitably designed) Convolution
code and decode it.
8. For a given data, use CRC-CCITT polynomial to obtain the CRC code. Verify the program
for the cases a) Without error b) With error

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STAR TOPOLOGY

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