ABCT1700

Introduction to Chemistry
Module 2: Chemical Reaction

Outline:
1. Chemical Reaction:
a) Chemical Equation Development
b) Major Reaction Types
i. Precipitation Reaction
ii. Neutralization
iii. Oxidation-Reduction Reaction
iv. Combustion Reaction
v. Decomposition Reaction
vi. Displacement Reaction

2. Stoichiometry II (Mole calculation)

a) Concentration
b) Reacting masses

3. Enthalpy of Chemical Processes:

a) Exothermic and Endothermic Reaction
b) Standard Enthalpy Change ( H )
c) Determination of Enthalpy Change

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1. Chemical Reaction Example
a) Chemical Equation Development

Step 1 Find out the reactant and product

Step 2 Balance the chemical equation
Step 3 Write down the state of compounds
(s) : solid state
(l) : liquid state
(g) : gas state
(aq) : aqueous state

.
Example

Write the chemical equation of the following reactions:

a. Potassium iodide is poured into lead (II) nitrate to form
lead (II) iodide precipitate.
b. Sodium is put on water, the hydrogen gas is formed.
c. Octane is burnt to form carbon dioxide and water moisture.

a. b. c.
Step 1 KI + Pb(NO 3)2 → KNO3 + PbI2 Na + H2O → NaOH + H2 C8H18 + O2 → 8CO2 + 9H2O
Step 2 2KI + Pb(NO3)2 → 2KNO3 + PbI2 2Na + 2H2O → NaOH + H2 C8H18 + 25/2O2 → 8CO2 + 9H2O
Step 3 2KI(aq) + Pb(NO3)2(aq) → 2Na(s) + 2H2O(l) → C8H18(l) + 25/2O2(g) →
2KNO3(aq) + PbI2(s) NaOH(aq) + H2(g) 8CO2(g) + 9H2O(g)

b) Major Reaction Types

i. Precipitation Reaction
• Solubility
Some compounds are soluble in water but some compounds do not dissolve in water.
The following table has shown the solubility rules:
Compounds containing the following ions
Exceptions
are mostly soluble
+ +
Lithium ion (Li ), Sodium ion (Na ),
None
Potassium ion (K+), Ammonium ion (NH4+)
Nitrate ion (NO3-), Ethanoate ion(CH3COO-) None
Chloride ion (Cl-), Bromide ion (Br-), When any of these ions pairs with Ag+,
-
Iodide ion (I ) Hg22+, or Pb2+, the compound is insoluble.
When SO42- pairs with Sr2+, Ba2+, Pb2+, or
Sulphate ion (SO42-)
Ca2+, the compound is insoluble.
Compounds containing the following ions
Exceptions
are mostly insoluble
When either of these ions pairs with Li+,
Na+, K+, NH4+, the compound is soluble.

When S2- pairs with Ca2+, Sr2+, or Ba2+, the

Hydroxide ion (OH-), Sulphide (S2-)
compound is soluble.

When OH- pairs with Ca2+, Sr2+, or Ba2+, the

compound is slightly soluble
Carbonate ion (CO32-), Phosphate (PO43-) When either of these ions pairs with Li+,
Na+, K+, NH4+, the compound is soluble.
* Solubility rules apply only to the solubility of the compound in water.

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 • Reactions that form a solid or precipitate upon mixing two aqueous solutions

Example: Acidified silver nitrate test

Silver nitrate can be used to measure the solution contains halogen ions.
AgNO3(aq) + NaCl(aq) → AgCl(s) + NaNO3(aq)
The white precipitate (silver chloride) is formed in this reaction.

• Ionic equations
Spectator ions can be omitted to simplify the equation.
Ag+(aq) + NO3-(aq) + Na+(aq) + Cl-(aq) → AgCl(s) + Na+(aq) + NO3-(aq)
Ag+(aq) + Cl-(aq) → AgCl(s)

• Other example:
Reactants Chemical equation Ionic equation
Sodium carbonate
CuCl2(aq) + Na2CO3(aq) → CuCO3(s) + 2NaCl(aq) Cu2+(aq) + CO32-(aq) → CuCO3(s)
Copper(II) chloride
Lead(II) nitrate
PbNO3(aq) + 2LiCl(aq) → PbCl2(s) + 2LiNO3(aq) Pb2+(aq) + 2Cl-(aq) → PbCl2(s)
Lithium chloride
Potassium sulphate
Sr(NO3)2(aq) + K2SO4(aq) → SrSO4(s) + 2KNO3(aq) Sr2+(aq) + SO42-(aq) → SrSO4(s)
Strontium nitrate
Lead(II) ethanoate Pb(CH3COO)2(aq) + Na2SO4(aq) →
Pb2+(aq) + SO42-(aq) → PbSO4(s)
Sodium sulphate PbSO4(s) + 2CH3COO Na(aq)

ii. Neutralization
• The Acid-base reaction, where acid is proton (H+) donor and base is proton receiver.
Example: hydrochloric acid reacts with sodium hydroxide.
HCl(aq) + NaOH(aq) → H2O(l) + NaCl(aq)
acid base water salt
• Ionic equation:
H+(aq) + OH-(aq) → H2O(l)

Reactants Chemical equation

Sulfuric acid
H2SO4(aq) + KOH(aq) → H2O(l) + K2SO4(aq)
Potassium hydroxide
Acetic acid
CH3COOH(aq) + NaOH(aq) → H2O(l) + CH3COONa(aq)
Sodium hydroxide
Nitric acid
HNO3(aq) + NaHCO3(aq) → H2O(l) + CO2(g) + NaNO3(aq)
Sodium hydrocarbonate
Hydrochloric acid
2HCl(aq) + K2S(aq) → H2S(g) + 2KCl(aq)
Potassium sulfide

iii. Oxidation-reduction Reaction (Redox reaction)

• Involve the transfer of electrons.
• Oxidation is the loss of electrons and reduction is the gain the electrons.
• Oxidation number (O.N.)
⇒ used to imaginary charge of an atom of the element
(1) O.N. of element is 0
(e.g. O.N. of H in H2 is 0)
(2) O.N. of atom in simple ion is equal to ionic charge
(e.g. O.N. of K+ is +1)

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 Example
Element in compound Oxidation number
Group I metals +1 (all) (a)
Group II metals +2 (all) Determine the O.N. of manganese in
Fluorine -1 (all) potassium permanganate.
Hydrogen +1 (most compounds)
Oxygen -2 (most compounds) Solution:
⇒ Oxidation increases in O.N. of elements Potassium permanganate: KMnO4
Reduction decreases in O.N. of elements O.N. of K+ = +1
O.N. of O = -2
For example, Zinc reacts with silver nitrate. (O.N. of Mn) + (+1) + (-2) × 4 = 0
Zn(s) + 2AgNO3(aq) → Zn(NO3)2(aq) + 2Ag(s) O.N. of Mn = +7
Oxidation: Zn (increase from 0 to +2)
Reduction: Ag (decrease from +1 to 0)

• Half equation
⇒ Oxidation and reduction occur at the same time.
⇒ Half equation can be used to balance the chemical equation.
Common oxidizing agents
Oxidizing agent Ionic half equation Observations
Acidified - + - 2+ The colour of solution:
MnO4 (aq) + 8H (aq) + 5e → Mn (aq) + 4H2O(l)
permanganate ion Purple(MnO4-) → Pale pink(Mn2+)
Acidified The colour of solution:
Cr2O72-(aq) + 14H+(aq) + 6e- → 3Cr3+(aq) + 7H2O(l)
dichromate ion Orange(Cr2O72-) → Green(3Cr3+)
The colour of solution:
Iron(III) ion Fe3+(aq) + e- → Fe2+(aq)
Yellow(Fe3+) → Green(Fe2+)
The colour of solution:
Chlorine Cl2(aq) + 2e- → 2Cl-(aq)
Pale green(Cl-) → Colourless
Concentrated
NO3-(aq) + 2H+(aq) + e- → NO2(g) + H2O(l) The brown gas exists
nitric acid
Diluted nitric acid NO3-(aq) + 4H+(aq) + 3e- → NO(g) + 2H2O(l) Colourless gas exists
Concentrated
SO42-(aq) + 4H+(aq) + 2e- → SO2(g) + 2H2O(l) Colourless gas exists
sulfuric acid
Oxygen O2(g) + H2O(l) + 4e- → 4OH-(aq) -
The colour of solution:
Bromine Br2(aq) + 2e- → 2Br-(aq)
Orange(Br-) → Colourless
Common reducing agents
Reducing agent Ionic half equation Observations
- - The colour of solution:
Iodide ion 2I (aq) → I2(aq) + 2e
Colourless → Brown(I2)
The colour of solution:
Iron(II) ion Fe2+(aq) → Fe3+(aq) + e-
Green(Fe2+) → Yellow(Fe3+)
Zinc Zn(s) → Zn2+(aq) + 2e- Metal dissolves

Hydrogen H2(g) → 2H+(aq) + 2e- -

∗ No need to remember the full ionic equation!! Remember the main reactants and product.
∗ Cancel out the electrons by multiplying to make up full redox reaction.
∗ Reactant/Product contains more oxygen, adding H+; Reactant/Product contains less oxygen, adding H2O

For example: bromide solution is added into acidified potassium permanganate solution
Oxidation: 2Br-(aq) → Br2(aq) + 2e- (1)
Reduciton: MnO4-(aq) + 8H+(aq) + 5e- → Mn2+(aq) + 4H2O(l) (2)
(1) × 5 + (2) × 2:
2MnO4-(aq) + 16H+(aq) + 10Br-(aq) → 2Mn2+(aq) + 8H2O(l) + 5Br2(aq)
Observation: The colour of solution changes from purple to brown.

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 iv. Combustion Reaction
• A type of redox reaction
• Oxygen is required and the products are usually carbon dioxide and water.
• Exothermic reaction (emit heat)
⇒ Combustion of fuel provides energy.

For example: The chemical equation of combustion of methane

CH4(g) + 2O2(g) → CO2(g) + 2H2O(g) + [Energy]

v. Decomposition Reaction
• The complex substance decomposes to form simpler substance.
• Require energy, e.g. electric current, heat, light, etc.

(1) Decomposition of water by electric current

2H2O(l) → 2H2(g) + O2(g)
(2) Decomposition of calcium carbonate by heating
CaCO3(s) → CaO(s) + CO2(g)
(3) Decomposition of iodomethance by UV light
CH3I(g) → CH3· (g) + I·(g) Metal
Potassium (K)
vi. Displacement Reactions

Reactivity decreases down

Sodium (Na)
• One element displaces another element in the compound. Calcium (Ca)
• Depend on the reactivity of metal Magnesium (Mg)
Aluminum (Al)
For example, zinc is more reactive than copper Zinc (Zn)
Iron (Fe)
Mg(s) + CuCl2(aq) → MgCl2(aq) + Cu(s) Lead (Pb)
Observation: Black solid (copper) is formed. Copper (Cu)
Mercury (Hg)
Silver (Ag)
Platinum (Pt)
Gold (Au)

Example

Write the chemical reactions and state an expected observation from following reactants:
a. Acidified silver nitrate solution and sodium iodide solution
b. Acidified potassium dichromate solution and potassium iodide solution
c. Calcium chloride solution and lead metal

Solution:
a. AgNO3(aq) + NaI(aq) → AgI(s) + NaNO3(aq)
Observation: Yellow precipitate (AgI) forms

b. Reduction: Cr2O72-(aq) + 14H+(aq) + 6e- → 3Cr3+(aq) + 7H2O(l)

Oxidation: 2I-(aq) → I2(aq) + 2e-
∗ Combine the half equation and cancel out the electrons
Cr2O72-(aq) + 14H+(aq) + 6I-(aq) → 3Cr3+(aq) + 7H2O(l) + 3I2(aq)
Observation: The colour of solution is changed from orange (Cr2O72-) to brown (I2).

c. CaCl2(aq) + Pb(s) → no reaction

As calcium is more reactive than lead, there is no reaction. Therefore, there is no observation.

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2. Stiochiometry II (Mole calculation)
• By the law of conservation of mass, the mass of
isolated system will remain constant in the chemical
reaction.
• Therefore, the mass (or mole) of substance can be
determined from chemical equation.
a) Concentration
i. Molarity (unit: mol dm-3 or M)
mole  of  substance
M=
volume  of  solvent Silver nitrate solution and sodium chloride solution
Left: Before mixing; Right: After mixing
ii. Molality (unit: mol kg-1 or m) AgNO3(aq) + NaCl(aq) → AgCl(s) + NaNO3(aq)
!"#$  !"  !"#!$%&'(
m=
!"##  !"  !"#$%&'

Example
iii. Dilution Equation
• To determine the reduction of Calculate the molarity of solution made by putting
concentration of chemical. 64.5g KBr and adding water to make 3.50L of KBr
𝑴 𝟏 𝑽𝟏 = 𝑴 𝟐 𝑽𝟐 solution.
M: concentration of substance (Relative atomic mass: K = 39.1, Br = 79.9)
V: volume of solvent
Solution:
Molar mass of KBr = 39.1 + 79.9 = 119.0 g mol-1
b) Reacting Masses
No. of moles of KBr = 64.5 ÷ 119.0 = 0.542 mol
i. Mole Ratio Molarity of KBr = 0.542 ÷ 3.50 = 0.155M
• Depend on the coefficients of reactants and

products in chemical equation. Example

For example, the formation of water Calculate the molality of a solution containing
2H2(g) + O2(g) → 2H2O(l) 22.2g of glucose (C6H12O6) dissolved in 0.400kg of
2 1 2 water.
⇒ Then, the masses, the number of moles, the (Relative atomic mass: H = 1.0, C = 12.0, O = 16.0)
concentration, the volume and percentage of
Solution:
substance can be calculated.
Molar mass of C6H12O6 = 180.0g mol-1
No. of moles of C6H12O6 = 22.2 ÷ 180.0
ii. Calculation Steps = 0.123mol
Step 1 Molality = 0.123 ÷ 0.400 = 0.308m
⇒ Balance the equation for the reaction.
Step 2
⇒ Convert the known mass of the reactant or
product to moles of that substance. Example
Step 3
10cm3 of 0.1M sulfuric acid is diluted into 250cm3,
⇒ Use the equation to work out the appropriate calculate the concentration of diluted acid.
mole ratios.
Step 4 Solution:
⇒ Use the appropriate mole ratios to calculate Let the concentration of diluted acid be xM
the number of moles of the desired reactant M 1V 1 = M 2V 2
and product.
Step 5 0.1M × 10cm3 = xM × 250cm3
x = 0.004M
⇒ Convert the moles back to grams (or volume,
concentration, percentage of substance).

   

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Example

a. Calculate the number of moles of sodium chloride, where sodium reacts with 3.4 mol of chlorine
completely.
b. Hydrogen reacts with nitrogen to form 0.60mol of ammonia. How many moles of hydrogen gas?

Solution:
a. 2 Na(s) + Cl2(g) → 2NaCl(s)
Mole ratio of Cl2: NaCl is 1: 2.
Therefore, the number of moles of NaCl = 3.4 × 2 = 6.8 mol

b. 3H2(g) + N2(g) → 2NH3(aq)

Mole ratio of H2: NH3 is 3: 2.
Therefore, the number of moles of H2 = 0.60 × 3 ÷ 2 = 0.90 mol

Example

Calculate the mass of CO2 emitted upon the combustion of 5.0 x 102 g of pure octane.
2C8H18(l) + 25O2(g) → 16CO2(g) + 18H2O(g)
(Relative atomic mass: H = 1.0, C = 12.0, O = 16.0)

Solution:
First, determine the molar mass of C8H18 and CO2
C8H18 CO2
Molar mass 12.0 × 8+ 1.0 × 18 = 114.0 g 12.0 + 16.0 × 2 = 44.0 g

From the balanced equation, the mole ratio of C8H18 to CO2 is 1 to 8.

C8H18 CO2
5.0×10!
No. of mole   = 4.386  mol 8×4.386 = 35.088  mol
114

Finally, we could obtain the mass of CO2 emitted:

35.088 × 44.0 = 1543.9 g

Example

Calculate the concentration of bromine solution, where 25 cm3 of 0.400 M acidified potassium
permanganate solution reacts with 35 cm3 of sodium bromide solution.
2MnO4-(aq) + 16H+(aq) + 10Br-(aq) → 2Mn2+(aq) + 8H2O(l) + 5Br2(aq)

Solution:
25
No. of  mole  of  MnO!
!   =  0.4M× dm! = 0.01mol
1000
The mole ratio of MnO4- : Br2 is 1: 5. Therefore,
No. of  mole  of  Br! = 0.01×5 = 0.05mol
35 + 25
Concentration  of  Br! = 0.05mol ÷ dm! = 0.833  M
1000

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 Example

Consider the following reaction.

2Al(s) + 3Cl2(g) → 2AlCl3(s)
If we begin with 0.552 mol of aluminum and 0.887 mol of chlorine, what is the limiting reactant and
theoretical yield of AlCl3 in moles?

Solution:
From the balanced equation, the mole ratio of Al to Cl2 is 2 to 3.
Al(s) Cl2(g)
Mole ratio 2 3
0.552 0.887
No. of mole given = 0.276 = 0.296
2 3

Therefore, Al is the limiting reagent (the least amount)

Theoretical yield of AlCl3 = 0.276 × 2 = 0.552 mol

   
Example

Consider the following reaction

Cu2O(s) + C(s) → 2Cu(s) + CO(g)
When 11.5g of C are allowed to react with 114.5 g of Cu2O, 87.4 g of Cu are obtained. Find the
limiting reactant, theoretical yield, and percent yield

Solution:
Cu2O(s) C(s)
Molar mass 63.5×2 + 16.0 = 143.0 12.0
Mole ratio 1 1
114.5 11.5
No. of mole given = 0.801mol = 0.958mol
143.0 12.0
Cu2O is limiting reagent.

Theoretical yield = 0.801 × 2 × 63.5 = 101.7 g

!".!
Percentage yield =   = 85.9%
!"!.!

Example

0.50 M sulfuric acid was added to 25.0 cm3 of 0.20 M potassium carbonate solution. What is the
expected volume of sulfuric acid when the reaction is totally completed?
K2CO3(aq) + H2SO4(aq) → K2SO4(aq) + CO2(g) + H2O(l)

Solution:
No. of mole of K2CO3 = 0.20 × 25/1000 = 0.0050 mol
The mole ratio of K2CO3: H2SO4 is 1: 1
Therefore, the no. of mole of H2SO4 is 0.0050 mol
The volume of H2SO4 is used = 0.0050 ÷ 0.50 = 0.010 dm3 = 10.0 cm3

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3.  Enthalpy of Chemical Processes    
• The chemical reaction always accompanies with energy
change, including kinetic, heat, light, sound, electrical, etc.
• The Law of Conservation of Energy:
⇒ Similar to Law of Conservation of mass
⇒ Energy cannot be created or destroyed but it can be
changed from one form to other.
• Generally, energy transfer is commonly in form of heat.
• The enthalpy change: Burning magnesium form bright light
Reactants → Products
∆H = H!"#$%&' − H!"#$%#&%
a) Exothermic and Endothermic Reactions
i. Exothermic reaction releases heat to surrounding.
• The enthalpy change (ΔH) is negative.
For example,

Burning candle form heat energy

CH4(g) + 2O2(g) → CO2(g) + 2H2O(l) ΔH = -890kJmol-1
HCl(aq) + NaOH(aq) → NaCl(aq) + H2O(l) ΔH = -57.3kJmol-1

ii. Endothermic reaction absorbs heat from the surroundings.

• The enthalpy change (ΔH) is positive.
For example
NH4NO3(aq) → NH4+(aq) + NO3-(aq) ΔH = +25.8kJmol-1
C3H8(g) → C2H4(g) + CH4(g) ΔH = +84.0kJmol-1

b) Standard Enthalpy Changes (∆𝐻 𝜽 )

1. Element or compounds in their normal physical states
2. Pressure at 1 a.t.m.
3. Temperature at 25oC (or 298K)
Standard enthalpy change of :
Neutralization One mole of water is formed
θ
(∆𝐻!"#$ ) e.g. H+(aq) + OH-(aq) → H2O(l)
θ One mole of solute is dissolved
Solution (∆𝐻!"#$ )
e.g. LiCl(s) → Li+(aq) + Cl-(aq)
Formation (∆𝑯𝛉𝐟 ) One mole of substance is formed
e.g. ½ N2(g) + O2(g) → NO2(g)
Combustion (∆𝑯𝛉𝐜 ) One mole of substance is burnt
e.g. C2H5OH(l) + 3O2(g) → 2CO2(g) + 3H2O(l)

c) Determination of Enthalpy Change (by enthalpy level diagram or enthalpy cycle)

For example, the oxidation of graphite to carbon dioxide:
Enthalpy Level Diagram Enthalpy Cycle

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 Example
Given the following information, find the standard enthalpy change of the reaction:
Fe2O 3(s) + 3CO(g) → 2Fe(s) + 3CO2(g)
∆𝐻!θ [Fe! O! (𝑠)] = −822.0  kJmol!!
∆𝐻!θ [CO(𝑔)] = −110.5  kJmol!!
  ∆𝐻!θ [CO! (𝑔)] = −393.5  kJmol!!

Solution:

ΔH 1 = ΔHfθ [Fe2O 3(s)] + 3 × ΔH fθ [CO(g)] = (-822.0) + 3 × (-110.5) = -1153.5 kJ mol-1

ΔH 2 = 2 × ΔHfθ [Fe(s)] + 3 × ΔHfθ [CO2(g)] = 0 + 3 × (-393.5) = -1180.5 kJ mol-1
By Hess’s Law*,
ΔH θ = ΔH2 – ΔH 1 = (-1180.5) – (-1153.5) = -27.0 kJ mol-1
The standard enthalpy change of the reaction is -27.0 kJ mol-1

Hess’s Law
Total enthalpy change accompanying a chemical reaction is independent of the route by which the
chemical reaction takes place.

Example

Given the following information, find the standard enthalpy change of formation of ethanol.
2C(graphite) + 7/2O2(g) → 2CO2(g) + 3H2O(l)
∆𝐻!θ [C(𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑝ℎ𝑖𝑡𝑒)] = −393.5  kJmol!!
∆𝐻!θ [H! (𝑔)] = −285.8  kJmol!!
∆𝐻!θ [C! H! OH(𝑙)] = −1371.0kJmol!!

Solution:

ΔH 1 = 2 × ΔHcθ [C(graphite)] = 2 × (-393.5) = -787.0 kJ mol-1

ΔH 2 = 3 × ΔHcθ [H2(g)] = 3 × (-285.8) = -857.4 kJ mol-1
ΔH 3 = ΔHcθ [C2H5OH(l)] = -1371.0 kJ mol-1
By Hess’s Law
ΔH fθ + ΔH3 = ΔH2 + ΔH1
ΔH fθ = ΔH2 + ΔH1 – ΔH 3 = (-857.4) + (-787.0) – (-1371.0) = -273.4 kJ mol-1
The standard enthalpy change of formation of ethanol is -273.4 kJ mol-1

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