PSYC 111: HUMAN GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT

Introduction

Human growth and development is a fascinating field that explores how people change and
grow throughout their lives. This process is complex and involves several key domains:

Physical Development: This includes changes in the body and brain, the senses, motor skills,
and overall health. For example, as children grow, their bodies change in size and shape, and
their brains develop, allowing for more complex thought processes.

Cognitive Development: This involves learning, attention, memory, language, thinking,

reasoning, and creativity. Cognitive development is crucial for understanding how people
perceive, think, and understand their world.

Psychosocial Development: This domain covers emotions, personality, and social

relationships. It examines how individuals form relationships, develop a sense of self, and
navigate social environments.

Human development is often studied across different stages of life, from conception through
childhood, adolescence, adulthood, and into old age. Each stage has its own unique
challenges and milestones.

Meaning of Growth and Development

Growth and Development are terms that are often used interchangeably, but they have
different meanings. They both refer to dynamic processes, and they are interdependent and
interrelated. While growth generally takes place during the first 20 years of life; development
continues throughout the lifespan.

On the one hand, growth refers to physical changes (increase in size: height and weight). It
can be measured quantitatively. Development, on the other hand refers to the qualitative
increase in the complexity of functions and skills progression. Development can therefore be
defined as changes in a person’s physical and neurological structures, behaviour, and traits
that emerge in orderly ways and are reasonably consistent in their first 20 years of life. These
changes usually result in new, improved ways of reacting to stimuli.

Human growth and development refer to the processes through which individuals change
and mature over their lifespan.
Human Growth: This typically refers to the physical changes in size, shape, and body
composition. It involves the increase in height, weight, and other bodily dimensions.
Human Development: This encompasses a broader range of changes, including physical,
cognitive, and psychosocial development. It involves the maturation of the body and brain,
the development of cognitive abilities like thinking and reasoning, and the evolution of
emotional and social skills.
These processes are interconnected and influenced by a combination of genetic,
environmental, and social factors. Understanding human growth and development helps us
appreciate the complexity of human life and the various stages we go through from birth to
old age.

Reasons for Studying Developmental Psychology

Psychologists study human growth and development for several important reasons:
1. Understanding Lifespan Changes: Developmental psychologists aim to understand
how people grow, develop, and adapt at different life stages. This knowledge helps in
identifying typical and atypical development patterns.
2. Improving Interventions: By understanding the stages of development,
psychologists can design better interventions and support systems for individuals
facing developmental challenges. This is crucial in fields like education, healthcare,
and social work.
3. Enhancing Education: Insights from developmental psychology inform educational
practices, helping educators tailor their teaching methods to the developmental stages
of their students.
4. Supporting Mental Health: Recognizing how developmental stages impact mental
health allows psychologists to provide more effective mental health care. Early
identification of developmental issues can prevent long-term psychological
problems3.
5. Promoting Well-being: Understanding human development helps in promoting
overall well-being by addressing the physical, cognitive, and emotional needs of
individuals at different life stages

FUNDAMENTAL PRINCIPLES OF DEVELOPMENT

Human growth and development is governed by universal principles. They include:
i) Development is influenced by heredity and the environment
Development is a process that results from an interaction of an organism with its
environment. The genetic constitution of an individual and the environmental forces interact
to influence development. It is difficult to assess the relative contribution of each of the two.
Heredity includes the characteristic that a child inherits from the parents. These heredity
factors set the limit to the individual’s development e.g. intelligent is inherited and a person
with low intelligence may never become a very bright scholar. The environment is the sum
total of all the conditions within which an individual lives. It cannot alter the limits set by
heredity but it can influence them. E.g. an un-enriching environment may prevent an
individual with high intelligence from realizing his/her intellectual capabilities.

ii) Development depends on maturation and learning.

Maturation refers to the sequential characteristic of biological growth and development. The
biological changes occur in sequential order and give children new abilities. Changes in the
brain and nervous system account largely for maturation. These changes in the brain and
nervous system help children to improve in thinking (cognitive) and motor (physical) skills.
Also, children must mature to a certain point before they can progress to new skills
(Readiness). For example, a four-month-old cannot use language because the infant's brain
has not matured enough to allow the child to talk. A greater part of development, however, is
by learning, which is the acquisition of skills, knowledge from the environment by
interaction. E.g. speech is a function of learning.

(iii) Development Follows an Orderly Sequence

There is a high degree of similarity in the order in which various aspects of development
occurs in all individuals. Various directional trends have been identified, namely:
Cephalocaudal development - meaning that development begins from the head and proceeds
down towards the feet (tail). For example, Children acquire control over their heads prior to
acquiring control over their limbs or they can use their hands before they can walk.
According to this principle, the child gains control of the head first, then the arms, and then
the legs. Infants develop control of the head and face movements within the first two months
after birth. In the next few months, they are able to lift themselves up by using their arms. By
6 to 12 months of age, infants start to gain leg control and may be able to crawl, stand, or
walk. Coordination of arms always precedes coordination of legs. Proximodistal
development- Meaning that development starts from the central organs and proceeds
outwards towards the outer or external organs. The child acquires control over muscles closer
to the centre of the body before acquiring control over those in the periphery. They can
control their arms before their fingers. Development proceeds from the centre of the body
outward. This is the principle of proximodistal development that also describes the direction
of development. This means that the spinal cord develops before outer parts of the body. The
child's arms develop before the hands and the hands and feet develop before the fingers and
toes. Finger and toe muscles (used in fine motor dexterity) are the last to develop in physical
development.

(iv) Development is an Individualized Process

Different individuals develop differently. Each person has his own rate of physical, mental,
emotional, and social development. However, the pattern is the same. Individual differences
are present – although individuals follow the same pattern, they do so in their own style –
smoothly, or in spurts due to differences in heredity, endowment and environmental
differences. Understanding this fact of individual differences in rates of development should
cause us to be careful about using and relying on age and stage characteristics to describe or
label children. There is a range of ages for any developmental task to take place. This
dismisses the notion of the "average child". Some children will walk at ten months while
others walk a few months older at eighteen months of age. Some children are more active
while others are more passive. This does not mean that the passive child will be less
intelligent as an adult.
(v) Development is Cumulative
This means that each new change is a product of the previous change and the experience one
has. Changes do not emerge out of nothing. This implies that other parts of the organism must
have matured first. For example, speech organs mature first before language can be learned.

(vi) Development is Continuous

Development is a continuous process that begins from the time of conception and continues
until death. However the rate of development varies from age to age. For example, there is a
spurt in growth during the onset of adolescence. As a child develops, he or she adds to the
skills already acquired and the new skills become the basis for further achievement and
mastery of skills. Most children follow a similar pattern. Also, one stage of development lays
the foundation for the next stage of development. For example, in motor development, there
is a predictable sequence of development that occurs before walking.

(vii) Development is Inter-related

Different aspects of development are interrelated. For example, walking is related to muscle
development. Learning to talk is related to the development of speech organs etc.
Developmental characteristics are consistent, definite, sequential and predictable.
 Different areas develop at different rates e.g. the brain develops first and
faster.
 Developmental correlations e.g. delay in walking results in lag in motor or
cognitive development.

(viii) Development Proceeds from the General to the Specific

Development takes place using the principle of mass differentiation and integration. For
example, the development of language begins with the birth cry, as a mass or general
response of which differentiation starts and the child acquires vocabulary of many words and
gradually the skill of communication develops.

(ix) Development proceeds from the simple (concrete) to the more complex. Children use
their cognitive and language skills to reason and solve problems. For example, learning
relationships between things (how things are similar), or classification, is an important ability
in cognitive development. The cognitive process of learning how an apple and orange are
alike begins with the most simplistic or concrete thought of describing the two.
 THEORIES OF HUMAN GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT

INTRODUCTION

Why do people at a certain age behave the way they do? Have they learned this behaviour, or
are their actions related to their age, family relationships, or personality? Questions like these
are what developmental psychologists try to answer. They seek to understand and explain the
behaviour that occurs throughout our lives.

A number of theories have been developed in an attempt to explain the various aspects of
human growth. Developmental theories provide a set of guiding principles and concepts that
describe and explain human development. Thus, they provide a framework for
understanding human behaviour, thought, and development. By having a broad base of
understanding about the how's and why's of human behaviour, it is easy for psychologists to
understand themselves and others. By better understanding how and why people change and
grow, they can help growth take place in positive ways. Let us look at some selected theories.

1. FREUD'S THEORY OF PSYCHO-SEXUAL DEVELOPMENT

The theory of psychosexual development was proposed by the famous psychoanalyst
Sigmund Freud, the father of psychology. It describes how personality develops during
childhood. While the theory is well-known in psychology, it is also one of the most
controversial theories. Freud believed that personality develops through a series of childhood
stages in which the pleasure-seeking energies of the id become focused on certain erogenous
areas.

This psychosexual energy, or libido, was described as the driving force behind behaviour.
Psychoanalytic theory suggested that personality is mostly established by the age of five.
Early experiences play a major role in personality development and continue to influence
behaviour later in life.

Freud proposed that the erogenous zones (centres of pleasure) are different at different ages.
The mouth is the centre of pleasure during the oral stage, the anus during the anal stage, and
the genitals during the genital stage. It is actually from the organs that the stages derive their
names.

If these psychosexual stages are completed successfully, the result is a healthy personality. If
certain issues are not resolved at the appropriate stage, fixation can occur. A fixation is a
persistent focus on an earlier psychosexual stage. Until this conflict is resolved, the individual
will remain "stuck" in this stage. For example, a person who is fixated at the oral stage may
be over-dependent on others and may seek oral stimulation through smoking, drinking, or
eating.
The following are the psychosexual stages of development:
1. The Oral Stage ( Birth to 1 Year) Erogenous Zone: Mouth
During the oral stage, the infant's primary source of interaction occurs through the mouth, so
the rooting and sucking reflex is especially important. The mouth is vital for eating, and the
infant derives pleasure from oral stimulation through gratifying activities such as tasting and
sucking. Because the infant is entirely dependent upon caretakers (who are responsible for
feeding the child), the infant also develops a sense of trust and comfort through this oral
stimulation. The primary conflict at this stage is the weaning process- the child must become
less dependent upon caretakers. If fixation occurs at this stage, Freud believed the individual
would have issues with dependency or aggression. Oral fixation can result in problems with
drinking, eating, smoking or nail biting.

2. The Anal Stage ( 1 to 3 years) Erogenous Zone: Anus

During the anal stage, Freud believed that the primary focus of the libido was on controlling
bladder and bowel movements. The major conflict at this stage is toilet training- the child has
to learn to control his or her bodily needs. Developing this control leads to a sense of
accomplishment and independence. According to Freud, success at this stage is dependent
upon the way in which parents approach toilet training. Parents who utilize praise and
rewards for using the toilet at the appropriate time encourage positive outcomes and help
children feel capable and productive.

Freud believed that positive experiences during this stage served as the basis for people to
become competent, productive and creative adults. However, not all parents provide the
support and encouragement that children need during this stage. Some parents' instead
punish, ridicule or shame a child for accidents. According to Freud, inappropriate parental
responses can result in negative outcomes. If parents take an approach that is too lenient,
Freud suggested that an anal-expulsive personality could develop in which the individual
has a messy, wasteful or destructive personality. If parents are too strict or begin toilet
training too early, Freud believed that an anal-retentive personality develops in which the
individual is stringent, orderly, rigid and obsessive.

3. The Phallic Stage (3 to 6 Years) Erogenous Zone: Genitals

The third stage of psychosexual development is the phallic stage, spanning the ages of three
to six years, wherein the child's genitalia are his or her primary erogenous zone. It is in this
third infantile development stage that children become aware of their bodies, the bodies of
other children, and the bodies of their parents; they gratify physical curiosity by undressing
and exploring each other and their genitals, and so learn the physical (sexual) differences
between "male" and "female" and the gender differences between "boy" and "girl". In the
phallic stage, a boy's decisive psychosexual experience is the Oedipus complex, his son–
father competition for possession of mother. This psychological complex derives from the
5th-century BC Greek mythologic character Oedipus, who unwittingly killed his father,
Laius, and sexually possessed his mother, Jocasta. Despite the mother being the parent who
primarily gratifies the child's desires, the child begins forming a discrete sexual identity —
"boy", "girl" — that alters the dynamics of the parent and child relationship; the parents
become the focus of infantile libidinal energy. The boy focuses his libido (sexual desire)
upon his mother, and focuses jealousy and emotional rivalry against his father — because it is
he who sleeps with mother. To facilitate uniting him with his mother, the boy's id wants to
kill father (as did Oedipus), but the ego, pragmatically based upon the reality principle,
knows that the father is the stronger of the two males competing to possess the one female.
Nevertheless, the boy remains ambivalent about his father's place in the family, which is
manifested as fear of castration by the physically greater father; the fear is an irrational,
subconscious manifestation of the infantile Id.

Analogously, in the phallic stage, a girl's decisive psychosexual experience is the Electra
complex, her daughter–mother competition for psychosexual possession of father. This
psychological complex derives from the 5th-century BC Greek mythologic character Electra,
who plotted matricidal revenge with Orestes, her brother, against Clytemnestra, their mother,
and Aegisthus, their stepfather, for their murder of Agamemnon, their father.

Whereas boys develop castration anxiety, girls develop penis envy that is rooted in anatomic
fact: without a penis, she cannot sexually possess mother, as the infantile id demands. As a
result, the girl redirects her desire for sexual union upon father; thus, she progresses towards
heterosexual femininity that culminates in bearing a child who replaces the absent penis.
Moreover, after the phallic stage, the girl's psychosexual development includes transferring
her primary erogenous zone from the infantile clitoris to the adult vagina. Freud thus
considered a girl's Oedipal conflict to be more emotionally intense than that of a boy,
resulting, potentially, in a submissive woman of insecure personality.

4. The Latent Period (6 yrs to Puberty) Sexual Feelings Are Inactive

During the latent period, the libido interests are suppressed. The development of the ego and
superego contribute to this period of calm. The stage begins around the time that children
enter into school and become more concerned with peer relationships, hobbies and other
interests. The latent period is a time of exploration in which the sexual energy is still present,
but it is directed into other areas such as intellectual pursuits and social interactions. This
stage is important in the development of social and communication skills and self-confidence.

5. The Genital Stage ( Puberty to Old age) Erogenous Zone: Genitals

During the final stage of psychosexual development, the individual develops a strong sexual
interest in the opposite sex. This stage begins during puberty but last throughout the rest of a
person's life. Where in earlier stages the focus was solely on individual needs, interest in the
welfare of others grows during this stage. If the other stages have been completed
successfully, the individual should now be well-balanced, warm and caring. The goal of this
stage is to establish a balance between the various life areas.

Freud’s Psychosexual Development Theory

STAGE AGE CHARACTERISTICS
 1. Oral Birth to 1½ yrs Centre of pleasure: mouth (major source of
gratification & exploration)
Primary need: Security
Major conflict: weaning

2. Anal 1½ to 3 yrs Source of pleasure: anus & bladder (sensual

satisfaction & self-control)
Major conflict: toilet training

3. Phallic 4 to 6 yrs Center of pleasure: child’s genital (masturbation)

Major conflict: Oedipus & Electra Complex

4. Latency 6 yrs to puberty Energy directed to physical & intellectual activities

Sexual impulses repressed
Relationship between peers of same sex

5. Genital Puberty onwards Energy directed towards full sexual maturity &
function & development of skills to cope with the
environment

2. ERIKSON'S THEORY OF PSYCHO-SOCIAL DEVELOPMENT

Erik Erikson's theory of psychosocial development is one of the best-known theories of
personality in psychology. Much like Sigmund Freud, Erikson believed that personality
develops in a series of stages. Unlike Freud's theory of psychosexual stages, Erikson's theory
describes the impact of social experience across the whole lifespan. One of the main
elements of Erikson's psychosocial stage theory is the development of ego identity. Ego
identity is the conscious sense of self that people develop through social interaction.
According to Erikson, our ego identity is constantly changing due to new experiences and
information we acquire in our daily interactions with others.

In addition to ego identity, Erikson also believed that a sense of competence motivates
behaviours and actions. Each stage in Erikson's theory is concerned with becoming
competent in an area of life. If the stage is handled well, the person will feel a sense of
mastery, which is sometimes referred to as ego strength or ego quality. If the stage is
managed poorly, the person will emerge with a sense of inadequacy. In each stage, Erikson
believed people experience a conflict that serves as a turning point in development. In
Erikson's view, these conflicts are centred on either developing a psychological quality or
failing to develop that quality. During these times, the potential for personal growth is high,
but so is the potential for failure. Erikson proposed the following psychosocial stages.
STAGE 1: TRUST VS. MISTRUST (0-18 months)
The first stage of Erikson's theory of psychosocial development occurs between birth and one
year of age and is the most fundamental stage in life. Because an infant is utterly dependent,
the development of trust is based on the dependability and quality of the child's caregivers. If
a child successfully develops trust, he or she will feel safe and secure in the world.
Caregivers who are inconsistent, emotionally unavailable, or rejecting contribute to feelings
of mistrust in the children they care for. Failure to develop trust will result in fear and a
belief that the world is inconsistent and unpredictable.

STAGE 2: AUTONOMY VS. SHAME AND DOUBT (18 months -3 years)

The second stage of Erikson's theory of psychosocial development takes place during early
childhood and is focused on children developing a greater sense of personal control. Like
Freud, Erikson believed that toilet training was a vital part of this process. However,
Erikson's reasoning was quite different from that of Freud's. He believed that learning to
control one's bodily functions leads to a feeling of control and a sense of independence.
Children who successfully complete this stage feel secure and confident (autonomy), while
those who do not are left with a sense of inadequacy (shame and doubt)

STAGE 3: INITIATIVE VS. GUILT (3-5 years)

During the preschool years, children begin to assert their power and control over the world
through directing play and other social interactions. Children who are successful at this stage
feel capable and able to lead others. Those who fail to acquire these skills are left with a
sense of guilt, self-doubt, and lack of initiative.

STAGE 4: INDUSTRY VS. INFERIORITY (6-12 years)

This stage covers the early school years from approximately age 5 to 12 years. Through
social interactions, children begin to develop a sense of pride in their accomplishments and
abilities. Children who are encouraged and commended by parents and teachers develop a
feeling of competence and belief in their skills (industry). Those who receive little or no
encouragement from parents, teachers, or peers will doubt their abilities to be successful
(inferiority).

STAGE 5: IDENTITY VS. ROLE CONFUSION (12-20 years)

During adolescence, children explore their independence and develop a sense of self. Those
who receive proper encouragement and reinforcement through personal exploration will
emerge from this stage with a strong sense of self and a feeling of independence and control
(identity). Those who remain unsure of their beliefs and desires will feel insecure and
confused about themselves and the future (role confusion).

STAGE 6: INTIMACY VS. ISOLATION (20-35 years)

This stage covers the period of early adulthood when people are exploring personal
relationships. Erikson believed it was vital that people develop close, committed
relationships with other people. Those who are successful at this step will form relationships
that are committed and secure (intimacy). Remember that each step builds on skills learned
in previous steps. Erikson believed that a strong sense of personal identity was important for
developing intimate relationships. Studies have demonstrated that those with a poor sense of
self tend to have less committed relationships and are more likely to suffer emotional
isolation, loneliness, and depression.

STAGE 7: GENERATIVITY VS. STAGNATION (35- 65 years)

During adulthood, people continue to build their lives, focusing on their career and family.
Those who are successful during this phase will feel that they are contributing to the world by
being active in their home and community (generativity). Those who fail to attain this skill
will feel unproductive and uninvolved in the world (stagnation). Care is the virtue achieved
when this stage is handled successfully. Being proud of your accomplishments, watching
your children grow into adults, and developing a sense of unity with your life partner are
important accomplishments of this stage.

STAGE 8: INTEGRITY VS. DESPAIR (65 years and above)

This phase occurs during old age and is focused on reflecting back on life. Those who are
unsuccessful during this stage will feel that their life has been wasted and will experience
many regrets. The individual will be left with feelings of bitterness and despair. Those who
feel proud of their accomplishments will feel a sense of integrity. Successfully completing
this phase means looking back with few regrets and a general feeling of satisfaction. These
individuals will attain wisdom, even when confronting death.

Erikson’s Stages of Psychosocial Development Theory

Stage Age Central task (+ve) resolution (-ve) resolution

1. Infancy Birth – Trust vs Mistrust Learn to trust Mistrust,

18mns others withdrawal,
estrangement

2. Early 1½ to 3 Autonomy vs Shame - Self-control Compulsive,

childhood yrs & doubt w/o loss of self self-restraint or
esteem compliance.
- Ability to Wilfulness &
cooperate and defiance.
express oneself
3. Late 3 to 5 yrs Initiative vs guilt Learns to Lack of self-
childhood become assertive confidence.
Pessimism, fear
Ability to of wrongdoing
evaluate one’s Over-control &
own behavior over-restriction.
4. School Age 6 to 12 y/o Industry vs Inferiority Learns to create, Loss of hope,
develop & sense of being
manipulate. mediocre.
Develop sense of Withdrawal
competence & from school &
perseverance. peers.

5. Adolescence 12–20 yrs Identity vs role Coherent sense Feelings of

confusion of self. confusion,
Plans to actualize indecisiveness,
one’s abilities & possible anti-
social behavior.

6. Young 18-25 yrs Intimacy vs isolation Intimate Impersonal

Adulthood relationship with relationships.
another person. Avoidance of
Commitment to relationship,
work and career or
relationships. lifestyle
commitments.

7. Adulthood 25-65 yrs Generativity vs Creativity, Self-indulgence,

stagnation productivity, self-concern,
concern for lack of interests
others. &
commitments.

8. Maturity 65 yrs to Integrity vs despair Sense of loss,

death contempt for
others.
BEHAVIOURAL THEORIES
This approach is exemplified in the work of J. B. Watson, Ivan Pavlov, and B. F. Skinner
who developed central ideas of learning, and applied these ideas to children’s development.
Behaviourism holds that theories of behaviour should be based on observations of actual
behaviour rather than on speculation about motives or other unobservable factors.
Behavioural theories view development as a continuous process and not a discontinuous or
stage-like process. According to the behaviourists, children play a relatively passive role in
their own development. Like computers, which can only do what programmers tell them to
do, children do only what the environment directs that they do. Learning theories are part of
behavioural theories.

LEARNING THEORIES
Learning theories are important in the field of growth and development because learning
shapes development throughout childhood and across the entire life span. Among the most
important learning theories are classical condition, operant conditioning and social learning
theories, among others. We are going to discuss some of them.

Classical Conditioning
This theory was advanced by Ivan Pavlov, a Russian scientist who was working with dogs.
Pavlov showed that a dog would learn to salivate at the sound of a bell if that sound was
always associated with the presentation of food. The dog typically salivated at the
appearance of food; if the food was repeatedly paired with the sound of a bell, eventually the
dog learned to salivate at the sound of the bell whether or not it was accompanied by the
food. Watson used classical conditioning to explain many aspects of children’s behaviour,
especially emotions such as fear. For example, he conditioned a young child to fear furry
animals, by showing the baby who was easily frightened by noise, a white rat and
simultaneously making a loud noise.

Operant Conditioning,
This theory was advanced by B.F. Skinner, a scientist who worked with rats. In operant
conditioning, he focused on the consequences of a person’s behaviour. He placed a rat in a
box with a series of levers. There was only one lever which the hungry rat could press and a
food pellet would drop. At first the rat pressed the lever accidentally. Later it learnt to press
the lever whenever it was hungry (behaviour) and a food pellet could drop (consequence).
According to this theory, behaviour is modified by the type of rewarding or punishing events
that follow it. Positive reinforcement for a particular behaviour will increase the likelihood
of that behaviour recurring. Punishment will decrease the chances of a behaviour being
repeated. This approach has shown how children’s behaviours develop and how we can
change such behaviours. For example, children’s aggressive behaviour is often increased
rather than decreased by the attention parents pay to such behaviour as hitting and teasing.

Social Learning Theory

According to this theory, children learn not only through classical and operant conditioning
but also by observing and imitating others (Bandura, 1989). Bandura showed that if children
were exposed to aggressive behaviour of another person, they were likely to imitate their
behaviour. Children at play watched a model punch and kick a large inflated doll in unusual
ways. Later when they were left alone with the doll and other toys, they imitated the unusual
aggressive behaviour, copying exactly what they had seen. Other children who did not watch
the aggressive model did not display aggressive behaviour. Children who watch a great deal
of television violence are more likely to develop aggressive attitudes and behaviours
(Comstock, 1991, Huston & Wright, 1998). The role of cognitive factors in imitation is
important because children do not imitate blindly, or automatically but rather select specific
behaviours to imitate.

COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT THEORY

This theory was advanced by a Swiss psychologist called Jean Piaget. Before Piaget’s work,
the common assumption in psychology was that children are merely less competent thinkers
than adults. Piaget showed that young children think in strikingly different ways compared to
adults. According to Piaget, children are born with a very basic mental structure (genetically
inherited and evolved) on which all subsequent learning and knowledge is based.

There are three Basic Components in Piaget's Cognitive Theory:

1. Schema (building blocks of knowledge).

2. Adaptation processes that enable the transition from one stage to another (equilibrium,
assimilation and accommodation).
3. Stages of Development:
 Sensori-motor,
 preoperational,
 concrete operational,
 formal operational.
Schema: Piaget emphasized the importance of schema in cognitive development, and
described how they were developed or acquired. A schema can be defined as a set of linked
mental representations of the world, which we use both to understand and to respond to
situations.
A schema describes both the mental and physical actions involved in understanding and
knowing. Schemas are categories of knowledge that help us to interpret and understand the
world. In Piaget's view, a schema includes both a category of knowledge and the process of
obtaining that knowledge. As experiences happen, this new information is used to modify,
add to, or change previously existing schemas. For example, a child may have a schema
about a type of animal, such as a dog. If the child's sole experience has been with small dogs,
a child might believe that all dogs are small, furry, and have four legs. Suppose then that the
child encounters a very large dog. The child will take in this new information, modifying the
previously existing schema to include this new information.
Assimilation – This is the process of taking in new information into our previously existing
schemas is known as assimilation. The process is somewhat subjective, because we tend to
modify experience or information and somewhat to fit in with our pre-existing beliefs. In the
example above, seeing a dog and labelling it "dog" is an example of assimilating the animal
into the child's dog schema.
Accommodation – This is another part of adaptation involves changing or altering our
existing schemas in light of new information, a process known as accommodation.
Accommodation involves altering existing schemas, or ideas, as a result of new information
or new experiences. New schemas may also be developed during this process.
Equilibration - Piaget believed that all children try to strike a balance between assimilation
and accommodation, which is achieved through a mechanism Piaget called equilibration. As
children progress through the stages of cognitive development, it is important to maintain a
balance between applying previous knowledge (assimilation) and changing behaviour to
account for new knowledge (accommodation). Equilibration helps explain how children are
able to move from one stage of thought into the next.

Piaget's Stages of Cognitive Development

According to psychologist Jean Piaget, children progress through a series of four key stages
of cognitive development marked by shifts in how they understand the world. Piaget believed
that children are like "little scientists" and that they actively try to explore and make sense of
the world around them. Through his observations of his own children, Piaget developed a
stage theory of intellectual development that included four distinct stages: Piaget's stage
theory describes the cognitive development of children. Cognitive development involves
changes in cognitive process and abilities. In Piaget's view, early cognitive development
involves processes based upon actions and later progresses into changes in mental operations.
The Sensori-motor Stage: During this stage, infants and toddlers acquire knowledge through
sensory experiences and manipulating the objects.
The Preoperational Stage: At this stage, children learn through pretence and play, but still
struggle with logic and taking the point of view of other people.
The Concrete Operational Stage: Children at this stage of development begin to think
more logically, but their thinking can also be very rigid. They tend to struggle with abstract
and hypothetical concepts.
The Formal Operational Stage: The final stage of Piaget's theory involves an increase in
logic, the ability to use deductive reasoning, and an understanding of abstract ideas.

Havighurst’s Developmental Stages and Tasks

A number of theorists are responsible for contributing to the Developmental Tasks Theory,
but it was Robert J. Havighurst who elaborated on this theory in the most systematic and
extensive manner. His main assertion is that development is continuous throughout the entire
lifespan, occurring in stages, where the individual moves from one stage to the next by means
of successful resolution of problems or performance of developmental tasks. These tasks are
those that are typically encountered by most people in the culture where the individual
belongs. If the person successfully accomplishes and masters the developmental task, he feels
pride and satisfaction, and consequently earns his community or society’s approval. This
success provides a sound foundation which allows the individual to accomplish tasks to be
encountered at later stages. Conversely, if the individual is not successful at accomplishing a
task, he is unhappy and is not accorded the desired approval by society, resulting in the
subsequent experience of difficulty when faced with succeeding developmental tasks. This
theory presents the individual as an active learner who continually interacts with a similarly
active social environment.

Havighurst proposed a bio-psychosocial model of development, wherein the developmental

tasks at each stage are influenced by the individual’s biology (physiological maturation and
genetic makeup), his psychology (personal values and goals) and sociology (specific culture
to which the individual belongs).

Some developmental tasks evolve out of the biological character of humans and are therefore
faced similarly by all individuals from any culture. An example of this is learning how to
walk for infants. Being a skill that depends on maturation and genetically determined factors,
the mechanics involved in learning how to walk are virtually the same and occur at generally
the same time for children from all cultures.

Other tasks that stem from biological mechanisms include learning to talk, exercising control
over bodily functions, learning skills typically utilized in children’s games, and coping with
physiological changes related to aging, to name a few. Havighurst stressed the importance of
sensitive periods which he considered to be the ideal teachable moments during which an
individual demonstrates maturation at a level that is most conducive to learning and
successfully performing the developmental tasks.

Psychological factors that emerge from the individual’s maturing personality and psyche are
embodied in personal values and goals. These values and goals are another source of some
developmental tasks such as establishing one’s self-concept, developing relationships with
peers of both sexes and adjusting to retirement or to the loss of a spouse.

Havighurst’s Developmental Stages and Tasks

Developmental stage Developmental task

1. Infancy & early - eat solid foods

childhood - walk
- talk
- control elimination of wastes
- relate emotionally to others
- distinguish right from wrong through development of a
conscience
- learn sex differences and sexual modesty
- achieve personal independence
- form simple concepts of social & physical reality

2. Middle childhood - learn physical skills, required for games

- build healthy attitudes towards oneself
- learn to socialize with peers
 - learn appropriate masculine or feminine role
- gain basic reading, writing & mathematical skills
- develop concepts necessary for everyday living
- formulate a conscience based on a value system
- achieve personal independence
- develop attitudes toward social groups & institutions

3. Adolescence - establish more mature relationships with same-age

individuals of both sexes
- achieve a masculine or feminine social role
- accept own body
- establish emotional independence from parents
- achieve assurance of economic independence
- prepare for an occupation
- prepare for marriage & establishment of a family
- acquire skills necessary to fulfill civic responsibilities
- develop a set of values that guides behavior

4. Early Adulthood - select a partner

- learn to live with a partner
- start a family
- manage a home
- establish self in a career/occupation
- assume civic responsibilities
- become part of a social group

5. Middle Adulthood - fulfill civic & social responsibilities

- maintain an economic standard of living
- assist adolescent children to become responsible, happy
adults
- relate to one’s partner
- adjust to physiological changes
- adjust to aging parents

6. Later Maturity - adjust to physiological changes & alterations in health

status
- adjust to retirement & altered income
- adjust to death of spouse
- develop affiliation with one’s age group
- meet civic & social responsibilities
- establish satisfactory living arrangements
Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs Theory
Our actions are motivated in order achieve certain needs. Maslow first introduced his concept
of a hierarchy of needs in 1943 This hierarchy suggests that people are motivated to fulfil
basic needs before moving on to other, more advanced needs. This hierarchy is most often
displayed as a pyramid. The lowest levels of the pyramid are made up of the most basic
needs, while the more complex needs are located at the top of the pyramid. Needs at the
bottom of the pyramid are basic physical requirements including the need for food, water,
sleep, and warmth. Once these lower-level needs have been met, people can move on to the
next level of needs, which are for safety and security.

As people progress up the pyramid, needs become increasingly psychological and social.
Soon, the need for love, friendship, and intimacy become important. Further up the pyramid,
the need for personal esteem and feelings of accomplishment take priority. Like Carl Rogers,
Maslow emphasized the importance of self- actualization, which is a process of growing and
developing as a person in order to achieve individual potential.

Types of Needs: Abraham Maslow believed that these needs are similar to instincts and play
a major role in motivating behavior. Physiological, security, social, and esteem needs are
deficiency needs (also known as D-needs), meaning that these needs arise due to deprivation.
Satisfying these lower-level needs is important in order to avoid unpleasant feelings or
consequences. Maslow termed the highest-level of the pyramid as growth needs (also
known as being needs or B-needs). Growth needs do not stem from a lack of something, but
rather from a desire to grow as a person.

The figure below shows the hierarchy of needs represented in form of a pyramid.
Physiological Needs: These include the most basic needs that are vital to survival, such as
the need for water, air, food, and sleep. Maslow believed that these needs are the most basic
and instinctive needs in the hierarchy because all needs become secondary until these
physiological needs are met.
Security Needs: These include needs for safety and security. Security needs are important for
survival, but they are not as demanding as the physiological needs. Examples of security
needs include a desire for steady employment, health care, safe neighbourhoods, and shelter
from the environment.
Social Needs: These include needs for belonging, love, and affection. Maslow described
these needs as less basic than physiological and security needs. Relationships such as
friendships, romantic attachments, and families help fulfil this need for companionship and
acceptance, as does involvement in social, community, or religious groups.
Esteem Needs: After the first three needs have been satisfied, esteem needs becomes
increasingly important. These include the need for things that reflect on self-esteem, personal
worth, social recognition, and accomplishment.
Self-actualizing Needs: This is the highest level of Maslow’s hierarchy of needs. Self-
actualizing people are self-aware, concerned with personal growth, less concerned with the
opinions of others, and interested fulfilling their potential.

Characteristics of Self-Actualized People

Acceptance and Realism: Self-actualized people have realistic perceptions of themselves,

others and the world around them.

Problem-cantering: Self-actualized individuals are concerned with solving problems

outside of themselves, including helping others and finding solutions to problems in the
external world. These people are often motivated by a sense of personal responsibility and
ethics.

Spontaneity: Self-actualized people are spontaneous in their internal thoughts and outward
behaviour. While they can conform to rules and social expectations, they also tend to be open
and unconventional.

Autonomy and Solitude: Another characteristic of self-actualized people is the need for
independence and privacy. While they enjoy the company of others, these individuals need
time to focus on developing their own individual potential.

Continued Freshness of Appreciation: Self-actualized people tend to view the world with
a continual sense of appreciation, wonder and awe. Even simple experiences continue to be a
source of inspiration and pleasure.
 BIOLOGICAL AND ENVIRONMENTAL BASES OF BEHAVIOUR

Scientists have been debating this issue since the beginning of the study of developmental
psychology. Some scientists believed that there are no inborn predispositions to development.
Other scientists have argued to the contrary, saying that hereditary factors are the most
crucial in influencing the course of development. Most contemporary developmental
psychologists are in consensus that the two factors interact to determine development.

The Mechanisms of Heredity

Human life begins with the joining of the mother’s egg cell with the father’s sperm cell.
These cells (gametes) carry the instructions or the blueprints that determine what
characteristics an individual will inherit. Genetics is the science that studies heredity. The
basis of human life is the protein molecules whose function is determined by arrangement of
the 20 or so amino acids of which they are composed. In turn, the arrangement of the amino
acids is determined by a specific genetic code contained in a sequence of deoxyribonucleic
acid (DNA) molecules located on rod-like structures called chromosomes.

The Chromosome
A chromosome is a microscopic rod-like structure in the nucleus of a cell that contains genes
which are the carriers of heredity. There are two types of cells in our bodies; body and sex
cells. Body cells contain identical genetic information. Each of our body cells contains an
identical component of 23 pairs of chromosomes (each of which contain an identical
sequence of DNA). One member of each pair of chromosome is inherited from the mother
and the other pair from the father. That is, we inherit 23 chromosomes from each parent. The
division of body cells involves Mitosis - a processes that results in genetically identical pairs
of cells. Unlike body cells, mature sex cells (sperm and ovum) each contain 23 chromosomes
and not 23 pairs. The gametes result from a special kind of cell division called meiosis, which
results in daughter cells that have only half the number of the parent cell.

Sex Chromosomes
Out of the 23 chromosomes contained in each sperm and each ovum, one, termed the sex
chromosome determines whether the offspring will be male or female. The other 22 are
called autosomes (i.e., the 22 paired non-sex chromosomes). The sex chromosomes are X
and Y. Only the male can produce a Y chromosome, whereas both females and males can
produce X chromosomes. The presence of a Y chromosome in a fertilized egg determines
that the offspring will be a male; two X chromosomes determine a female. Thus, the fertilized
egg may contain XX or XY pair. The X chromosome that is contributed by the mother to her
son is sometimes believed to be the carrier of sex-linked, predominantly male defects and
illnesses such as colour blindness, heredity baldness, and haemophilia.
Genes
Genes are the carriers of heredity. Each of the 23 chromosomes is believed to contain
between 40,000 and 100,000 genes. These genes either in pairs or complex combination of
pairs, determine our inherited characteristics. For example, there are pairs of genes that
correspond to eye colour, baldness, hair characteristics and almost every other characteristic
of the individual. In addition, combinations of genes appear to be related to personality
characteristics such as intelligence, temperament, aggression etc. Traits that result from the
combination of many genes are termed polygenic. Genes for eye colour and other traits take
on a variety of forms called alleles i.e., the alternative states of genes (allelomorph).
Allelomorph is a term used to refer to the various states in which genes carry different traits.
A person is homozygous for a trait if alleles in the inherited pair for a trait are identical. For
example, the pair for eye colour can be blue-blue. A person is heterozygousif two different
alleles form the pair of genes for a trait. For example, the pair for eye colour may be brown–
blue.

Dominant and Recessive Genes

Certain members of genes may be dominant over their corresponding member. When a
dominant gene is paired with a corresponding recessive gene,- (a gene whose characteristics
are not manifested in an offspring), the characteristic corresponding to the dominant gene will
appear in the individual. For example, in humans, the brown-eyed gene is dominant; (it will
exert its effect regardless of whether the other member of the gene pair calls for brown or
blue eyes) whereas the blue-eyed gene is recessive.

Phenotype versus Genotype Genes

Phenotype gene is the characteristic we observe in a given individual. It is the manifested
characteristics. Genotype refers to one’s genetic makeup or our inherited chromosomal make
up. It consists of the 46 chromosomes out of which 23 are inherited from each parent. For
example, if you have blue eyes, then your eyes are part of your phenotype. At the same time,
the genes that correspond to blue eyes define your genotype. Two people who have brown
eyes may have different genotypes for eye colour; one may be Brown-Brown; the other
Brown-Blue. The phenotypes are the same, but the genotypes are different, the Blue-eyed
gene is masked by its Brown counterpart.

Genetic Defects
In most cases, genetic disorders are linked with recessive rather than dominant genes. This is
because any abnormality that is linked with a dominant gene will be manifested in all carriers
and will have relatively little chance of being passed on to an offspring, and especially if it
leads to an early death. Abnormalities linked to recessive genes will be manifested only when
the carrier has inherited the related recessive genes. Many individuals may be carriers for a
single recessive gene of abnormality without manifesting the abnormality. An example of a
genetic disorder linked with a dominant gene is Huntington’ chorea – a fatal neurological
disorder. It manifests itself at the age of 30 or 40, and therefore it is hard to detect and keeps
on being transmitted.
Examples of various genetic defects are discussed below:
1. Sickle-cell Anaemia: This is a genetic disorder linked with a recessive gene. Effects
of the defective gene are clearly discernible (noticeable) in abnormally shaped red
blood cells (sickle-shaped rather than circular) which multiply as a function of lack of
oxygen. These cells tend to clot or clog together, carrying less oxygen, thereby
increasing in number and reducing oxygen even further. Thus, the cells cannot carry
enough oxygen to the body. Individuals who are homozygous for the gene frequently
die in childhood or are severely ill throughout life. Those who are heterozygous are
ordinarily healthy except in conditions of low oxygen such as high altitude. Sickle-
cell anaemia is common among blacks in central African coastal areas.
2. Down’s Syndrome or Mongolism: This is a condition in which victims have low IQ
(20- 60), broad noses, square shaped ears, protruding tongues, small square- shaped
heads, defective hearts, eyes with oriental appearance hence the term Mongolism.
About one out of every 600 children is born with this defect. This defect is caused by
an extra chromosome (chromosome 21). The person will have three rather than a pair,
hence the label, trisomy 21. Most cases of Down’s syndrome are due to non
chromosome disjunction (failure to separate) of the 21 st chromosome pair during
meiosis. A smaller number of cases are due to translocation of chromosome 21
material to another chromosome (i.e., part of one pair breaks away). In this case, the
number is normal but chromosomal damage is present.
3. Turner’s syndrome is a defect that affects female children. One sex chromosome is
missing. The individual has only one sex chromosome (0X). Victims have
underdeveloped secondary sex characteristics, are short, sterile, and have webbed
necks (having loose folds of skin). Injection of female sex hormone, oestrogen may
enhance the development of feminine characteristics.
4. Klinefelter’s Syndrome, a defect that involves an extra X chromosome in male
children (47, XXY). Victims may have both male and female secondary sexual
characteristics. The male secondary sexual characteristics may be underdeveloped.
They may have low IQ, are tall, thin, have long arms and legs, and may also be sterile.
Injection of the male sex hormone, testosterone may enhance the development of
masculine characteristics.
5. Phenylketonuria (PKU),a disorder that is related to two recessive genes. The disease
is caused by a recessive allele that fails to produce an enzyme necessary to metabolize
the protein phyenylaline. Failure to digest this protein results to accumulation of
poison in the bloodstream causing brain damage. If it is not treated immediately after
birth, PKU damages the nervous system and causes mental retardation and
hyperactivity.
6. The Super male or XYY Syndrome, the victim may be tall, have low IQ, and has a
strong tendency towards aggression and violence. XYY syndrome is prevalent among
criminals. However, not all criminals have this syndrome.
7. Tay sacs Disease is a genetic disorder linked to a recessive gene. Both parents must
be carriers of the trait for the child to have it. The victim dies after a few years. The
child may appear normal at birth, but fat begins to accumulate in the brain cells. This
results to blindness, deafness, and mental retardation and finally death. It is a disorder
 in which the nervous system also degenerates. It is common in Eastern Europe and
among Jews.
8. Haemophilia is a blood disorder characterized by poor blood clotting ability. It is
associated with an X-linked recessive gene. It is treated by transfusions of clotting
factors. New gene-spicing techniques make it possible to provide these factors
without running the risk of blood-borne infections by donated blood products.

Nature-Nurture Interaction
Development is influenced by both heredity (nature) and environment (nurture). For a long
time psychologists have debated on the relative contribution of nature and nurture in
determining our development and behaviour. Is our development decided upon by heredity
or by environment? At the moment of conception an incredible number of personal
characteristics and growth patterns are determined. The heredity instructions are carried by
the chromosomes and genes. The individual inherits 23 chromosomes from each parent to
make a pair of 23 (46 chromosomes in total). Each chromosome contains thousands and
thousands of genes which determine our inherited traits. Heredity determines the sequence of
growth, the timing of puberty, skin colour, hair colour, body size, vulnerability to some
diseases (e.g. mental disorders, sickle-cell anaemia), body shape, height, intelligence, athletic
potential, personality traits and other traits considerably.

Both heredity and environment are important in determining development. The two are
inseparable. As one grows, there is a constant interaction between the forces of nature and
nurture. Therefore, the total person is a product of hereditary and environmental factors.
Heredity shapes development by providing a framework of personal potentials and limits that
are altered by environmental factors such as nutrition, culture, disease, learning, parents,
peers, home, school, etc. The influence of environment starts after conception and continues
until death. Our heredity does not change. Heredity equips the person with innate capacities
and the environment determines whether he/she will reach full potential or not.

Today psychologists agree that heredity and environment interact to determine development.
From an educational and developmental point of view, the most important thing to learn is
that many of our characteristics can be influenced by the environment. Although there is
little we can do about heredity, much of the environment still remains under our control.
Therefore, we should improve the environment for our children to attain their full inherited
potential.

PRENATAL DEVELOPMENT

4.1 Introduction

Prenatal period is the period between conception and birth. This period is marks the
beginning of life and development. It is therefore a very crucial period of development which
in many ways may determine future development as we are going to see. It is during this
period when our inherited traits are determined. During this period, prenatal environmental
factors may exert permanent influence on development.

Conception
Conception occurs when a sperm cell unites with an egg cell (ovum). It is also termed as
fertilization. The newly fertilized egg cell (zygote) contains the entire genetic endowment in
the form of 23 pairs of chromosomes, 23 from the male and 23 from the female. As soon as
the zygote is formed, a process of cell division known as mitosis begins. This is the process
through which the cells multiply.

Prior to fertilization, each ovum contains a complete human genome, including a single X but
no Y chromosome. Likewise, each spermatozoon contains a complete set of autosomes and a
single sex chromosome, either X or Y. The resulting zygote is similar to the majority of
somatic cells because it contains two copies of the genome in a diploid set of chromosomes.
One set of chromosomes came from the nucleus of the ovum and the second set from the
nucleus of the sperm. If the spermatozoon contributes a Y chromosome then the zygote will
develop as a male. Unlike the X chromosome, the Y chromosome contains very little genetic
information. However it does contain a gene, SRY, which will switch on androgen
production at a later stage, leading to the development of a male body type. In contrast, the
mitochondrial genetic information of the zygote comes entirely from the mother via the
ovum.

Stages of Prenatal Development

The prenatal period of development is divided into three parts namely; the pre-embryonic
period, the embryonic period and the period of the foetus. We shall now discuss each one of
them.

Pre-embryonic Period or Germinal Stage (0-3 weeks): It is also referred to as the period of
the ovum. The period begins immediately after conception. Three days or so after
fertilization, the zygote is implanted in the thickened uterine wall. This tube is aided by
finger-like extensions (villi) that develop as the cell division continues. By the end of two
weeks the cells will have multiplied greatly in number and will have begun to differentiate
themselves.

The embryonic disc differentiates itself into 3 germ layers called germinal layers (the origin
of human tissue). These germinal layers are:
a) Endoderm (inner layer) – later develops to form the glands, digestive system
(epithelium) and the respiratory system.
b) Mesoderm (middle layer) – later develops to form the skeleton, muscles,
connective tissue (ligaments), circulatory system, excretory and reproduction
systems.
 c) Ectoderm (outer layer) – later develops to form the nervous system, brain, sense
organs, skin, hair and teeth.
It is not known how these cells start to specialize. The needs of the body probably determine
what develops first. This is communicated chemically.

Twins
A twin is one of two offspring produced in the same pregnancy. Twins can either be identical
(in scientific usage, "monozygotic"), meaning that they develop from one zygote that splits
and forms two embryos, or fraternal ("dizygotic") because they develop from two separate
eggs that are fertilized by two separate sperm. Sometimes monozygotic twins fail to separate
completely resulting in Siamese or conjoined twins.

Zygosity
Zygosity is the degree of identity in the genome of twins. There are five common variations
of twinning. The three most common variations are all fraternal (dizygotic):
 Male–female twins are the most common result, 50 percent of fraternal twins and the
most common grouping of twins.
 Female–female fraternal twins (sometimes called "sororal twins")
 Male–male fraternal twins
The other two variations are identical (monozygotic) twins:
 Female–female identical twins
 Male–male identical twins (least common)

The Embryonic Period (4th – 8th week)

This is a period of rapid growth and differentiation in which the major systems, organs and
external body features are formed. The organism at this stage is referred to as an embryo. It
is fed from the blood system of the mother through the placenta and umbilical cord. It is
connected to the placenta by the umbilical cord which contains 3 blood vessels – a vein to
carry nourishment and two arteries to remove waste products.
Such influences may be due to chemical changes in the mother’s bloodstream caused by
viruses or drugs and are likely to lead to abnormalities of development, affecting the
particular organ during the process of its formation. During this period:
 The head and blood vessels begin to form in the third week
 The heart begins to beat in the 4 th week and hence blood flows through the tiny veins and
arteries.
 The brain, kidney, liver and digestive tract develops.

Sex Differentiation
For the development of a boy, both XY, that is, genetic programming and particular pattern
of hormone action are required for normal gender development. Between 4-8 weeks after
conception the male hormone testosterone is secreted by rudimentary testes in the embryo. If
this hormone is not secreted, the embryo will develop as physical female even though
genetically it is male. If this hormone accidentally secreted for an XX embryo, it will have
both male and female characteristics. The survival of X and Y depends on the acidity and
alkalinity of the mucus in the uterine wall.

At the end of the second month the embryo assumes a human shape and is about one and half
inches and weighs about two thirds of an ounce. By the end of the period, virtually all the
body systems that will be found in the new born will have developed, albeit primitively. The
embryonic period is thus a very crucial period of development and the systems are very
sensitive to teratogenic influences. A teratogen is an agent that may cause abnormality
during prenatal development. Malformations of the heart, central nervous system and spinal
cord are likely to occur between the 3rd and 5th week. Malformation of the eyes, ears, arms
and legs are likely to occur between the 4 th and 7th week and that of the teeth, palate between
the 7th and 8th week. This is a very sensitive/critical period as any disease will cause an
abortion or deformity. 30 - 50% of all conceptions are miscarried at this stage.

The Period of the Foetus (9th – 40th weeks)

This period is characterized by growth and development of the organs and systems
established during the embryonic period. The foetus increases in size and organs become
more mature. During the third month, the foetus develops eyelids and sex differentiation
occurs (i.e. external genitals develop). During the fourth month, there is movement
development, which includes sucking (foetus can for example suck the thumb), head turning
and limb movements. The mother begins to feel movements. During the 5 th, 6th and 7th
months the foetus continues to develop significantly. It can survive in the sixth or 7 th month
because the respiratory system is fully developed. During the 8 th and 9th month, there is
further development of body systems. At the end of the 9 th month, the foetus is ready to be
born. Clinically, these six months are called the second and third trimesters. The first three
months of gestation represents the first trimester.

Birth
Approximately 280 days (40 weeks) after conception, the foetus is born. This represents 9
calendar months or 10 lunar months. This is the gestation period counting from the last
menstruation period. The true gestation period is approximately 12-14 days shorter – hence
approximately 266 days because ovulation occurs from 12-14 days after menstruation. The
average full term baby weighs 2.5 – 4.3 kilogrammes.
Prematurity
There is variability in gestation period and in the rate of prenatal development. Thus, children
vary in the degree of maturity at birth. The mean length of the gestation period is 266 days.
Nearly 5 to 10 percent of all life births occur prematurely. Prematurity can have some
negative effect on the development of the child. Very rarely children born before 26 weeks of
age survive. Premature births can be caused by poor maternal health, malnutrition, maternal
age, smoking, drugs etc. The premature baby will have low activity level, problems in
respiration, and will not be able to regulate body temperature effectively. For this reason,
premature babies are kept in incubators for some time. Prematurity may also cause neonatal
death. The neonate may be very weak and prone to illness.
The premature baby is likely to be retarded in physical, motor and mental development,
suffer speech difficulties, and have poor visual acuity (sensitivity). However, this will
depend on the kind of care given to the baby immediately after birth. If adequate care is
given through proper incubation whereby temperature, oxygen levels and diet are carefully
monitored and the infant physically stimulated at frequent intervals these anomalies may be
substantially reduced or eliminated. Children who have low birth weight (small-for-date) are
also likely to have problems in later development.

Birth Injury
When the neonate is born after prolonged or obstructed labour, brain injury becomes a
common complication. Sometimes a fracture in the skull, intra-cranial haemorrhage and
cerebral laceration (tearing) may result. In such a case, development becomes retarded in the
first two years of life and perception and motor defects may occur. Intra-cranial injury may
lead to convulsive disorders, cerebral palsy and mental retardation. Anoxia (interruption of
oxygen supply in the brain) is also common and damaging. A total lack of oxygen to the
brain will kill the brain cells in 18 seconds. Anoxia may be caused by prematurity or
abnormality in circulation or compression of the umbilical cord.
Epilepsy is most common in breech birth because of damage to brain cells caused by anoxia.
Brain injury may be caused by instruments (such as forceps) applied to the head of the foetus
during birth. Less serious disorders caused by brain injury include loss in auditory acuity,
slow breathing, less neonate activity following birth, hyperactivity, psychomotor problems,
lower attention level etc.

Prenatal Environment Influences

Normal development of the foetus would presumably take place under ideal prenatal
environmental conditions. These include:
 A well-developed amniotic sac with a cushioning of amniotic fluid.
 A fully functional placenta and umbilical cord
 An adequate supply of oxygen and nutrients
 Freedom from disease, organisms and toxic chemicals
There are a variety of conditions that affect the normal development of the unborn baby.
Many children are born with birth defects. Only a small proportion of birth defects result
from inherited factors (e.g., Down’s syndrome). Majority of birth defects are caused by
environmental factors during the prenatal period, or during child birth. An agent that can
cause a birth defect, or even kill a foetus is called teratogen (teras means monster in Latin)
and the field of study that focuses on birth defects and developmental abnormalities is called
teratology. Teratology helps us understand the process of normal development and to prevent
defects where possible. Following is a discussion of some of the common teratogens and
their effects on development.
Maternal Nutrition
Food supply for the foetus comes from the mother’s blood stream through the placenta.
Good diet determines the health of the mother and the child. Food shortage during prenatal
development may lead to permanent mental retardation as well as growth. Expectant mothers
should eat enough and well balanced food. Malnutrition especially in the 3 rd trimester, is
associated with still-birth, pre-maturity and low-birth-weight babies and postnatal problems
such as deficits in height and weight, mental deficiency, vulnerability to disease and so on.
Specifically, lack of:
 Protein may result to reduced number of brain cells, neural defects and premature
birth.
 Iron result to anaemia (blood deficiency)
 Calcium results to poor bone formation
 Vitamins result to poor mental functioning and physical abnormalities. However, an
overdose of vitamin D may cause mental retardation

Drugs
Drugs that may be safe for use by adults may not be safe for the developing organism that
shares the same environment with the mother. Pregnant mothers should not take drugs unless
their health is really threatened. If medicine has to be taken at all, it should be prescribed by
an authorized physician, say, a gynaecologist, especially during the first three months of
pregnancy. The following are some of the drugs that are known to cause some problems:
 Insulin- when given in large doses and in the first 14 weeks of pregnancy it may
lead to the death of the foetus or to malformations.
 Thalidomide – it was used as a tranquilizer and sedative to treat morning sickness in
the 1960s in Europe. It led to deformed babies being born. The deformities were
associated with the mother’s intake of thalidomide. The defects caused depended on
the time when the drug was taken during pregnancy.
 Antibiotics for example, streptomycin and tetracycline may cause malformations of
the teeth and skeleton and also deafness.
 Analgesics may cause depression of respiration
 Aspirin may cause prolonged labour and longer than average clotting time. It may
also depress respiration.
 Quinine is associated with congenital deafness
 Anaesthesia may sedate infants making them lethargic for the first few days. The
baby may take longer to adjust to postnatal life.
 Intoxicants (narcotics) for example morphine, cocaine, heroin, morpheme and
codeine may lead to the birth of addicted and withdrawn babies
  Smoking by pregnant mothers of cigarettes whose main ingredients include nicotine,
tar, and carbon dioxide may likely lead to premature babies and underweight babies.
Heavy smoking may result to spontaneous abortions, still-births, congenital
malformations and neonate pneumonia. Constriction of veins due to smoking reduces
the amount of oxygen and nutrients supplied to the foetus and hence the low weight
and possible foetal damage.
 Alcohol consumption is harmful to the unborn baby even when consumed in small
quantities. Excessive alcohol intake can lead to children who suffer from foetal
alcoholic syndrome (FAS) whose symptoms include small heads, thin long upper lip,
widely spread eyes, low forehead, short nose, retarded physical growth, flat
cheekbones, possible mental retardation, low birth weight, small size and neurological
abnormalities. Note that, alcohol decreases appetite, affecting feeding.

Chemicals may damage the genetic material itself causing mutation or interfere with
development after conception. Some dangerous chemicals include:
 Mercury which is found in cosmetics, lightening creams and in industrial waste
can lead to mental retardation and physical deformities. .
 Lead which can be found in automobile exhaust fumes and industrial waste if
ingested by the expectant mother may cause miscarriage, anaemia, haemorrhage
in the mother, premature birth, low weight, brain damage, physical defects and
mental retardation. In men, exposure to lead may cause chromosomal abnormality
that may affect their fertility.
 Fungicides or insecticides contain ingredients like hydrocarbons and dioxin
which may lead to still birth, miscarriage, physical deformities etc.

Radiation can damage the genetic material leading to physical or mental retardation. It can
cause hazardous effects on the zygote, embryo and foetus whose cells divide rapidly.
Excessive radiation through x-ray (e.g., for treatment of cancer) or through radiation in the
atmosphere have produced marked effects on development. Radiation can lead to malformed
limbs, malformed eyes, heart defects, leukaemia (cancer of the blood), mental retardation and
abortion. The effects of the Nagasaki and Hiroshima bombings during 2 nd world war are still
being felt today.

Diseases
 Rubella (German measles) has been associated with blindness, mental retardation,
deafness and heart malformation.
 Herpes may cause brain infection and death
 Syphilis has been linked to blindness, deafness or insanity later in life, (after birth the
baby can be given drops of silver nitrate or penicillin to prevent the eyes from
damage).
 Gonorrhoea can affect the heart, spinal cord and cause blindness etc.
 Diabetes can cause respiratory and circulatory problems.
 HIV virus can be transmitted to the infant during pregnancy or through breast
feeding. It can cause facial deformities, growth failure and eventually death. As of the
 early twenty-first century, there was not a cure for AIDS, and the majority of efforts
at controlling the disease focused on education in an effort to get potential female
AIDS victims to take the proper precautions and avoid sexual relationships with high-
risk males, usually those involved with drugs. Significant progress was being made,
especially concerning children. Medical technology is now available to prevent
mother to child transmission.
 Toxaemia is potentially fatal for the mother and the foetus. It is characterized by high
blood pressure, swelling, and weight gain due to a build-up of fluid in the body
tissues, and the presence of protein in the mother's urine. In severe cases the woman
may go into convulsions or coma, placing a tremendous strain on her, which is carried
over to the foetus. Women with toxaemia frequently give birth to premature babies or
to babies smaller than average for their gestational age. Like many other types of
blood-pressure disorders, however, toxaemia can be treated through medication and
diet.
 Anoxia is a condition in which the brain of the baby does not receive enough oxygen
to allow it to develop properly. Anoxia can cause certain forms of epilepsy, mental
deficiency, cerebral palsy, and behaviour disorders. If the amount of brain damage is
not too severe, however, it may be possible to compensate for the disorder to some
extent. Epilepsy can often be controlled with drugs, for instance, and many children
with cerebral palsy can learn to control their affected muscles.

Maternal Factors
 Age: First time mothers over 35 years of age and teenage mothers have a higher
rate of miscarriage, premature birth, still-birth and birth defects than mothers in
the prime child bearing age (20 – 35). The young mothers may not have yet
completed their own development and their reproductive systems may not be
ready to function. The older mothers’ systems may have passed their most
efficient functioning stage. In both cases, pregnancy puts extra strain on a body
that is not able to bear it. Hormonal balance may also play a part. Children with
Down’s syndrome are usually born to mothers over 40 years and sometimes to
very young mothers. Children with Down’s syndrome have eyelids that resemble
those of people from Mongolia – hence they are called mongoloids. The problem
occurs during meiosis when the 21 st chromosome fails to separate properly, hence
resulting to a total of 47, instead of 46 chromosomes. Victims have very low IQs
(20-60), broad nose, and protruding tongue. They are also likely to suffer heart
malformations and respiratory disorders.
 Rhesus factor (RH) incompatibility. Rhesus factor is a component of the blood.
Its presence makes a person’s blood RH positive and its absence RH negative. The
two types are genetically inherited and are incompatible under certain
circumstance. When an RH negative woman marries a RH positive man, the
baby’s blood will be RH positive, since the RH positive is a dominant trait. The
baby’s blood type in this case will be incompatible to that of the mother. The RH
foetus produces substances called antigens that can pass through the semi-
permeable membrane of the placenta and enter the RH negative mother’s
 bloodstream. If this happens the mother’s blood produces antibodies to resist the
invasion of the antigens. These antibodies pass through the placenta to the foetus,
thereby attacking it and destroying its red blood cells – a condition known as
erythroblastosisfoetalis which gives rise to severe anaemia. The toxic substance
produced by the mother give the skin a yellow colouring called jaundice. The
affected child may be born prematurely or may be still-born or mentally retarded.
The antibody build up does not happen quickly enough to affect a first child, only
those born later are affected. Blood transfusion is sometimes done immediately
after birth or during pregnancy to save the child. To prevent the build-up of
antibodies, RH immune globulin can be administered to the mother within 72
hours after the birth or miscarriage of each child.
 Maternal Emotional State. In pregnancy, mother’s anxiety and stress can be
caused by a variety of factors such as: extended family demands, quarrels,
poverty, infidelity, sickness, and superstitions, worry about what kind of a child to
be born, too many children, sickness etc. Excessive emotional stress of rage, fear,
anxiety and anger can stimulate the nervous system of the mother to send
chemicals to the bloodstream. At the same time, the endocrine glands will secrete
hormones that affect cell metabolism. Such chemicals and hormones may find
their way to the foetal blood through the placenta. Severe and prolonged
emotional stress in early pregnancy may result in physical abnormalities.
Excessive stress in the 7th week of pregnancy when the loop of the mouth and the
bones of the upper jaw are forming in the foetus may result to cleft-palate and
cleft-lip. This means that the chemicals produced during the stressful state
interfere with the proper development of the upper jaw bone and the palate
formation. Though not well established, stress may bring about undesirable
behaviours in the new born for example, excessive crying, irritability, difficulty in
breathing, diarrhoea and vomiting. Note that, stress may affect the mother’s
feeding habits causing her to under feed or feed poorly. Thus, the effects may be
related to poor feeding indirectly or for others, they may be due to drugs taken to
relax when stressed.

PHYSICAL AND MOTOR DEVELOPMENT

There are five main stages of physical development over a lifetime namely Infancy,
Childhood, Adolescence, Adulthood and old age. In each one of these stages, we shall
investigate the physical changes as well as the motor skills.
Infancy (0 - 2 Years)
a) Physical Development
Physical development is one of the overt and most obvious indicator of development. It has
an effect on other aspects of development such as social and motor development. Physical
development is affected by diet, parental care, social economic status, disease etc. Physical
development is very rapid within the first two years. By the time the baby is:
 Four months, the weight doubles
One year, its weight triples
 One year, it will weigh about 10 kilogrammes and measure almost 75 cm or 2.5ft tall.
  Two years, it will weigh about 13 kilogrammes and measure about 85 cm or 2.8ft
tall.
 About five or six months, the first set of teeth will begin to appear.

During the first nine months, much of the weight gain is in fat. Weight gain in the first year is
about one inch per month. From nine months onwards weight gain includes increase in bones
and muscles. During the second year the rate of growth slows down. Boys are slightly taller
and heavier than girls.

Development of the Nervous System

Growth of the nervous system is rapid during the first two years after which it slows down.
During the first six months, neural activity is dominated by the lower areas of the brain –
spinal cord, brain stem and mid-brain. By the end of the first year, the higher parts of brain,
that is, cerebral cortex become more active.

By the end of the second year, anatomical features of brain are established. However,
different parts continue to develop specialized functions. For example, some parts develop to
specialize in language, speech, handedness, memory etc. By birth, the brain weighs about
25% of its adult weight. By two years it weighs about75% of its adult weight. Development
of nervous system facilitates the control of motor functions and refinement in perceptual
abilities. The head grows slowly and matures earlier than other parts of the body.

b) Motor Development
All normal babies are born with reflexes (involuntary physical motor responses to a given
stimulus). The presence of motor reflexes indicates maturity and normal functioning of the
brain and nervous system. They help the baby to adapt to the post uterine environment and
some are essential for survival. The absence of motor reflexes at birth may imply brain
damage, neural depression or abnormality.
These reflexes include:
 Sucking reflex in which the new born sucks anything (e.g., fingers, toes, blankets etc)
that touches its lips. This reflex ensures survival.
 Rooting reflex - when one cheek is touched or stimulated, babies move their heads
towards the stimulus and open their mouths. This reflex helps the baby in finding the
nipple. If brushed by the breasts, it turns to suck.
 Babinski reflex - if the soles of infants are stimulated or stroked the infant will spread
their toes and raise the large one.
 Grasping or palmar reflex - if something is placed in the infant’s palm, it will grasp it
tightly and increase the strength of the grasp if the object is pulled away.
 Walking reflex - if the infant is held upright on a flat surface and is moved forward, it
would appear to walk in a coordinated way.
 Swimming reflex - when infants are held horizontally on their stomachs or back, their
arms and legs stretch out as though swimming.
 Moro reflex - if startled or terrified, the child will stretch out the arms and fingers and
bring them together as if to hold onto something and then cry.
 Reflex Stimulation Response Duration

Babinski Sole of foot stroked Fans out toes and twists Disappears at nine
foot in months to a year

Blinking Flash of light or puff of Closes eyes Permanent

air

Grasping Palms touched Weakens at three disappears at a year

Grasps tightly months

Moro Sudden move; loud Startles; throws out Disappears at three

noise arms and legs and then to four months
pulls them toward body

Rooting Cheek stroked or side of Turns toward source, Disappears at three

mouth touched opens mouth and sucks to four months

Stepping Infant held upright with Moves feet as if to walk Disappears at three
feet touching ground to four months

Sucking Mouth touched by object Sucks on object Disappears at three

to four months

Swimming Placed face down in Makes coordinated Disappears at six to

water swimming movements seven months

Tonic neck Placed on back Makes fists and turns Disappears at two
head to the right months

Others reflexes include, vomiting, swallowing, sneezing, coughing, and blinking etc. All
these reflexes disappear in the first two months of life and the infant masters various motor
skills (voluntary movements of the body or parts of the body). Thus, voluntary motor skills
replace these reflexes.
Motor development helps the child to be independent and to explore its environment. It also
helps him/her in social participation and adjustment. Initially, motor movements are
undifferentiated and involve large muscles of the arms, legs and torso (body trunk). This is
referred to as gross motor development. Later, there is development of fine motor skills
involving smaller muscles such as finger, arms and hand muscles etc. Motor skills generally
develop following the proximodistal (spine to proximities) and cephalocaudal (head to tail)
principles. For example, the child acquires ability to hold the head, then refines the use of
arms/hands and then gains control of legs and feet.

Schedule of important Milestones and their median age of occurrence

Milestone/Skill Age in Months
 i. Lifting chin/head when lying on stomach 1
ii. Lifting head and chest 2
iii. Sit with support 4
iv. Sit alone 7
v. Stand with help 8
vi. Stand holding furniture 9
vii. Creep/crawl 10
viii. Walk when led 11
ix. Climb stair steps 13
x. Stand alone 14
xi. Walks alone 15

By the end of the second year, the baby is capable of various motor activities such as running,
sitting on a chair, climbing and descending stairs etc. However, motor development from
birth to the second year varies from child to child. The ages given are approximations on the
time when most babies are expected to attain a particular skill.

Early Childhood or Preschool Period (2 – 6 Years)

a) Physical Development
Physical growth gradually slows down after infancy, particularly in height. However, growth
continues to be relatively rapid compared to later stages. Environmental factors such as diet,
health, and quality of maternal care influence physical development. Different parts of the
body grow at different rates between the ages of 2 and 6 years. For example, the head grows
more slowly and matures earlier. The thick layer of fat begins to disappear slowly during the
second year of life and continues to reduce gradually. During this period, there is more rapid
growth of bones and muscles. Physically, the six-year old looks remarkably like an adult than
the two-year old who looks more like a typical baby.
 b) Motor Development
During this stage, the child develops motor skills such as running, jumping, picking up
objects, lacing and unlacing shoes, buttoning, throwing and catching, climbing and going
down stairs, walking backwards, dressing and undressing, stacking blocks etc. They also
develop motor skills related to increasing control and coordination of fine (small) muscle
movement and the perceptual and intellectual development for example, using crayon and
pencil to make various designs.

Writing skills develop by about age 5 and 6 years. At this time they can make recognizable
letters. Different motor skills are acquired naturally through the process of maturation. The
child will not gain anything unless the neuromuscular growth is equal to the demands of the
task. For example, the two-year-old child can walk fairly well but has trouble in hopping,
standing on one leg, or even walking up and down stairs, writing and so on. Teachers and
parents should therefore notice that practice and pushing children towards high levels of
achievement may not improve their motor skills before they have matured enough. Extra
coaching or forcing the child to learn will not make him to write properly. Sending the child
early to school will also not help because the child must be mature for learning to take place.
A child who is mature may need a few hours to learn the alphabet while the one who is not
mentally mature may take hundreds of hours before he/she can learn.

Late childhood (middle childhood) (6 – 12 Years)

a) Physical Development
Children become taller and heavier. Girls are slightly taller than boys unlike during the
preschool years whereby the situation is vice versa. There is a spurt in height and weight gain
among girls towards the 11th year. Prior to the adolescence stage, the growth spurt in height
and weight occurs approximately two years earlier for girls than for boys. Fatty tissue
decreases gradually. The child looks slender and thin. There is increased bone and muscle
development. Muscle development is more rapid in boys than in girls. Hence, boys are
stronger than girls. Those who lag behind in growth may suffer embarrassment, although
eventually they catch up. Some children may suffer obesity whereby they weigh more than
their normal weight. This may cause psychological distress and physical problems.

c) Motor Development
There is further refinement of fundamental motor skills developed earlier. Children learn how
to control large muscles fully. Control of smaller muscles improves greatly (e.g., they can
write without any problem). There are changes in locomotor skills (e.g., they can run faster),
precision, coordination, versatility, and physical strength. Boys are usually superior in
physical strength although girls are heavier and taller. Motor development is influenced by
maturation, learning, training and imitation. Teachers should take note of gender and
individual differences when they plan or assign group activities.

c) Brain Development
By the age of 5 years, the brain is about 90% of its adult weight. Nerve fibres extend and the
brain becomes denser and more complicated. There is also development of myelin sheaths
that facilitates the speed of transmitting neural information. During this stage, children begin
showing definite lateralization, which is the tendency for the right and left halves
(hemispheres) of the brain to perform separate functions. For example, the left hemisphere
specializes in languages, while the right hemisphere specializes in spatial abilities. Other
parts specialize in memory.

Adolescence (12 – 20 Years)

The Concept of Adolescence
Adolescence is the stage of development that leads from childhood to adulthood. It is marked
by major physical changes of puberty and important cognitive and social changes. It is
considered to begin around age 12 years and ends sometime around age 20 years. It is a time
of worry and problems especially in today’s world. Adolescents worry about appearance,
relationships, career, education etc. The onset of adolescence corresponds with the
appearance of biological changes at puberty. Puberty refers to a rapid physical growth,
coupled with hormonal changes that bring about sexual maturity. The peak growth spurt for
girls occurs between 11 and 14 years and for boys it occurs between 13 and 16 years. In
many traditional societies, the period was marked by initiation ceremonies and rituals such as
circumcision, graduation, marriage, which signify important changes in a person’s stage of
life. In modern industrial societies, the roles and responsibilities that a person is to assume are
much less predictable, largely because technology and values are changing rapidly and
therefore the transition to adulthood can be difficult and prolonged.

Stanley Hall (1916) views adolescence as a period of storm and stress during which physical,
intellectual and emotional changes create upset and crisis within the individual and conflict
between the individual and society. This is because the societal demands conflict with
adolescents’ views, ideals, norms, among other things.

Other psychologists view adolescence as a period that contains no more conflict than any
other period of development. Some adolescents don’t experience the conflict Stanley Hall
talks about. The period may be smooth or conflicting to some adolescents. The physiological
growth, emotional and social changes that take place during adolescence can sometimes be a
major cause of worry, crisis, confusion and instability.

a) Physical Development
There is a growth spurt (rapid or accelerated growth) at the beginning of adolescence. This is
as a result of increase in growth hormones. The growth spurt results to changes in height and
weight. The growth spurt in early adolescence is followed by years of comparatively little
increase or slow growth. The change in height is particularly striking. The maximum rate of
growth is experienced around 11 or 12 years for girls and about 2 years later for boys.
Adolescents differ in their rates and patterns of growth. Differences in growth rates are
complicated by the growth spurt, which causes different parts of the body to grow at different
rates, making adolescents to feel awkward and dissatisfied with their appearance. For
example, the legs may grow too tall making the individual look and feel awkward. The
proportion of the body changes and assumes a more or less an adult shape. The shape of the
face becomes adult like and may develop acne. Various body organs such as the heart, lungs,
the digestive system and face increases in size and assume their final shape. Boys become
more muscular than girls and hence they are superior in physical strength.

Individual Differences in Physical Development

For some adolescents changes may be experienced much earlier or later than expected. The
causes of individual differences in growth include genetic factors, nutrition, sickness,
hormonal imbalance etc. Differences in maturation in adolescent can cause psychological,
social and emotional problems such as fear, worry, and anxiety. The behaviour and
development of individuals who mature substantially earlier or later than most of their peers
may be influenced in significant and permanent ways.

Early maturing boys are highly rated by peers and adults. They have high confidence, high
self-esteem, and are likely to be chosen as leaders. They tend to excel in sports and hence
gain popularity and admiration. They are normally taller, heavier, and more muscular than
their age mates. They are also better-adjusted, more popular, more aggressive, and more
successful in heterosexual relationships. Later as adults they are likely to have self-
confidence, be responsible, cooperative, sociable, rigid, moralistic, humourless, and
conforming. They are likely to succeed in career because they have learned to be successful
early in life.

The late maturing boys may feel inferior, and attempt to compensate for their physical and
social frustration by engaging in bossy and attention seeking behaviour. They are seen as less
attractive and less independent. They may have problems in choosing friends because they
still resemble children. Later on as adults they are likely to be impulsive, assertive, insightful,
creatively playful, and able to cope with new situations.

Early maturing girls are not popular and are less likely to be chosen to be leaders and are
lacking in poise (lack self-control). Age mates avoid them because they are bigger and as a
result tend to date older boys. They are faced by the problem that few other girls and boys are
like them. Later on as adults they are likely to be self possessed, self directed, able to cope
and likely to score high in rating of overall psychological health. This is because they have
learned to be in control early.

Late maturing girls are popular, have poise and are likely to be leaders. They are likely to be
confident, outgoing, self-assured and may have better self-esteem. The advantages enjoyed
by the late maturing girls are not permanent. It is the late maturing girl, carefree, and
unchallenged in adolescence, who faces maladjustment in adulthood. They may be
maladjusted in adulthood because of lack of challenge and care free attitude adopted earlier in
life. They are likely to experience difficulties adapting to stress, and score low in ratings of
overall psychological health.
Sexual Maturity
Puberty is marked by striking changes in both primary and secondary sex characteristics. The
development of primary sex characteristics makes reproduction possible. For girls, these
include complex changes in the vagina, uterus, fallopian tubes, and ovaries, (all these become
more mature). The most obvious sign of sexual maturity in girls is the beginning of
menstrual periods (the first menstrual period is called menarche) and spermarche (first
ejaculation) for boys.

Boys’ primary sex changes include development of the penis, scrotum, testes, prostate gland
and seminal vesicles which lead to the production of life sperm for successful reproduction.
Changes in secondary sex characteristics include enlargement of breasts, growth of pubic and
axillary (underarm) hair, for girls. In girls, also the hips become rounded and broader.

For boys there is appearance of facial, chest, axillary and pubic hair. The boy’s voice breaks
due to the enlargement of the larynx (Adams apple) and the lengthening of the vocal cords.
The shoulders broaden. They also start to have wet dreams (sexually exciting dreams) or
nocturnal emissions. In both sexes, the skin becomes coarser due to increase in subcutaneous
fat, sweat composition becomes stronger in odour, and pimples may appear.

Hormonal Changes
At puberty there is increase in growth and sex related hormones (chemicals produced by the
endocrine glands and released into the bloodstream). Increase in growth hormones accounts
for the accelerated growth during this period. Both the female sex glands (ovaries) and the
male glands (testes) produce high level of sex hormones during puberty that account for the
development of sexual characteristics and also for the overall body appearance of both boys
and girls. The pituitary gland which is responsible for the growth spurt stimulates the testes
and ovaries to produce the sexual or gonadotropic hormones. In females this hormone is
called oestrogen while in males androgen and testosterone is produced. Testosterone
stimulates muscle and bone growth in both sexes. Both males and females produce both types
of hormones throughout their life spans, but greater amounts are secreted during puberty.
Oestrogen stimulates increased deposits of subcutaneous fat and the final maturation of
bones. Hormonal changes produce an upsurge of sexual feelings that motivate the adolescent
to seek the company of the opposite sex.

Early Adulthood (20 – 40 Years)

Young adults grow stronger and healthier as their bodies reach adult size. In terms of overall
health as well as peak physical conditions, early adulthood is the prime of life. With each
year from 20 to 40, signs of senescence (signs of old age) become more apparent. All the
body systems gradually become less efficient (though at different rates), and homeostasis
takes increasingly longer to reach. However, because of organ reserve (extra capacity to
withstand moments of intense and prolonged stress) none of these changes are particularly
troublesome or even noticeable for most young adults. Some couples have fertility problems
because:
 The man’s sperm are insufficient in quantity or motility;
  Of the woman’s failure to ovulate because of blocked fallopian tubes (often caused by
inflammatory diseases) and uterine problems (such as fibroids);
 Aging, though normal, is rarely a primary cause of infertility in early adulthood.
Young adults are more likely to abuse alcohol and illicit drugs than are people of any other
age. Eating disorders are common especially among women who feel a compulsion to be
thinner than their bodies tend to be.

a) Physical Development

In early adulthood, an individual is concerned with developing the ability to share intimacy,
seeking to form relationships and find intimate love. Long‐term relationships are formed, and
often marriage and children result. The young adult is also faced with career decisions.

 Choices concerning marriage and family are often made during this period.
 Such alternatives to marriage as “living together” (cohabitation) have become more
common.
 Work/career choice affects not only socioeconomic status but also friends, political
values, residence location, child care, job stress, and many other aspects of life.

a) Physical Development

Various characteristics are noticeable that include:

 The typical young adult is in good condition; physical and sensory abilities are
usually excellent.
 Lifestyle factors such as diet, obesity, exercise, smoking, and substance use or abuse
can affect health and survival.
 Good health is related to higher income and education.
 Women tend to live longer than men, in part for biological reasons, but perhaps also
because they are more health-conscious.
 Social relationships, especially marriage, tend to be associated with physical and
mental health.

Many young adults put their health at risk by smoking cigarettes, drinking alcohol
excessively, eating poorly, gaining weight, and maintaining a sedentary (inactive) life.
Variations in health and the rate of aging can be accounted for by: Genetic factors, Social and
psychological factors, Gender, Socioeconomic status, Social factors

Middle adulthood (40 – 65 Years)

a) Physical Development
Various changes are experienced that include:
 Wrinkles on the face and Less hair;
 Accumulation of fat, especially on the abdomen;
 Loss of hearing and Loss of visual acuity;
  Decline in all the body’s systems, which generally may not impair normal
functioning;
 Menopause (the woman’s menstrual cycle stops, ovulation ceases, and levels of
oestrogen are markedly reduced);
 Reduction of sexual responsiveness.
Many middle age adults put their health at risk by smoking cigarettes, drinking alcohol
excessively, eating poorly, gaining weight, and maintaining a sedentary (inactive) life.
Variations in health and the rate of aging can be accounted for by genetic factors, social and
psychological factors, gender, and socioeconomic status.

Although some physiological changes result from aging and genetic makeup, behaviour and
lifestyle can affect their timing and extent. Losses in bone density and vital capacity are
common. Although men can continue to father children until late in life, many middle-aged
men experience a decline in fertility and in frequency of orgasm. Among women, sexual
dysfunction decreases with age; in men, it is just the opposite. A large proportion of middle-
aged men experience erectile dysfunction. Sexual dysfunction can have physical causes but
also may be related to health, lifestyle, and emotional well-being.

Late Adulthood (65 Years and beyond)

a) Physical Development
Contrary to the stereotype that aging brings about a host of problems, most of the aged are
happy, quite healthy and active. Dependency on children and relatives is common in
developing countries like Kenya. Primary aging occurs throughout the life span, even from
birth. It involves the universal and irreversible physical changes that occur to all living
organisms as they grow older. There are changes in skin, hair and body shape. Older people
are somewhat shorter, weigh less than they did and they walk stiffly. Such changes may
affect the self-concept of the older person. Vision is almost always impaired by late
adulthood. Problems of hearing usually affect about a third of the elderly people. Secondary
aging involves changes caused by particular conditions and illness. Many elderly people do
experience some chronic ailments.
Many theories explain the causes of aging:
 Wear-and-tear theory assumes that as we use our bodies we wear them out just as a
machine wears out with extended use.
 Cellular theories assume that the DNA duplication and repair process are affected by
radiation and other factors, leading to an accumulation of errors when new cells are
made.
 Decline in the immune system of elderly people increases vulnerability to disease.
Reduction in the number of cells that attack bacteria, viruses and other destructive
agents interferes with the body’s ability to fight disease.
 Genetic aging theory assumes that the maximum human life span is fixed by a
genetic clock that switches on the aging process at some point.
Secondary aging is the aging processes that result from disease and poor health practices
(e.g. no exercise, smoking, excess fat and other forms of self-damage) and is often
preventable, whether through lifestyle choice or modern medicine.

Aging is a natural phenomenon that refers to changes occurring throughout the life span and
result in differences in structure and function between the youthful and elder generation.
Gerontology is the study of aging and includes science, psychology and sociology.
Geriatrics is a relatively new field of medicine specialising in the health problems of
advanced age.

Degenerative Diseases arise due to the slow, progressive and physical degeneration of cells
in the nervous system. Genetics appear to be an important factor. They usually start after age
40, but can occur as early as 20s. They include:-
1. Alzheimer's disease- Degeneration of all areas of cortex but particularly frontal and
temporal lobes. The affected cells actually die. Early symptoms resemble neurotic
disorders: Anxiety, depression, restlessness sleep difficulties. There is also
progressive deterioration of all intellectual faculties (memory deficiency being the
most well known and obvious). Total mass of the brain decreases, and ventricles
become larger. There is no established treatment.
2. Pick's Disease is a rare degenerative disease, similar to Alzheimer's in terms of onset,
symptomatology and possible genetic aetiology. However it affects circumscribed
areas of the brain, particularly the frontal areas which leads to a loss of normal affect.
3. Parkinson's disease is a Neuro-pathological Loss of neurons in the basal ganglia.
Symptoms include movement abnormalities: rhythmical alternating tremor of
extremities, eyelids and tongue along with rigidity of the muscles and slowness of
movement.

COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT
Introduction
Why man is a superior being to other animals. The main reason is because man’s intellectual
faculty is more advanced to incorporate reasoning. We shall discuss how man acquires his
intelligence, so that he is able to come up with all the scientific and technological
advancement that there is in the world today. In order to understand all these, it is important
to look at the process of cognitive development, including Piaget’s theory of cognitive
development.
Cognitive Development
Cognitive development refers to how a person perceives, thinks, and gains understanding of
his or her world through the interaction of genetic and learned factors. Among the areas of
cognitive development are information processing, intelligence, reasoning, language
development, and memory. Cognitive development is the construction of thought processes,
including remembering, problem solving, and decision-making, from childhood through
adolescence to adulthood. It was once believed that infants lacked the ability to think or form
complex ideas and remained without cognition until they learned language. It is now known
that babies are aware of their surroundings and interested in exploration from the time they
are born. From birth, babies begin to actively learn. They gather, sort, and process
information from around them, using the data to develop perception and thinking skills.

Jean Piaget’s Stages of Cognitive Development

Piaget, a Swiss psychologist, viewed intelligence as consisting of two interrelated processes;
organization and adaptation. According to him, people organize their thoughts so that they
make sense, separating the more important thoughts from the less important ones, as well as
connecting one idea to another. At the same time, people adapt their thinking to include new
ideas as new experiences provide additional information. Piaget proposed that intellectual
development is towards an increased emancipation from the “here and now” of the
immediate, concrete, present, to a conception of the world in increasingly symbolic and
abstract terms.
Jean Piaget’s prominent work is his theory on the four stages of cognitive development. He
was one of the most influential researchers in the area of developmental psychology in the
20th century whose primary interest was in biological influences on how we come to know,
and the developmental stages we move through as we acquire this ability

Piaget believed that the child plays an active role in the growth of intelligence and learns by
doing. He regarded the child as a philosopher who perceives the world only as he has
experienced it. Therefore, most of Piaget’s inspiration in cognitive and intellectual
development came from observations of children. In fact, Piaget observed and studied his
own three children through each stage of their cognitive development.

The theory of cognitive development focuses on mental processes such as perceiving,

remembering, believing, and reasoning. Reasoning is the essence of intelligence, and
reasoning is what Piaget studied in order to discover “how we come to know”. He believed
that cognitive development is cumulative; that is, understanding a new experience grows out
of a previous learning experience. Piaget developed a systematic study of cognitive
development in children. His work included a theory on cognitive development, detailed
observational studies of cognition in children, and a series of tests to reveal differing
cognitive abilities.

Through his work, Piaget showed that children think in considerably different ways than
adults do. This did not mean that children thought at a less intelligent degree, or at a slower
pace, they just thought differently when compared to adults. Piaget’s work showed that
children are born with a very basic genetically inherited mental structure that evolves and is
the foundation for all subsequent learning and knowledge. He saw cognitive development as
a progressive reorganization of mental processes resulting from maturation and experience.
Piaget believed children will construct an understanding of the world around them, and will
then experience discrepancies between what they already know and what they discover in
their environment.

To explain his theory, Piaget used the concept of stages to describe development as a
sequence of the four following stages:
  Sensory-Motor (Birth to Two years)
 Preoperational (Two to Seven years)
 Concrete Operations (Seven to Eleven years)
 Formal Operations (Eleven to Sixteen years)

These stages unfold over time, and all children will pass through them all in order to achieve
an adult level of intellectual functioning. The later stages evolve from and are built on earlier
ones. They point out that the sequence of stages is fixed and unchangeable and children
cannot skip a stage. They all proceed through the stages in the same order, even though they
may progress through them at different rates.

At each stage, the child acquires more complex motor skills and cognitive abilities. Although
different behaviours characterize different stages, the transition between stages is gradual,
and a child moves between stages so subtly that he may not be aware of new perspectives
gained. However, at each stage there are definite accompanying developmental changes in
the areas of play, language, morality, space, time, and number.

Sensory-Motor Stage: (Birth to Two years)

During this stage senses, reflexes, and motor abilities develop rapidly. Intelligence is first
displayed when reflex movements become more refined, such as when an infant will reach
for a preferred toy, and will suck on a nipple and not a pacifier when hungry. Understanding
of the world involves only perceptions and objects with which the infant has directly
experienced. Actions discovered first by accident are repeated and applied to new situations
to obtain the same results.

Toward the end of the sensory-motor stage, the ability to form primitive mental images
develops as the infant acquires object permanence. Until then, an infant does not realize that
objects can exist apart from him or herself.

Preoperational Stage: (Two to Seven years)

The child in the preoperational stage is not yet able to think logically. With the acquisition of
language, the child is able to represent the world through mental images and symbols, but in
this stage, these symbols depend on his own perception and his intuition. The preoperational
child is completely egocentric. Although he/she is beginning to take greater interest in
objects and people around him/her, sees them from only one point of view: his/her own. This
stage may be the age of curiosity; pre-schoolers are always questioning and investigating
new things. Since they know the world only from their limited experience, they make up
explanations when they don’t have one. It is during the preoperational stage that children’s’
thought differs the most from adult thoughts.

Stage of Concrete Operations: Ages Seven through Eleven

The stage of concrete operations begins when the child is able to perform mental operations.
Piaget defines a mental operation as an interiorized action, an action performed in the mind.
Mental operations permit the child to think about physical actions that he or she previously
performed. The preoperational child could count from one to ten, but the actual
understanding that one stands for one object only appears in the stage of concrete operations.

The primary characteristic of concrete operational thought is its reversibility. The child can
mentally reverse the direction of his or her thought. A child knows that something that he can
add, he can also subtract. He or she can trace her route to school and then follow it back
home, or picture where she has left a toy without a haphazard exploration of the entire house.
A child at this stage is able to do simple mathematical operations. Operations are labelled
“concrete” because they apply only to those objects that are physically present.

Conservation is the major acquisition of the concrete operational stage. Piaget defines
conservation as the ability to see that objects or quantities remain the same despite a change
in their physical appearance. Children learn to conserve such quantities as number, substance
(mass), area, weight, and volume; though they may not achieve all concepts at the same time.

Stage of Formal Operations: (Eleven to Sixteen years)

The child in the concrete operational stage deals with the present, the here and now; the child
who can use formal operational thought can think about the future, the abstract, and the
hypothetical. Piaget’s final stage coincides with the beginning of adolescence, and marks the
start of abstract thought and deductive reasoning. Thought is more flexible, rational, and
systematic. The individual can now conceive all the possible ways they can solve a problem,
and can approach a problem from several points of view.

The adolescent can think about thoughts and “operate on operations, not just concrete
objects. He or she can think about such abstract concepts as space and time. The adolescent
develops an inner value system and a sense of moral judgment. He or she now has the
necessary “mental tools” for living his life.

Challenges to Piagetian stage theory/ critique

Piagetians' accounts of development have been challenged on several grounds;
1. First, as Piaget himself noted, development does not always progress in the smooth
manner his theory seems to predict. 'Decalage', or unpredicted gaps in the
developmental progression, suggest that the stage model is at best a useful
approximation.
2. More broadly, Piaget's theory is 'domain general', predicting that cognitive maturation
occurs concurrently across different domains of knowledge (such as mathematics,
logic, understanding of physics, of language, etc.).
3. More recent work has strongly challenged some of the basic presumptions of the 'core
knowledge' school, and revised ideas of domain generality—but from a newer
dynamic systems approach, not from a revised Piagetian perspective.
4. The experience of Sudbury model schools shows that a great variety can be found in
the minds of children, against Piaget's theory of universal steps in comprehension and
general patterns in the acquisition of knowledge: "No two kids ever take the same
path. Few are remotely similar. Each child is so unique, so exceptional.
It is very difficult to consider cognition without the context of intellect. We shall now briefly
look at intelligence and how it develops.

Development of Intelligence
Intelligence can be defined as the ability to undertake activities that are characterized by
difficulty, complexity, abstractness, economy, adaptability to a goal, social value, and the
emergence of originals. It includes the ability to maintain such activities under conditions that
demand concentration of energy and resistance to emotional forces.
We can distinguish between fluid and crystallized intelligence.
Fluid intelligence is defined as the ability to solve new problems, use logic in new
situations, and identify patterns. Fluid intelligence involves being able to think and reason
abstractly and solve problems. This ability is considered independent of learning, experience,
and education. Crystallized intelligence is defined as the ability to use learned knowledge
and experience. This type of intelligence is based upon facts and rooted in experiences. As
we age and accumulate new knowledge and understanding, crystallized intelligence becomes
stronger. When you're taking a class at school, you use crystallized intelligence all the time.
When you're learning a new language, you memorize the new vocabulary words and increase
your vocabulary over time.

Intelligence does not continue to develop throughout the entire period of one’s life. It begins
to slow down in rate during the early teens and reaches its peak somewhere in the mid-
twenties. Nearly one third of intelligence is developed by age 3. The second third of
intelligence is developed by 6-10 years and the remaining one third by 16-18 years. After that
it takes a more or less flat rate. The experience gained by older individuals compensates the
decline in intelligence if any, after its optimal development around age 16-18. Given that
much of our intelligence develops in childhood, early life experiences are very vital for
depressing or accelerating development of intelligence.

Intelligence reaches a peak and can stay high with little deterioration if there is no
neurological damage. People who have unusually high intelligence to begin with seem to
suffer the least decline. Education and stimulation also seem to play a role in maintaining
intelligence.
Intellectual development is all about learning. It is about how individuals organise their
minds, ideas and thoughts to make sense of the world they live in.

Intellectual impairment is usually caused by two diseases of old age, causing cognitive
decline. These are Alzheimer's syndrome and Pick's syndrome. In Pick's syndrome there is
inability to concentrate and learn and also affective responses are impaired. We looked at
these in the previous topic.

Factors Affecting Intelligence

i. Heredity: Heredity seems to contribute more to intelligence than environment.
ii. Age: There is an improvement of intelligence Quotient score until the late teens or
early twenties.
iii. Culture: Responses in psychological tests are influenced by the culture in which the
individual lives, (e.g., speed factor in a test may vary with where one comes from).
iv. Socio-economic Status: Deprivation and malnutrition are common in low socio-
economic set-ups, and this adversely affects the development of intelligence.
v. Birth order – intelligence reduces with increased birth order.

SOCIAL AND EMOTIONAL DEVELOPMENT

Social development is the aspect of a human being that enables socialisation with other
people. Emotional development is the growth of a child's ability to feel and express an
increasing range of emotions appropriately. Social development is the growth of a child's
ability to relate to others and become independent.
Socialisation is the process through which children learn behaviours that are appropriate for
their age, sex, and culture. As the individual develops, social orientations widen to include
the peers and the child attaches himself/herself more to the peers than to parents.
Emotions are outward (overt) expressions of inner feelings which occur immediately after an
experience. Examples of emotions are anger, joy, delight, shame, fear, aggression, hate,
anxiety, guilt, excitement, distress, love, etc.

How do human beings acquire emotional behaviour? Emotions form a group of behaviours
known as affective activities. These behaviours occur due to the activities of the Autonomic
Nervous System, and can be inferred by observing overt (outward) behaviour. Most emotions
are a reflection of the reaction of an individual towards aspects of the environment including
other people and the self. Emotional behaviour is in most cases enmeshed in individual
personality, leading persons to be predisposed to behave in a certain way towards some
aspects of the environment.

Social and Emotional Development

1. Infancy: The Parent-Infant Bond

This relationship usually begins to develop as the mother and the new born gaze at each other
in the first few hours and days after birth. The bond between parents and children does not
develop automatically because there is no maternal or paternal instinct. Many factors seem to
be involved, one of them being the baby’s appearance. The large head and eyes, fat cheeks
and small body seem to trigger a nurturing [care/love] response in adults. For mothers,
another factor may be that the same hormones that cause the uterus to shrink and the milk to
flow right after birth, which may also cause a desire to care for the infant. A third factor is
ownership, where most human beings act as if they believe that their own off-springs are
more worthy of protection than those belonging to others. Similarity in appearance and
behaviour is another factor that influences relationship. Biological relationships are not
necessary to cement parent-child bond; love, care attention, and stimulation are the critical
factors.

Psychosocial Development
The development of emotions in the infant follows an orderly pattern from reflexive cries and
smiles in the first six months, to fear and pleasure related to specific events in the next six
months. By age two, most of the cries and fears of the one year old have become mild and
less frequent. Attempts to stay close to a familiar person and cries of protest when a familiar
person leaves (signs of attachment), grows stronger as the infant grows older. These
attachment behaviours peak in the first half of the second year. The timing and balance of
emotional development are affected by maturation, culture, and family. Gender may
influence the emotional development of the infant either because male and female are
biologically different or because parents treat them differently.

Emotional Development
Crying is one of the earliest emotional displays of infancy. Up to 2 months or so the child’s
emotions are not clearly differentiated, they are characterized by general excitement due to
intense stimulation, being well fed, feeling secure etc. By 3 months the general excitement
becomes differentiated into distress (discomfort) and delight (comfort). The infant normally
smiles in response to sights, sounds, voices, and familiar faces. By 4 months, the child starts
to laugh due to tickling or amusement. At 6 moths distress becomes more specific and three
basic emotions appear i.e., fear, anger, and disgust. Fear of strangers and anxiety occurs in
many infants around the age of 9 months when they learn to discriminate upon the people
around them. This fear is less pronounced in those who have been exposed to many people or
those who have many siblings. It is not common before the age of 6 months. This fear of
unfamiliar people intensifies as certain objects and people become familiar.

At around one year delight gives way to elation and affections (develops attachment with
others), and between 15 and 18 months jealousy and joy appear. For example if the mother
holds another baby, her child will cry, and the baby will envy things held by other children.
By the age of 2 years, most of the basic human emotions will have developed.

Emotional Attachment
Attachment refers to the positive and loving feelings that infants develop towards a care
giver, usually the mother. Emotional attachment refers to the early, stable affectionate
relationship established between a child and another person, usually a parent or caretaker.
This emotional attachment is very important for social development. Emotional deprivation
may result to a person who is unable to relate properly with others, and it can also lead to an
individual who is socially withdrawn. Emotional attachment helps the child to develop a
feeling of security and self-control. Securely attached infants are more curious, more
compliant, and more likely to have internalized controls as opposed to external controls by
authority. Such a child may be more independent and more self-reliant later in life.

Types of Attachments
1) Secure Attachment – the infant seeks closeness and contact with the caregiver and uses
him/her as a safe base from which to explore. The infant shows distress when the
caregiver leaves, and when he/she comes back, the infant seeks contact and he/she will be
able to comfort and calm the infant. Securely attached infants manifest few, if any,
negative reactions towards the caregiver upon reunion.
2) Ambivalent Attachment: Infants who display significantly negative behaviour towards
the caregiver upon reunion have ambivalent attachment. Ambivalently attached infants
are distressed / upset when the caregiver leaves. When the caregiver returns the infant
seeks contact while also squirming angrily to get away. They often display anger when
 the caregiver returns. The anger is sometimes very subtle, for example, they might push
the mother away even when they appear to want to be held (hence the ambivalence).
3) Avoidant Attachment: In this case, infants, ignore and avoid the caregiver when he/she
returns after separation and seem to be just as satisfied / comfortable with another person.
The infant rarely cries when the caregiver leaves. The infant either ignores the caregiver
or avoids contact with her/him - sometimes by looking away or by pushing him/her away
physically.

Securely attached infants may be more independent and more self- reliant later in life.
They feel secure as they engage in the exploration of bewildering and frightening world.
They are more social, develop a sense of trust, are curious, feel competent, are
explorative, and are likely to have internalized control. Separation or deprivation result to
socially withdrawn children who are unable to interact with other people properly.

.
2. Early Childhood
Social Development
As the child grows older he/she spends more time with peers than with parents and adults.
The three year old resists adult influence and wants to be socially independent. The 4 and 5-
year-old becomes more friendly and cooperative and wants to avoid the displeasure of others
including parents, that is, the child wants to get social approval and suffers the “good boy
good girl syndrome”. Social attitudes are greatly influenced by the attitudes of parents, adults,
nursery school teachers, and peers. But parents exert the strongest influence in social
development through the way they reward and punish the child.

A great deal of social learning takes place through imitation (observational learning).
Children especially imitate sex roles from siblings, peers, parents, and other adults. They
imitate good and bad social behaviour. During this stage, the child is self-centred or
egocentric in behaviour. Thus, the child views all things from his/her own perspective. The
child cannot accept any other point of view other than his/her own. Child play promotes the
development of social behaviour.
Children engage themselves in several types of play:
i Solitary independent play - the child plays alone independently and with its own
toys, without reference to others.
ii Parallel play- where two children play side by side but not
together. Each does his/her things in his/her own way and they also imitate each
other.
iii Associative play - where children play together but do not share rules or goals. For
example, when they play a ball game, they share no rules or goals.
iv Cooperative play – where children share rules and roles. They consciously form
groups to accomplish some activity e.g. play ball games with some rules to be
followed.
.
Emotional Development
Emotional development is more qualitative than quantitative i.e. the child learns new ways of
expressing his/her emotions. There is gradual development and further manifestation of the
basic emotions developed during infancy. The child shows emotions in real situations (e.g.
they can cry when they see an animal but not when threatened with it). They can control
emotions better than the 1-year-old. For example, if they see an animal they will run instead
of crying. They are no longer frustrated by things they cannot do because of their physical
and language development. Because of language development, they can express their
feelings (emotions) verbally at this time. For example, if threatened by another child he/she
may tell the mother instead of crying. They develop irrational fears towards strange things,
people, darkness and strange animals. However, this fear decreases as the child becomes
familiar with these new situations and as his/her experience widens.

3. Middle and Late Childhood

Social Development
This stage is also called the gang age because of the strong attachment that children have to
their peers. The child attains social cognition, which is, an awareness of himself/herself and
others as being capable of feelings, motives, and intentions. He becomes aware of other
people and their behaviour/feelings and realizes that there are different points of view. This
leads to him/her becoming less selfish/less self-centred/egocentric, and hence more
cooperative.

They are now capable of establishing serious and enduring relationship particularly of the
same sex. During this stage conformity to peers increases and declines thereafter. They
mostly form groups of the same sex which have norms and rules to be followed. Thus, the
child mainly plays with children of same sex. These peer groups help them to develop social
competence, social responsibility, self-confidence, appropriate sex roles etc. The school is a
powerful socializing agent at this period. The child is loyal to peers and group norms and as
such he/she may engage in mischief and destructive activities as a gang. They also engage in
cooperative group games or play, through which they learn both negative and positive
behaviours.

Emotional Development
Frustrations and fears increase with increasing demands made on the child by the new people
and things around them. For example, they are expected to do well in school, be obedient,
competent etc. They learn to show emotional reactions appropriate to a particular situation.
For example, they cry when they cannot avoid it or when in real pain or danger. They learn to
hide and control their emotions (e.g., fear, anger). They learn to be moody and to allow their
emotions to last for a much longer time as compared to younger children. The younger
child’s emotions are brief and intense.
 4. Adolescence
Social Development
With puberty, there is a change in social attitudes, a decline of interest in group activities, and
a tendency to prefer solitude. There is a decrease in sociability, cooperation, generosity,
popularity etc. There is also an antagonistic attitude towards everyone. The adolescent
withdraws from groups, resists authority, and lacks proper communication with teachers and
others, which is necessary for social development. The youth want to be independent and
autonomous by becoming overtly aggressive, demanding attention and privileges, rebelling
against authority, becoming quarrelsome and argumentative, and being hypersensitive. Most
adolescents practice heterosexual relationships.

During adolescence, the peer group is an important agent of socialization and there is high
conformity to peer social norm that sometimes result in rebellion against parents and adult
authority. They think that old people are old fashioned and they challenge people in authority
like parents and teachers. Adolescents are often self-centred and this egocentrism shows itself
mainly in their preoccupation with personal appearance. They are preoccupied with the
reaction of others to what they do. They may selfishly monopolize household facilities which
are also needed by other family members for example, the mirror, bathroom, television,
music systems, family car etc.

Peer Group
The adolescent attaches great importance to the attitudes and opinions of others, particularly
peers. Their main need is in attempting to find their identity and role in the society. In the
peer groups they learn such attributes as sex roles, cooperation, competition, dependency, and
responsibility. As the peer group becomes cohesive, it demands conformity and discourages
individualism. Thus peers develop their own culture where they do things which adults may
not understand. For example, they wear fancy clothes, talk in their jargon, go to dance,
movies, music etc. Adolescents from the same social background tend to group together, and
thus peer grouping is based on similarities (e.g., home background, religion, interest,
economic background, zeal etc.) rather than chance.
Emotional Development
As adolescents continue to mature, they attain increased emotional maturity and control.
They:
i. Learn to control their emotional expressions due to parental instructions and social
pressure.
ii. Develop fear, anxiety, and worry about body appearance, physical changes, careers,
sex, relationships, marriage, social acceptance, performance in school, social
approval, parental control etc.
iii. Experiences both pleasant and unpleasant emotions, some of common emotions :
a) Anger: This is a common disruptive emotion among adolescents. It is mainly caused
by restrictions to do certain things for example, interruption of a routine activity such
as dance, movie, coming home late etc. It is expressed through name calling, verbal
responses, and rebelling against authority.
 b) Jealousy: Most common forms of jealousy are verbal, sarcasm, ridicule, making
other people look bad. It is caused by threat, insecurity, wanting to have what others
have.
c) Envy: Adolescents envy people who have material possessions and social status (i.e.,
those who are more fortunate).
d) Fear, Worry, and Anxiety: They have imaginary fear which includes feelings of
inadequacy. Adolescents get anxious and worry about school performance, social
acceptability, sex and marriage, parental control etc.
e) Affection: Develops interest in the members of the opposite sex. They will have
friends of the opposite sex.
f) Happiness: This is experienced due to:
 Feelings of ease (e.g., being at ease with peers).
 Understanding of comedy and humour (e.g. in movies, novels etc.).
 Superiority achievement.
 Any activity that releases repressed emotions and energy (e.g., sports, games etc.).
5. Attachment in Adulthood
Four styles of attachment have been identified in adults: secure, anxious-preoccupied,
dismissive-avoidant and fearful-avoidant. These roughly correspond to infant classifications:
secure insecure-ambivalent, insecure-avoidant and disorganized/disoriented.
 Securely attached adults tend to have positive views of themselves, their partners
and their relationships. They feel comfortable with intimacy and independence,
balancing the two.
 Anxious-preoccupied adults seek high levels of intimacy, approval and
responsiveness from partners, becoming overly dependent. They tend to be less
trusting, have less positive views expressiveness about themselves and their
partners, and may exhibit high levels of emotional, worry and impulsiveness in
their relationships.
 Dismissive-avoidant adults desire a high level of independence, often appearing to
avoid attachment altogether. They view themselves as self-sufficient, invulnerable
to attachment feelings and not needing close relationships. They tend to suppress
their feelings, dealing with rejection by distancing themselves from partners of
whom they often have a poor opinion.
 Fearful-avoidant adults have mixed feelings about close relationships, both
desiring and feeling uncomfortable with emotional closeness. They tend to
mistrust their partners and view themselves as unworthy. Like dismissive-avoidant
adults, fearful-avoidant adults tend to seek less intimacy, suppressing their
feelings.
Attachment styles in adult romantic relationships roughly correspond to attachment styles in
infants but adults can hold different internal working models for different relationships.

PERSONALITY DEVELOPMENT
Meaning of Personality
Personality encompasses all psychological and behavioural characteristics by which each
person can be compared and contrasted with other people. Those behaviours that make each
of us unique make up our personality. It is our personality which leads us to act in a
consistent and predictable manner both in different situations and over extended periods of
time.
Theories of Personality Development
Many psychologists have tried to explain the differences that exist in personality. Freud in his
psychodynamic theory attributes it to unconscious hidden forces and childhood experiences.
Erickson believes it is as a result of how the developing individual resolved or failed to
resolve certain critical issues. Allport attributed differences in personality to individual traits.
The ancient Greek philosopher Hippocrates suggested that a certain behaviour pattern is
associated with each of our four bodily fluids (blood, phlegm, black bile, and yellow bile) and
asserts that the personality types depend on how much of each fluid one has. The idea of
typing people’s personalities based on biological factors also appears in theories that relate to
the approach that people inherit the personality they develop. The formal study of the
relationship between personality, face and body is called physiognomy. We shall look at a
few of these theories.

Sigmund Freud’s Psychoanalytic Theory of Personality Development

According to Sigmund Freud, our behaviour is triggered largely by powerful unconscious
forces within our personality of which we are not aware. These hidden forces are shaped by
childhood experiences, and play an important role in energizing and directing our everyday
behaviour. The unconscious mind contains instinctual drives, disguised effects of unfulfilled
wishes, sexual drives and desires, aggressive demands and needs that are hidden from
conscious awareness because of the conflicts and pain they would cause us if they were part
of our everyday lives. Many of our life’s experiences are painful and the unconscious
provides a safe store for our recollections of such events. Uncomfortable memories can
remain in our conscious mind without continually disturbing us.
The Structure of Personality
To describe the source of personality, Freud discovered a comprehensive theory that held that
personality consisted of three separate but interacting components; Id, Ego and Superego.
These are not physical structures found in certain parts of the brain, instead they represent
abstract conceptions of a general model of personality that describes the interaction of
various processes and forces within one’s personality that motivate behaviour.
 The Id is the raw, unorganized, inherited part of personality present from the time
of birth. The sole purpose of the Id is to reduce tension created by drives related to
hunger, sex, aggression, and irrational impulses. This drives are fuelled by psychic
energy or libido as called by Freud. The aim of the Id is immediate gratification of
needs by following the pleasure principle.
 The Ego (self) evolves from the Id to create ways to get what one wants in a
world full of rules, because the Ego makes compromises between the reasoning
demands of the Id and the real world. It operates on the reality principle.
Introjection is the term used by Freud for this process of internalizing parental and
societal values into the personality.
 The Superego is the third component of personality. It is the moral judge of
personality, the conscience or the Ego Ideal. The things people know are wrong
 make up the part of the Superego as the conscience. Pressure to conform to the
‘shoulds’, the ideal behaviour that people know are right comes from a second
part of Superego known as the Ego Ideal. The Superego operates on the morality
principle since violating either category of its rules results in guilt.

Unfortunately, basic needs [Id], reason [Ego], morality [Superego] and the demands of the
environment are often at odds. This creates inner turmoil known as intra-psychic conflict or
psychodynamic conflict, which the Ego must try to resolve. Freud believed that the number,
nature, and outcome of psychic conflicts shape each individual’s personality and determines
many aspects of life and behaviour.

Freud also believed and provided us with a view of how personality is formed through a
series of stages during childhood. These are called psychosexual stages of personality
development. Each one relates to the part of the body that is the main area of pleasure at that
stage, called the erogenous zone. The failure to resolve problems and conflicts at a given
stage can leave a person fixated i.e. overly attached to or unconsciously preoccupied with the
pleasure associated with that stage. Refer to Topic Two to review the psycho-sexual stages.

Ego Defense Mechanisms

Freud used this term to refer to the process by which the ego unconsciously defends itself
against undesirable thought, feelings and impulses by translating them into acceptable
material. It involves distortion of reality to shield the ego from being overwhelmed by the
anxiety arising from activities of the unconscious mind. Failure to adjust properly during the
various psychosexual stages results into unpleasant emotional states for example, feeling of
insecurity, threat, anxiety, fear, etc which the individual tries to get rid of through defense
mechanisms namely:
 Regression: Riverting to childhood or immature behaviour when faced with
anxiety provoking situations e.g., bed wetting and crying.
 Repression: Anxiety provoking thoughts and fantasies are excluded from
consciousness e.g. trying to forget that one has lost a lover by unconscious
burying them in the unconscious.
 Displacement: Feelings towards one object are shifted to another, less threatening
target e.g., when angered by husband, the wife beats the child.
 Compensation: Attempting to succeed in an activity to make up for one’s failure
in other areas e.g failure in games may be compensated by excessive study and
vice versa.
 Denial: Refusal to accept or believe in the existence of painful experiences and
memories e.g., when one is jilted or bereaved.
 Projection: Attributing your painful impulses and experiences to others (blaming
it on others). A thief will always complain that his things have been stolen.
 Reaction Formation: Replacing unacceptable experience behaviour by adhering
to its opposite e.g., excessive cleanliness may be a reaction formation against the
need to be dirty or heterosexuality may be a reaction formation against the desire
for homosexual contact.
  Sublimation: Substituting undesirable behaviour with something desirable. For
example, substituting hatred for children with love and care of animals etc.

Erik Erikson’s Theory of Psychosocial Personality Development

Erik Erikson mainly emphasizes social and cultural effects on the personality of an
individual. The theory holds that individuals are shaped by the interaction of physical
characteristics, personal history, and social forces. In psychosocial development, the person
goes through various stages in which he/she faces specific psychological dilemma or crisis at
each particular stage of life. Resolving these crises creates a new balance between the person
and the social world. Unfavourable outcome throws one off-balance and makes it hard to deal
with later crises. A string of successes produce a healthy personality development and a
satisfactory life. Refer to topic Two for the psycho-social stages.

Allport’s Personality Traits [Trait Factor Theory]

Gordon Allport suggested that there are 3 basic categories of traits.
 Cardinal traits
 Central traits
 Secondary traits
A cardinal trait is a single personality trait that directs most of a person’s activities e.g.
greed, lust or kindness. Most people do not develop cardinal traits. Instead, they possess a
handful of central traits that make up the core of their personality. Central traits such as
honesty and sociability are the major characteristics of an individual. They usually number
from 5 to 10 in any person. Secondary traits are characteristics that affect behaviour in fewer
situations and are less influential than central or cardinal. For instance, a preference for ice-
cream or a dislike of modern art would be considered a secondary trait.

Eynseck’s Factor Analysis Theory

Eynseck is another psychologist who used factor analysis to identify patterns of traits and
came to a very different conclusion about the nature of personality. He found that personality
could be described in terms of first two major dimensions:
 Introversion and extraversion
 Neuroticism and stability

NEUROTIC

Rigid Touchy

INTROVERTED EXTROVERTED
Passive Sociable
 STABLE

At one extreme of the introversion, are the introverts, people who are quiet, passive and
careful, and at the other are extroverts who are outgoing, sociable and active. Independent of
these dimensions, people can be categorized as neurotic or stable. The most recent research
on traits suggests that five broad factors lie at the core of personality. These factors are called
the big five and they include surgency, neurotism, intellect, agreeableness, and
consciousness.
 Touchy means restless, optimistic, active, changeable, excitable, and aggressive.
 Sociable means outgoing, talkative, responsive, easy-going, lovely, carefree, and good
leaders.
 Rigid means permissive, sober, reserved, unsociable, and quiet.
 Passive means careful, thoughtful, peaceful, reliable, even-tempered, and calm.

LANGUAGE DEVELOPMENT
Introduction
What could people ever do with knowledge if there was no way of communicating it?
Imagine a world where people had absolutely no way of communication. Or more precisely a
world in which people had individualized language, so that no one would ever communicate
with another. It would be impossible to learn, inquire or even express ourselves. This would
render life boring and even not worth living, hence the need to find out how language
develops.

Language Development

Language is the means of communication between human beings. Although the ability to use
language is innate in humans, the language itself has to be learned. Language development
has a direct impact on the pace and extent to which other aspects of development are
acquired. This is because language forms a means of learning and teaching for children and
adults. It also affects other aspects of development. For example, a child who has good
language skills will develop faster in the social and cognitive aspects.

In addition to acquiring a large spoken vocabulary, there are four main areas in which the
child must attain competence, regardless of the language or dialect spoken. These are
phonology or sounds, semantics or the encoded meanings, syntax or the way in which words
are combined and pragmatics or knowledge of how language is used in different contexts.
We shall now look at the components of language.

There are four main components of language:

1. Phonology involves the rules about the structure and sequence of speech sounds.
 2. Semantics consists of vocabulary and how concepts are expressed through words.
3. Grammar involves two parts. The first, syntax, is the rules in which words are
arranged into sentences. The second, morphology, is the use of grammatical markers
(indicating tense, active or passive voice etc.).
4. Pragmatics involves the rules for appropriate and effective communication.
Pragmatics involves three skills:
 Using language for greeting, demanding etc.
 Changing language for talking differently depending on who you are talking to
 Following rules such as turn taking, staying on topic
Each component has its own appropriate developmental periods.

Phonological Development
From shortly after birth to around one year, the baby starts to make speech sounds. At around
two months, the baby will engage in cooing, which mostly consists of vowel sounds. At
around four months, cooing turns into babbling which is the repetitive consonant-vowel
combination. Babies understand more than they are able to say.
From 1–2 years, babies can recognize the correct pronunciation of familiar words. Babies
will also use phonological strategies to simplify word pronunciation. Some strategies include
repeating the first consonant-vowel in a multi-syllable word ('TV'--> 'didi') or deleting
unstressed syllables in a multi-syllable word ('banana'-->'nana'). By 3–5 years, phonological
awareness continues to improve as well as pronunciation. By 6–10 years, children can master
syllable stress patterns which help distinguish slight differences between similar words.

Semantic development
From birth to one year, comprehension (the language we understand) develops before
production (the language we use). There is about a 5 month lag in between the two. Babies
have an innate preference to listen to their mother's voice. Babies can recognize familiar
words and use preverbal gestures.

From 1–2 years, vocabulary grows to several hundred words. There is a vocabulary spurt
between 18–24 months, which includes fast mapping. Fast mapping is the babies' ability to
learn a lot of new things quickly. The majority of the babies' new vocabulary consists of
object words (nouns) and action words (verbs). By 3–5 years, children usually have difficulty
using words correctly. Children experience many problems such as under-extensions, taking
a general word and applying it specifically (for example, 'blankie') and over-extensions,
taking a specific word and applying it too generally (example, 'car' for 'van'). However,
children coin words to fill in for words not yet learned (for example, someone is a cooker
rather than a chef because a child will not know what a chef is). Children can also understand
metaphors.

From 6–10 years, children can understand meanings of words based on their definitions.
They also are able to appreciate the multiple meanings of words and use words precisely
through metaphors and puns. Fast mapping continues.
Grammatical Development
From 1–2 years, children start using telegraphic speech, which involves two word
combinations, for example 'wet diaper'. Brown (1973) observed that 75% of children's two-
word utterances could be summarised in the existence of 11 semantic relations:
Eleven important early semantic relations and examples based on Brown 1973:
 Attributive: 'big house'
 Agent-Action: 'Daddy hit'
 Action-Object: 'hit ball'
 Agent-Object: 'Daddy ball'
 Nominative: 'that ball'
 Demonstrative: 'there ball'
 Recurrence: 'more ball'
 Non-existence: 'all-gone ball'
 Possessive: 'Daddy chair'
 Entity + Locative: 'book table'
 Action + Locative: 'go store'

At around 3 years, children engage in simple sentences, which are 3 word sentences. Simple
sentences follow adult rules and get refined gradually. Grammatical morphemes get added as
these simple sentences start to emerge. By 3–5 years, children continue to add grammatical
morphemes and gradually produce complex grammatical structures. By 6–10 years, children
refine the complex grammatical structures such as passive voice.

Pragmatics Development
From birth to one year, babies can engage in joint attention (sharing the attention of
something with someone else). Babies also can engage in turn taking activities. By 1–2 years,
they can engage in conversational turn taking and topic maintenance. At ages 3–5, children
can master illocutionary intent, knowing what you meant to say even though you might not
have said it and turnabout, which is turning the conversation over to another person. By age
6-10, shading occurs, which is changing the conversation topic gradually. Children are able to
communicate effectively in demanding settings, such as on the telephone.
Let us now examine the theories of language development.

Theories of Language Development

There are various language development theories that have been propagated by various
proponents. This section briefly examines four main theories. These include Behavioural
Theory, Nativist linguistic theories, social interactionist theory and cognitive theory.

a) Behavioral Theory
Behaviourists believe language is something that can be observed and measured. The need to
use language is stimulated and language is uttered in response to stimuli. To the behaviourist,
competence in the rules of language is not as important as the ability to speak it; speaking is
what makes language real. Knowledge is a mental state and the structure of a language does
not make it a language; it is the function of speaking words that makes a language a language.
B.F. Skinner is perhaps the best known behaviourist who posited that children are
conditioned by their environment to respond to certain stimuli with language. When children
speak the language of their parents they are rewarded and become more skilful. They grow in
their ability to respond in a manner that responds to the environmental stimuli given by his
parents. This shapes a child’s language more than knowledge of rules. While most would
agree that a language-rich environment helps children achieve success in communication,
experts have not been able to prove this with experiments outside the laboratory. The
behaviourists approach has been criticized for not taking into account the many and varied
influences on a child’s language learning.

b) Nativist Linguistic Theories

The manner in which a child acquires language is a matter long debated by linguists and child
psychologists alike. The father of most nativist theories of language acquisition is Noam
Chomsky, who brought greater attention to the innate capacity of children for learning
language, which had widely been considered a purely cultural phenomenon based on
imitation.
Nativist linguistic theories hold that children learn through their natural ability to organize
the laws of language, but cannot fully utilize this talent without the presence of other humans.
This does not mean, however, that the child requires formal tutelage of any sort. Chomsky
claims that children are born with a hard-wired Language Acquisition Device (LAD) in
their brains. They are born with the major principles of language in place, but with many
parameters to set (such as whether sentences in the language(s) they are to acquire must have
explicit subjects). According to nativist theory, when the young child is exposed to a
language, their LAD makes it possible for them to set the parameters and deduce the
grammatical principles, because the principles are innate.
This is still a very controversial view, and many linguists and psychologists do not believe
language is as innate as Chomsky argues. There are important arguments both for and against
Chomsky's view of development. One idea central to this is the idea of Universal Grammar,
which posits that all languages have the same basic underlying structure, and that specific
languages have rules that transform these underlying structures into the specific patterns
found in given languages. Another argument is that without a propensity for language, human
infants would be unable to learn such complete speech patterns in a natural human
environment where complete sentences are the exception.
More recently, researchers have shown that parents react differently to children’s
grammatically correct and incorrect utterances. This shapes the child’s behaviour and
therefore challenges the belief that language is innate.

b) Social Learning theory

This theory is an approach to language acquisition that stresses the environment and the
context in which the language is being learned. It focuses on the pragmatics of language
rather than grammar, which should come later. In this approach, the beginning speaker and
the experienced speaker--be they child and adult or second-language learner and fluent
speaker--exist in a negotiated arrangement where feedback is always possible. The basic
appeal of this approach is the importance it places on the home and the cultural environment
in early-childhood language acquisition. Language, according to this theory, is not an innate
ability. Rather, it develops in negotiating one’s environment. Hence, vocabulary is bound by
context or, alternatively, by the culture within which speech is necessary and understandable.

This approach to language acquisition is based on culture and environment. Thus, it is not
universal in scope. In fact, the theory holds that language is never universal, but always
context- and time-bound. On one hand, this means that language seems to be provincial, but
also utilitarian, because it develops in the environment where it is most needed and most
likely to be understood. On the other hand, it keeps the level of basic comprehension solely
on the level of the initial environment. Transitions to other environments, at least on the
surface, seem to be a problem.
c) Cognitive Theory of language development
This theory was proposed by Jean Piaget. He theorized that language is made up of symbols
and structures, but exhibits itself as a child’s mental abilities mature. In addition, language is
only one of many human mental or cognitive activities. Piaget’s view of how children's
minds work and develop has been enormously influential, particularly in educational theory.
His particular insight was the role of maturation (simply growing up) in children's increasing
capacity to understand their world: they cannot undertake certain tasks until they are
psychologically mature enough to do so.

Piaget proposed that children's thinking does not develop entirely smoothly: instead, there
are certain points at which it "takes off" and moves into completely new areas and
capabilities. He saw these transitions as taking place at about 18 months, 7 years and 11 or 12
years. This has been taken to mean that before these ages children are not capable (no matter
how bright) of understanding things in certain ways, and has been used as the basis for
scheduling the school curriculum.

NB: Development of language is closely associated with development of speech organs;

mouth, throat, muscles, tongue, lips, larynx, and the ability of the child to associate sounds or
words with meaningful events, objects and persons.

Stages of language development

1. Pre-linguistic stage/ babbling stage, 0-12 months
2. Holophrastic stage / one word stage, 12-18 months
3. Telegraphic stage / two word stage, 18-30 months
4. Linguistic fluency stage

1. Pre-linguistic stage 0-12 months

The child uses crying, cooing, babbling, and chanting to communicate. This is universal
motor play because even deaf children babble. Children make sounds from all languages,
later they develop control over sounds and they begin to imitate sounds and intonations they
hear around them. They use gestures and changes in pitch to communicate certain emotions,
questions and commands. Infants start without language. Yet by four months of age, babies
can read lips and discriminate speech sounds. The language that infants speak is called
babbling.

Usually, language starts off as recall of simple words without associated meaning, but as
children grow, words acquire meaning, with connections between words being formed. As a
person gets older, new meanings and new associations are created and vocabulary increases
as more words are learned. Infants use their bodies, vocal cries and other preverbal
vocalizations to communicate their wants, needs and dispositions.

From about 6 to 9 months babies produce more vowels, some consonants and "echolalia", or
the frequent repetition of sounds like "dadadada" which appear to have some phonetic
characteristics of later speech. It is thought that a crucial part of the development of speech is
the time caregivers spend "guessing" what their infants are trying to communicate thus
integrating the child into their social world.

2. Holophrastic stage 12-18 months

The first words are basically nouns. A word is any sound or set of sounds that is used
consistently to refer to something, action or quality. A child uses a single word to refer to
many things, to convey complex ideas, meanings, combined with gestures, intonations, and
context. Parents then decode these meanings.

It has been argued that children's phonological systems develop in ways that are parallel to
adult languages, even if they are using unrecognisable "words". First words have the function
of naming or labelling but also condense meaning as in "milk" meaning "I want milk".
Vocabulary typically grows from about 20 words at 18 months to around 200 words at 21
months. From around 18 months the child starts to combine words into two word sentences.

3. Telegraphic stage 18-30 months

This 2 word stage appears at around 18 months. Only critical words are present, e.g. daddy,
come, mommy, sock. There is over-generalization e.g.
 Bad, badder, baddest.
 Eat - eated
 Go - goed,
 Come - comed
Typically the adult expands it to clarify meaning. By 24–27 months the child is producing
three or four word sentences using a logical, if not strictly correct, syntax. The theory is that
children apply a basic set of rules such as adding 's' for plurals or inventing simpler words out
of words too complicated to repeat like "choskit" for chocolate biscuit. Following this there is
a rapid appearance of grammatical rules and ordering of sentences. There is often an interest
in rhyme, and imaginative play frequently includes conversations.

By three years the child is beginning to use complex sentences, including relative clauses,
although still perfecting various linguistic systems. By five years of age the child's use of
language is very similar to that of an adult. From the age of about three children can indicate
fantasy or make-believe linguistically, produce coherent personal stories and fictional
narrative with beginnings and endings. It is argued that children devise narrative as a way of
understanding their own experience and as a medium for communicating their meaning to
others.

Typically by the age of about 9 a child can recount other narratives in addition to their own
experiences, from the perspectives of the author, the characters in the story and their own
views.

Factors influencing language development

a) Health - Illness may delay the development of speech organs and impair language
development.
b) Intelligence Level - High intelligence may imply better linguistic competence.
c) Socio-economic Status – individuals from high socio-economic families tend to be
better, may be due to exposure to television, media, early training, toys etc.
d) Sex - Girls are superior in language development than boys.
e) Family – mother – child relationship. Stimulating and rewarding family environment
can enhance language development. Many members of the family will positively
influence language development. Siblings and adult figures
f) Social Interaction - Encouraging children to play and to communicate verbally with
playmates etc.
g) Institutionalisation and Schooling.

Problems of language Development

Problems in child language development are often related to congenital disabilities or
neurological or physiological results of childhood illness.

Autistic children tend to have difficulty communicating and expressing their emotions or
desires. Sometimes this is due to specific problems with articulation or semantics, but often it
is an issue of neurological development directly related to autism.

Brain injuries, tumours, or seizures in a child can also cause problems in child language
development. Children with attention deficit disorder (ADD) or attention deficit hyperactivity
disorder (ADHD) commonly have learning difficulties which also affect their language
development.
Emotional disturbances early in childhood can also have an impact on the growth of basic
communicative skills. Perhaps more obvious are the developmental and communicative
consequences of childhood hearing loss.

Defect in pronunciation, articulation as a result of faulty learning

 Substitution e.g. light – right, rice – lice

 Omission e.g. fish – fis, shoe – sue, shore - saw
 Addition e.g. please – please
Delayed speech; dyslexia, dysgraphia – defective formation of words in writing due to
cerebral damage, aphasia – inability to speak connected phrases are caused by dysfunction of
the CNS, bilingualism, and non exposure to good environment conducive to language
development.
Learning a second language causes Problems in language especially the second language
confusion of grammatical rules by direct translation.
Speech disorder caused by jaw slip, cleft palate, emotional disturbances, early weaning,
neurotic parents, sour relationship of parents etc.
Lisping – consist of speech letter substitution eg red rose – wed wose. It is caused by
deformation of the jaw where the lower jaw protrudes below the upper one, lips or teeth,
tendency to clinging to infantile speech, space between the front teeth.
Slurring – this is indistinctive speech consisting of joining words together. It could be caused
by; inactivity of the lips, tongue or jaw, emotional attitude of timidity, rapid speech caused by
excitement, fear.
Stuttering – this is hesitant repetitive speech accompanied by stammering. It could be caused
by the emotional climate at home such as overprotective, over-authoritative, perfectionist
parents, being forced to learn two languages at a go.
Cluttering - this is rapid confused and jumped speech accompanied by motor awkwardness
found in children with delayed speech
 MORAL DEVELOPMENT
Moral development is the process through which an individual acquires the ability to
distinguish between bad and good or right and wrong. Moral behaviour means behaviour
which is in conformity with the moral code of the social group. It refers to the behaviour of
the members of a given culture which have been accepted and should be followed.

Moral behaviour is developed through socio–cultural conditioning. At birth, the child has no
conscience or scale of values. Learning to behave in a socially approved manner is a slow
process which extends into adolescence. Moral behaviour seems to arise from conception of
morality which is based on a consideration for the feelings of other people. Changes in moral
development come with increasing age. The ways in which people come to think, act, and
feel morally depends partly on developmental changes in cognitive understanding, and thus
moral development has a cognitive element.

In the initial years of life, the child’s social world is limited to the home where rules are as
simple and as narrow as the setup. However, as the child grows and socializes, the world
continues to expand to the neighbourhood, school, society, workplace, and so on. As the
social universe expands, he/she has to acquire rules of social thought and action. Every social
setting will have norms and ethics which a morally upright person should adhere to. But
morality is not just about adherence; obeying rules for fear of consequences is simply
prudence, unlike morality which means internalizing the rules so as to adhere simply because
the contrary is wrong.

Internalization of moral behaviour follows the principle of minimal sufficiency, which states
that a child will strive to internalize due to sufficient pressure applied and at the same time
feeling that he/she is not being forced to do so. Gradually, the individual learns even to
become altruistic i.e. to do something for others even at some cost to himself/herself.
Altruism leads us to become empathetic i.e. to have a direct emotional response to other
people’s emotions. This refers to changes in the ability to reason about what is right and
wrong in a given situation, and is closely related to cognitive development. It is a function of
cognitive development but advanced cognition does not guarantee advanced morality. Morals
are issues of right and wrong.

Kohlberg’s Stages of Moral Reasoning

In Kohlberg’s theory are three levels of moral reasoning. These levels comprise six stages;
Level 1: Pre-conventional Morality (4 – 10 years)
It is also known as pre-moral level. In this level children do not understand morality and they
simply obey rules to avoid punishment and to obtain approval. Behaviour is under emotional
control i.e. the child is obedience and punishment oriented.
Stage 1: Heteronomous Morality :( Punishment –obedience orientation). The
individual does what is right simply to avoid punishment. This is the most basic level
of moral reasoning. Behaviour is controlled by its consequences (punishment). The
physical consequences of an action determine its goodness or badness. Those in
 authority have superior power and they should be obeyed. Punishment should be
avoided by staying out of trouble.

 Stage 2: Instrumental Behaviour (Individualism) Instrumental – relativist

orientation – Here the individual’s adherence to rules is simply to gain a reward. The
behaviour is egocentric since the individual thinks only of his/her gains, without
considering others. An act is good if its outcomes are to the advantage of the
individual. The individual is inclined to exchange favours – “I will do this for you if
you will do that for me”.

Level 2: Conventional Morality (10 -14 years)

The individual learns conventional rules and conformity, and that non conformity leads to
social disapproval.
 Stage 3: Mutual Interpersonal Expectations (the Good Boy- Nice Girl orientation) –
The individual will do what is expected so as to gain approval from others, or so as
not to be disapproved by others. The individual tries to please those around him,
seeking to be viewed as good. Moral decision is based on how the parents and peer
group expects him to behave. For instance an individual may dress smartly so that
others will comment positively. Maintaining mutual relations, approval of others is
the golden rule. The right action is one that will impress others. Am I a good boy or
girl? They want to please and help others. They can judge the intentions of others, and
develop their own ideas of what a good person is. They evaluate an act according to
the motive behind it or the person performing it, and they take circumstances into
account.
 Stage 4: Social Systems and Conscience (authority and Social Order or Law and
order orientation) – Here the person will act as expected simply because this is the
code of law and order i.e., the rule states thus. Rules are defined by institutions of the
society and obedience is viewed as a civic duty or obligation. Morality is based on
respect for authority and social order. You obey to sustain the system. Moral thinking
is based on the dictates of authority. Confronted by a moral choice the person, may
say “because he is the president; “because the bible says so,’’ or “a rule is a rule.’’
Many people tend to stagnate at this level. For example, when in a dilemma they turn
to the existing constitution to justify their actions.

Level 3: Post-conventional or Principled Morality – 20 years and above

This level sets in during adolescence when persons accept the rules of society, but only
because they accept some general principles underlying the rules. The personal principles
take priority if rules of society are in conflict with such principles. Morality is based on self–
accepted principles. The person becomes flexible and develops social standards to avoid self-
condemnation and blame.

This is the principled level, reached only after the age of 20 years by only a small proportion
of adults. It gets its name because the moral principles that underlie the conventions of a
society are understood. It marks attainment of true morality. There is the possibility of
conflict between two socially accepted standards and trying to decide between them. The
control of conduct is internal, both in the standards observed and in the reasoning about right
and wrong.
 Stage 5: Social Contract orientation (Utility and Individual Rights). The behaviour
of the individual in this case is defined by a social contract which is generally agreed
upon for the common good. At this stage, the individual accepts majority rule but also
works to change rules that he/she feels are unfair or unjust. Adolescents question
oppressive rules and will demonstrate in secondary school unlike in primary school.
Rules are seen as social contracts made for a purpose, and the purpose can change if
need be. The essential obligation is the contract not the content of a specific rule. The
will and welfare of the majority are extremely important. There is less emphasis on
conventional order and more emphasis on personal standards of social responsibility.
The person may say “the end justifies the means’’. This is the kind of reasoning Jesus
was using when He said that, If your donkey falls in a ditch on a Sabbath, you are
not breaking the law to save it and that law was made to serve man and not man to
serve the law.
 Stage 6: Universal Ethical Principle Orientation – This is the highest level of moral
reasoning in which the individual acts right, based on internalized abstract ethical
principles that determine ones’ own moral code. Moral reasoning is conscience and
principle oriented, and individuals follow self-chosen ethical principles such as
justice, equality, and freedom. The person has internalized principles which he/she
thinks are universally valid, holds principles irrespective of whether they are laid
down by the authority or not. Some principles may demand deviation from
conventional rules. One may feel morally obliged to disobey rules that violate certain
universal principles.

 Very few people reach the last stage. Examples of people who attained this level are
people such as Nelson Mandela, Martin Luther King Junior, and Mahatma Gandhi
among other heroes.

After presenting people with this and various other moral dilemmas, Kohlberg reviewed
people’s responses and placed them in different stages of moral reasoning (Figure 1).
According to Kohlberg, an individual progresses from the capacity for pre-conventional
morality (before age 9) to the capacity for conventional morality (early adolescence), and
toward attaining post-conventional morality (once formal operational thought is attained),
which only a few fully achieve. Kohlberg placed in the highest stage responses that reflected
the reasoning that Heinz should steal the drug because his wife’s life is more important than
the pharmacist making money. The value of a human life overrides the pharmacist’s greed.
Figure 1. Kohlberg identified three levels of moral reasoning: pre-conventional, conventional,
and post-conventional: Each level is associated with increasingly complex stages of moral
development.

Studies show that people move through the same stages of moral development in a sequential
invariant manner. Kohlberg assessed the individual’s level of development by means of
interview in which an individual answers questions about stories that pose a moral dilemma.

Developmental Changes
Moral statements that reflect pre-moral level decrease with age. Those at the conventional
level increase until about age 13 years, and then stabilize. Statements that reflect the
principled level appear to increase slowly after age 13 years.

Factors Influencing Moral Development

a) Discipline: - This is the society’s way of teaching moral behaviour approved by the
group. The goal of discipline is to mould behaviour so that it conforms to the roles
prescribed by the cultural group. The nature of discipline determines the learning of
moral behaviour.
b) Parental – child rearing practices. Authoritarian parents bring up children who do not
internalise morals. Their children need explanations. The impact of imitation,
identification, - bad behaviour which is not punished is most likely to be imitated.
NB. Parents / teachers should not alert others of the bad behaviour of others.
c) Punishment: - Punishment makes the person to avoid socially unacceptable behaviour.
It helps the person to learn what is wrong and what is right. It motivates the individual
to avoid punishable behaviour.
d) Rewards: - Reinforcement motivates the person to avoid punishable behaviours and to
repeat acceptable ones. Rewards may be tangible or verbal.
e) Schooling: - This plays a key role in shaping children’s moral behaviours.
f) Cognitive development: - According to Piaget, moral development is related to
intellectual development.
g) Age – stage increases with increasing age
h) Culture. The cultural environment in which a person grows determines the kind of
moral values the person acquires.