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Sexuality in the Middle Ages
and Early Modern Times:
New Approaches to a
Fundamental
Cultural-Historical and
Literary-Anthropological
Theme
Edited by
Albrecht Classen
Walter de Gruyter
Sexuality in the Middle Ages and Early Modern Times
Fundamentals of Medieval
and Early Modern Culture
Edited by
Albrecht Classen and Marilyn Sandidge
≥
Walter de Gruyter · Berlin · New York
Sexuality in the Middle Ages
and Early Modern Times
New Approaches to a Fundamental Cultural-Historical

and Literary-Anthropological Theme
Edited by
Albrecht Classen
≥
Walter de Gruyter · Berlin · New York
앪
앝 Printed on acid-free paper which falls within the guidelines
of the ANSI to ensure permanence and durability.
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Sexuality in the Middle Ages and early modern times : new approaches
to a fundamental cultural-historical and literary-anthropological theme /
edited by Albrecht Classen.
p. cm. ⫺ (Fundamentals of medieval and early modern culture ; 3)
Chiefly in English with three contributions in German.
Includes bibliographical references and index.
ISBN 978-3-11-020574-9 (alk. paper)
1. Sex in literature. 2. Literature, Medieval ⫺ History and criticism.
3. European literature ⫺ Renaissance, 1450⫺1600 ⫺ History and criti-
cism. I. Classen, Albrecht.
PN56.S5S498 2008
8091.93358⫺dc22
2008021259
ISBN 978-3-11-020574-9
ISSN 1864-3396
Bibliographic information published by the Deutsche Nationalbibliothek

The Deutsche Nationalbibliothek lists this publication in the Deutsche
Nationalbibliografie; detailed bibliographic data are available in the Internet
at http://dnb.d-nb.de.
” Copyright 2008 by Walter de Gruyter GmbH & Co. KG, D-10785 Berlin
All rights reserved, including those of translation into foreign languages. No part of this
book may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic or
mechanical, including photocopy, recording or any information storage and retrieval
system, without permission in writing from the publisher.
Printed in Germany
Cover design: Christopher Schneider, Berlin
Printing and binding: Hubert & Co., Göttingen
TableȱofȱContents
Introduction:
AlbrechtȱClassen
TheȱCulturalȱSignificanceȱofȱSexualityȱinȱtheȱMiddleȱAges,ȱ
theȱRenaissance,ȱandȱBeyond.ȱAȱSecretȱContinuousȱ
UndercurrentȱorȱaȱDominantȱPhenomenonȱofȱtheȱ
PremodernȱWorld?ȱOr:ȱTheȱIrrepressibilityȱofȱSexȱ
YesterdayȱandȱToday . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
AlbrechtȱClassen
NakedȱMenȱinȱMedievalȱGermanȱLiteratureȱandȱArt:ȱ
Anthropological,ȱCulturalȬHistorical,ȱandȱ
MentalȬHistoricalȱInvestigations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143
AsaȱSimonȱMittmanȱandȱSusanȱM.ȱKim
TheȱExposedȱBodyȱandȱtheȱGenderedȱBlemmye:ȱ
ReadingȱtheȱWondersȱofȱtheȱEast . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 171
EvaȱParraȱMembrives
LustȱohneȱLiebe:ȱRoswithaȱvonȱGandersheimȱ
undȱgeschlechtsspezifischeȱStrafenȱfürȱsündigenȱSex . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 217
MollyȱRobinsonȱKelly
SexȱandȱFertilityȱinȱMarieȱdeȱFrance’sȱLais . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 241
ChristopherȱR.ȱClason
“GoodȱLovin’”:ȱTheȱLanguageȱofȱEroticȱDesireȱandȱ
FulfillmentȱinȱGottfried’sȱTristan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 257
SiegfriedȱChristoph
TheȱLimitsȱofȱReadingȱInnuendoȱinȱMedievalȱLiterature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 279
vi TableȱofȱContents
JuliaȱWingoȱShinnick
SingingȱDesire:ȱMusicalȱInnuendoȱinȱTroubadourȱ
andȱTrouvèreȱSong . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 293
ChristinaȱWeising
Visionȱofȱ“Sexuality,”ȱ“Obscenity,”ȱorȱ“Nudity”?
DifferencesȱBetweenȱRegionsȱonȱtheȱExampleȱofȱCorbels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 325
JuanitaȱFerosȱRuys
Heloise,ȱMonasticȱTemptation,ȱandȱMemoria:ȱ
RethinkingȱAutobiography,ȱSexualȱExperience,ȱandȱEthics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 383
PeterȱDinzelbacher
GruppensexȱimȱUntergrund:ȱChaotischeȱKetzerȱund
kirchlicheȱKeuschheitȱimȱMittelalter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 405
SuzanneȱKocher
Desire,ȱParody,ȱandȱSexualȱMoresȱinȱtheȱEndingȱofȱ
HueȱdeȱRotelandeȇsȱIpomedon:ȱAnȱInvitationȱThroughȱ
theȱLookingȱGlass . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 429
AndrewȱHolt
FeminineȱSexualityȱandȱtheȱCrusades . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 449
JenniferȱD.ȱThibodeaux
TheȱSexualȱLivesȱofȱMedievalȱNormanȱClerics:ȱ
AȱNewȱPerspectiveȱonȱClericalȱSexuality . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 471
StaceyȱL.ȱHahn
FeminineȱSexualityȱinȱtheȱLancelotȬGrailȱCycle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 485
SarahȱGordon
Sausages,ȱNuts,ȱandȱEggs:ȱFoodȱImagery,ȱtheȱBody,ȱ
andȱSexualityȱinȱtheȱOldȱFrenchȱFabliaux . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 503
PaulaȱLeverage
SexȱandȱtheȱSacramentsȱinȱTristanȱdeȱNanteuil . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 517
TableȱofȱContents vii
AlexaȱSand
InseminatingȱRuthȱinȱtheȱMorganȱOldȱTestamentȱ
PictureȱBook:ȱAȱRomanceȱofȱtheȱCrusades . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 535
ConnieȱL.ȱScarborough
TheȱRapeȱofȱMenȱandȱotherȱ“Lessons”ȱaboutȱSexȱ
inȱtheȱLibroȱdeȱbuenȱamor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 565
RasmaȱLazdaȬCazers
OralȱSexȱinȱtheȱSongsȱofȱOswaldȱvonȱWolkenstein:ȱ
DidȱItȱReallyȱHappen? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 579
JeanȱE.ȱJost
IntersectingȱtheȱIdealȱandȱtheȱReal,ȱChivalryȱandȱRape,ȱ
RespectȱandȱDishonor:ȱTheȱProblematicsȱofȱSexualȱ
RelationshipsȱinȱTroilusȱandȱCriseydeȱandȱSirȱTristrem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 599
DanielȱF.ȱPigg
CaughtȱinȱtheȱAct:ȱMalory’sȱ“SirȱGareth”
andȱtheȱConstructionȱofȱSexualȱPerformance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 633
AlbrechtȱClassen
SexualȱDesireȱandȱPornography:ȱLiteraryȱImaginationȱ
inȱaȱSatiricalȱContext.ȱGenderȱConflict,ȱSexualȱIdentity,ȱ
andȱMisogynyȱinȱ“DasȱNonnenturnier” . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 649
SaraȱMcDougall
TheȱProsecutionȱofȱSexȱinȱLateȱMedievalȱTroyes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 691
GertrudȱBlaschitz
DasȱFreudenhausȱimȱMittelalterȱ[TheȱBrothelȱinȱtheȱ
MiddleȱAges]:ȱInȱderȱstatȱwasȱgesessenȱ/ȱainȱunrainerȱpulianȱ.ȱ.ȱ.ȱ . . . . . . . . . . . . . 715
StephanieȱFinkȱDeȱBacker
Prescription,ȱPassion,ȱandȱPatronageȱinȱEarlyȱModernȱ
Toledo:ȱLegitimizingȱIllicitȱLoveȱatȱSantoȱDomingoȱdeȱSilosȱ
“elȱAntiguo,”ȱToledo . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 751
viii TableȱofȱContents
ReinierȱLeushuis
FertilizingȱtheȱFrenchȱVernacular:ȱProcreation,ȱWarfare,ȱ
andȱAuthorshipȱinȱJeanȱdeȱMeun,ȱJeanȱLemaireȱdeȱBelges,ȱ
andȱRabelais . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 783
KathleenȱM.ȱLlewellyn
DeadlyȱSexȱandȱSexyȱDeathȱinȱEarlyȱModernȱFrenchȱLiterature . . . . . . . . . . . 811
AllisonȱP.ȱCoudert
FromȱtheȱClitorisȱtoȱtheȱBreast:ȱTheȱEclipseȱofȱtheȱFemaleȱ
LibidoȱinȱEarlyȱModernȱArt,ȱLiterature,ȱandȱPhilosophy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 837
ListȱofȱIllustrations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 879
Contributors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 885
Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 895
AlbrechtȱClassen
(UniversityȱofȱArizona,ȱTucson)
ȱ
TheȱCulturalȱSignificanceȱofȱSexualityȱinȱtheȱMiddle
Ages,ȱtheȱRenaissance,ȱandȱBeyond.ȱAȱSecretȱContinuous
UndercurrentȱorȱaȱDominantȱPhenomenonȱofȱthe
PremodernȱWorld?ȱOr:ȱTheȱIrrepressibilityȱofȱSex
YesterdayȱandȱToday1
1.ȱHowȱtoȱJustifyȱtheȱCulturalȬHistoricalȱResearchȱonȱSexuality?
Whyȱshouldȱweȱtalkȱaboutȱsex,ȱorȱsexualityȱinȱmoreȱgeneralȱterms,ȱasȱaȱhistorical
phenomenon?2ȱ Whyȱ wouldȱ suchȱ aȱ ‘sordid’ȱ topic,ȱ asȱ someȱ conservativeȱ critics
mightȱargue,ȱandȱcertainlyȱhaveȱarguedȱthroughoutȱtheȱcenturies—seeȱtheȱlong
andȱunbrokenȱtraditionȱofȱclericalȱcondemnationȱofȱsexualityȱasȱoneȱofȱtheȱworst
sinsȱinȱhumanȱ life—beȱofȱanyȱrelevanceȱforȱtheȱstudyȱofȱtheȱMiddleȱAges,ȱthe
Renaissance,ȱ andȱ theȱ earlyȱ modernȱ age?ȱ Toȱ raiseȱ thisȱ issueȱ alsoȱ providesȱ the
immediateȱanswerȱbecauseȱnoȱaspectȱofȱhumanȱlifeȱisȱmeaningless,ȱandȱeverything
weȱcanȱlearnȱaboutȱpeopleȱinȱtheȱpastȱallowsȱusȱtoȱgainȱaȱmoreȱcomprehensiveȱand
moreȱcomplexȱpicture,ȱespeciallyȱifȱourȱinvestigationȱleadsȱusȱintoȱtheȱrealmȱof
people’sȱmotifs,ȱsecretȱplans,ȱhiddenȱagendas,ȱemotions,ȱandȱdreams.ȱIfȱweȱcan
explainȱwhyȱcertainȱactionsȱwereȱtaken,ȱcertainȱlawsȱissued,ȱconcreteȱinstitutions
established,ȱandȱvariousȱprogramsȱcarriedȱoutȱweȱgainȱconsiderableȱinsightȱinto
1
Forȱherȱcriticalȱreadingsȱofȱthisȱintroduction,ȱIȱwouldȱlikeȱtoȱexpressȱmyȱgratitudeȱtoȱMarilyn
Sandidge,ȱ Westfieldȱ Stateȱ College,ȱ MA.ȱ Rasmaȱ LazdaȬCazers,ȱ Theȱ Universityȱ ofȱ Alabama,
Tuscaloosa,ȱ madeȱ someȱ goodȱ suggestionsȱ forȱ whichȱ Iȱ amȱ veryȱ thankful.ȱ Allisonȱ P.ȱ Coudert,
UniversityȱofȱCaliforniaȱatȱDavis,ȱchallengedȱmeȱconstructivelyȱtoȱrevisitȱtheȱEliasȬDuerrȱdebate,
whichȱIȱfoundȱveryȱfruitful.ȱSeeȱalsoȱmyȱseparateȱexplorationȱofȱthisȱissueȱinȱmyȱcontributionȱto
thisȱvolumeȱ(“NakedȱMen”).
2
Forȱaȱrecent,ȱdespiteȱitsȱbrevityȱquiteȱcomprehensiveȱarticleȱonȱthisȱsubjectȱmatter,ȱseeȱEdwardȱD.
English,ȱ“SexualityȱandȱSexualȱAttitudes,”ȱEncyclopediaȱofȱtheȱMedievalȱWorld.ȱVol.ȱII:ȱMȱtoȱZȱ(New
York:ȱFactsȱonȱFile,ȱ2005),ȱ663Ȭ64;ȱfurtherȱresearchȱliteratureȱthere.
2 AlbrechtȱClassen
theȱ complexȱ structuresȱ ofȱ allȱ ofȱ humanȱ life,ȱ takingȱ usȱ deeperȱ downȱ toȱ the
fundamentalsȱthanȱmostȱchroniclesȱorȱofficialȱdocumentsȱeverȱcould.3ȱ
EdwardȱM.ȱBrecherȱcitesȱW.ȱC.ȱFieldsȱforȱoneȱofȱtwoȱmottosȱtoȱhisȱsurveyȱstudy
ofȱTheȱSexȱResearchers,ȱwhichȱexplainsȱaȱlotȱaboutȱtheȱrelevanceȱofȱsexualityȱinȱand
forȱhumanȱlife:ȱ“Sexȱisn’tȱtheȱbestȱthingȱinȱtheȱworld,ȱorȱtheȱworstȱthingȱinȱthe
world—butȱ there’sȱ nothingȱ elseȱ quiteȱ likeȱ it.”4ȱ Bansȱ andȱ lawsȱ againstȱ specific
sexualȱpractices,ȱparticularlyȱsodomyȱandȱnotȱallowedȱpositionsȱduringȱcopulation,
areȱnotȱonlyȱrelevantȱforȱtheȱhistoryȱofȱtheȱlegalȱsystemȱwithinȱaȱsociety,ȱbutȱthey
alsoȱ illustrateȱ whatȱ peopleȱ wereȱ afraidȱ ofȱ concerningȱ theirȱ moralȱ andȱ ethical
principlesȱ andȱ values.5ȱ Theȱ entireȱ penanceȱ systemȱ ofȱ theȱ Catholicȱ Church,ȱ for
instance,ȱpowerfullyȱillustrates,ȱatȱleastȱindirectly,ȱwhatȱpeopleȱdidȱinȱprivateȱand
whatȱ theirȱ fantasiesȱ aimedȱ for,ȱ atȱ leastȱ accordingȱ toȱ theȱ clericalȱ writersȱ who
laboredȱhardȱonȱtheȱtopicȱofȱsexualityȱasȱaȱhumanȱvice,ȱorȱratherȱsinȱthatȱdeserves
toȱbeȱpunishedȱasȱsoonȱasȱitȱwasȱpracticedȱforȱanyȱotherȱpurposesȱbutȱtoȱcreateȱa
child.6ȱTheȱfamousȱFranciscanȱpreacherȱBertholdȱvonȱRegensburgȱ(ca.ȱ1210–1272),
forȱinstance,ȱrepeatedlyȱwarnedȱagainstȱsexualȱtransgressionȱwhichȱwouldȱthreaten
peaceȱ amongȱ people:ȱ “Dazȱ istȱ allezȱ ungeordentȱ frideȱ mitȱ demȱ fleische,ȱ sôȱ mit
griffen,ȱmitȱbœsenȱgebærden,ȱmitȱunkiusche,ȱmitȱtrâkheitȱanȱgotesȱdienste:ȱdazȱist
allezȱvalscherȱfride,ȱungeordenterȱfrideȱmitȱdemȱfleischeȱundȱistȱderȱsêleȱtôt”ȱ(That
isȱallȱdisorderlyȱpeaceȱwithȱtheȱflesh,ȱsuchȱasȱwithȱgrasps,ȱwithȱevilȱgestures,ȱwith
unchastity,ȱwithȱlazinessȱinȱtheȱserviceȱforȱGod:ȱthatȱisȱallȱfalseȱpeace,ȱdisorderly
peaceȱwithȱtheȱfleshȱandȱisȱdeathȱforȱtheȱsoul).7ȱ
3
Seeȱ theȱ massiveȱ projectȱ Revelationsȱ ofȱ theȱ Medievalȱ World,ȱ ed.ȱ Georgesȱ Duby,ȱ trans.ȱ Arthur
Goldhammer.ȱAȱHistoryȱofȱPrivateȱLife,ȱIIȱ(1985;ȱCambridge,ȱMA,ȱandȱLondon:ȱTheȱBelknapȱPress
ofȱHarvardȱUniversityȱPress,ȱ1988).ȱUnfortunately,ȱnoneȱofȱtheȱcontributorsȱfullyȱengageȱinȱa
criticalȱinvestigationȱofȱwhyȱtheȱhistoryȱofȱprivateȱlifeȱwouldȱbeȱofȱsuchȱaȱsignificanceȱforȱusȱtoday.
4
EdwardȱM.ȱBrecher,ȱTheȱSexȱResearchersȱ(BostonȱandȱToronto:ȱLittle,ȱBrownȱandȱCompany,ȱ1969).
Inȱhisȱepilogueȱheȱstatesȱunequivocally:ȱ“Theȱfutureȱofȱsexȱinȱourȱcultureȱwillȱdependȱonlyȱinȱsmall
partȱonȱwhatȱweȱteachȱourȱchildrenȱaboutȱsexȱinȱtheȱsixthȱgrade,ȱorȱinȱhighȱschoolȱorȱcollege.ȱFar
moreȱimportantȱisȱtheȱestablishmentȱofȱaȱmilieuȱinȱwhichȱevenȱquiteȱyoungȱchildrenȱcanȱdevelop
selfȬconfidence,ȱselfȬesteem,ȱandȱselfȬacceptance—includingȱanȱacceptanceȱofȱtheirȱownȱbodies,
andȱofȱtheirȱsexualȱfeelings”ȱ(318).ȱToȱthisȱIȱwouldȱlikeȱtoȱaddȱthatȱaȱculturalȬhistoricalȱawareness
ofȱtheȱdiscursiveȱnatureȱofȱsexualityȱinȱtheȱpastȱwillȱalsoȱcontributeȱtoȱtheȱfosteringȱofȱaȱhealthy
societyȱwhichȱembracesȱsexualityȱasȱaȱnaturalȱaspectȱofȱallȱ(human)ȱlife,ȱbothȱinȱtheȱMiddleȱAges
andȱtheȱRenaissanceȱandȱtoday.ȱSeeȱalsoȱVernȱL.ȱBullough,ȱScienceȱinȱtheȱBedroom:ȱAȱHistoryȱofȱSex
Researchȱ(NewȱYork:ȱBasicȱBooks,ȱ1994),ȱthoughȱheȱmostlyȱskipsȱoverȱtheȱpremodernȱperiod.
5
SeeȱalsoȱtheȱcontributionȱtoȱthisȱvolumeȱbyȱPeterȱDinzelbacher.
6
Forȱ aȱ broadȱ collectionȱ ofȱ relevantȱ texts,ȱ suchȱ asȱ ecclesiasticalȱ sources,ȱ legalȱ sources,ȱ letters,
chronicles,ȱbiographies,ȱconductȱbooks,ȱliteraryȱsources,ȱandȱmedicalȱwritingsȱdealingȱwithȱlove,
marriage,ȱandȱsexuality,ȱseeȱLove,ȱSexȱandȱMarriageȱinȱtheȱMiddleȱAges:ȱAȱSourcebook,ȱed.ȱConor
McCarthyȱ(LondonȱandȱNewȱYork:ȱRoutledge,ȱ2004).ȱ
7
BertholdȱvonȱRegensburg:ȱVollständigeȱAusgabeȱseinerȱdeutschenȱPredigtenȱmitȱEinleitungenȱund
Anmerkungenȱ vonȱ Franzȱ Pfeifferȱ undȱ Josephȱ Strobl.ȱ Mitȱ einerȱ Bibliographieȱ undȱ einem
überlieferungsgeschichtlichenȱ Beitragȱ vonȱ Kurtȱ Ruh.ȱ Deutscheȱ Neudrucke.ȱ Reihe:ȱ Texteȱ des
TheȱCulturalȱSignificanceȱofȱSexualityȱ 3
Theȱpenitentials,ȱaȱhugeȱcorpusȱofȱlegalȱtextsȱallȱbyȱthemselves,ȱaddressedȱsexual
transgressionsȱbothȱoutsideȱandȱwithinȱmarriage,ȱsexualȱperversions,ȱandȱsexual
crimes.8ȱBishopȱBurchardȱofȱWormsȱ(950–1025),ȱinȱhisȱmassiveȱDecretum,ȱoutlined
inȱ greatestȱ detailȱ andȱ withoutȱ anyȱ hesitationȱ allȱ possibleȱ sexualȱ activitiesȱ and
identifiedȱexactlyȱwhatȱpenaltiesȱaȱpriestȱhadȱtoȱimposeȱonȱeachȱofȱthem;9ȱallȱthis
determinedȱbyȱtheȱconceptȱthatȱanyȱsexualȱpracticeȱthatȱwasȱnotȱexclusivelyȱaimed
toȱcreateȱchildrenȱwasȱconsideredȱsinful.ȱ
Theȱlistȱofȱotherȱpenitentialȱwriters,ȱsuchȱasȱHonoriusȱofȱAutunȱ(ca.ȱ1080–ca.
1156),ȱGilbertȱdeȱlaȱPoréeȱ(ca.ȱ1075–1154),ȱAbbotȱGuibertȱofȱNogentȱ(ca.ȱ1064–ca.
1125),ȱisȱlegion,ȱandȱtheyȱall,ȱconsistently,ȱembracedȱtheȱsameȱnegativeȱviewpoint
regardingȱtheȱdisastrousȱconsequencesȱofȱsexualityȱforȱhumanȱspirituality.ȱ
AsȱJamesȱA.ȱBrundageȱpoignantlyȱsummarizes,ȱreflectingȱonȱtheȱbroadȱgenreȱof
penitentialȱwritings:ȱ“Weȱareȱburdenedȱandȱdoomed,ȱaccordingȱtoȱGuibert,ȱby
sexualȱfantasiesȱthatȱspringȱunbiddenȱtoȱourȱminds,ȱevenȱinȱsleep;ȱsordidȱdesires
subvertȱourȱeffortsȱtoȱattainȱchastityȱandȱplungeȱusȱintoȱeverȱdeeperȱdespair.ȱSex
isȱaȱviceȱandȱaȱdisease,ȱGuibertȱbelieved;ȱitȱtaintsȱandȱbefoulsȱeveryȱlivingȱperson.
Evenȱwhenȱdeathȱfinallyȱdeliversȱusȱfromȱtheȱgraspȱofȱlust,ȱitȱisȱlikelyȱtoȱpitchȱus
intoȱ hell.”10ȱ Inȱ otherȱ words,ȱ theȱ penitentialsȱ areȱ filledȱ withȱ strictestȱ warnings
againstȱtheȱtemptationȱandȱseductiveȱforceȱofȱhumanȱconcupiscence,ȱwhichȱallows
usȱ today,ȱ hereȱ entirelyȱ disregardingȱ allȱ moralȱ andȱ ethical,ȱ notȱ toȱ speakȱ of
theological,ȱimplications,ȱtoȱgainȱgoodȱinsightȱintoȱtheȱworldȱofȱsexuality,ȱatȱleast
indirectlyȱandȱasȱfarȱasȱitȱwasȱimaginedȱbyȱtheȱrepresentativesȱofȱtheȱChurch.11
Inȱ aȱ fourteenthȬcenturyȱ preacher’sȱ handbook,ȱ forȱ instance,ȱ copiedȱ down
numerousȱtimes,ȱhenceȱofȱgreatȱpopularityȱatȱitsȱtimeȱ(twentyȬeightȱmanuscripts,
theȱlastȱcopiedȱbyȱtheȱendȱofȱtheȱfifteenthȱcentury),ȱweȱreadȱtheȱsternȱwarning
againstȱlechery:
Inȱspiritualȱterms,ȱthisȱbeastȱ[Revelationsȱ13ȱ–ȱA.C.]ȱisȱfleshlyȱconcupiscence,ȱwhich
risesȱfromȱtheȱearthȱofȱourȱfleshȱandȱhasȱtwoȱhorns,ȱnamelyȱgluttonyȱandȱlust,ȱwhich
Mittelaltersȱ(Berlin:ȱdeȱGruyter,ȱ1965),ȱvol.ȱ2,ȱ127.ȱForȱaȱsolidȱintroductionȱtoȱthisȱsermonȱauthor,
seeȱ Frankȱ G.ȱ Banta,ȱ “Bertholdȱ vonȱ Regensburg,”ȱ Dieȱ deutscheȱ Literaturȱ desȱ Mittelalters:
Verfasserlexikon.ȱ 2nd,ȱ completelyȱ rev.ȱ ed.ȱ byȱ Kurtȱ Ruhȱ etȱ al.ȱ Vol.ȱ 1ȱ (Berlinȱ andȱ Newȱ York:ȱ de
Gruyter,ȱ1978),ȱ817–23.
8
Pierreȱ J.ȱ Payer,ȱ Sexȱ andȱ theȱ Penitentials:ȱ Theȱ Developmentȱ ofȱ aȱ Sexualȱ Codeȱ 550–1150.ȱ (Toronto,
Buffalo,ȱandȱLondon:ȱUniversityȱofȱTorontoȱPress,ȱ1984).
9
BurchardȱofȱWorms,ȱDecretorumȱlibriȱXX,ȱPLȱ14:ȱ557–1058.
10
JamesȱA.ȱBrundage,ȱLaw,ȱSex,ȱandȱChristianȱSocietyȱinȱMedievalȱEuropeȱ(ChicagoȱandȱLondon:ȱThe
UniversityȱofȱLondonȱPress,ȱ1987),ȱ185.
11
AaronȱJ.ȱGurjewitsch,ȱMittelalterlicheȱVolkskultur,ȱtrans.ȱMatthiasȱSpringerȱ(1981;ȱMunich:ȱBeck,
1987),ȱ149–51ȱ(3rdȱchapter);ȱseeȱalsoȱtheȱEnglishȱtrans.ȱMedievalȱPopularȱCulture:ȱProblemsȱofȱBelief
andȱ Perception.ȱ Cambridgeȱ Studiesȱ inȱ Oralȱ andȱ Literateȱ Culture,ȱ 14ȱ (Cambridge:ȱ Cambridge
UniversityȱPress,ȱ1988).
4 AlbrechtȱClassen
doȱnotȱlookȱveryȱterrifyingȱandȱyetȱareȱquiteȱdeceptive.ȱTheyȱareȱlikeȱtheȱhornsȱofȱa
wantonȱlamb,ȱbecauseȱtheyȱinviteȱtoȱwantonnessȱandȱyetȱinȱtheȱendȱleadȱtoȱinsolence.12
Asȱtoȱfornication,ȱtheȱauthorȱoffersȱtheȱfollowing,ȱnotȱunexpectedȱcomments:
Peopleȱwhoȱclaimȱthatȱsimpleȱfornicationȱisȱnotȱaȱmortalȱsinȱbecauseȱitȱisȱaȱnaturalȱact
haveȱtoȱbeȱshownȱtheȱfollowingȱthreeȱargumentsȱinȱorder:ȱfirst,ȱthatȱitȱisȱabsolutely
forbidden;ȱsecond,ȱthatȱitȱmustȱbeȱcompletelyȱrejected;ȱandȱthird,ȱthatȱitȱhasȱbeenȱcalled
“diabolical”ȱbyȱtheȱLord.13
Respondingȱtoȱsomeȱpeople’sȱcommentsȱthatȱtheyȱareȱcompelledȱtoȱfornication,ȱhe
repliesȱthatȱtheyȱareȱeitherȱinȱtheȱclutchesȱofȱtheȱdevil,ȱorȱinȱthoseȱofȱaȱwoman,ȱor
inȱthatȱofȱtheirȱownȱflesh,ȱandȱagainstȱeachȱofȱtheseȱthereȱareȱwaysȱtoȱcombatȱthe
temptation,ȱirrespectiveȱofȱtheȱfundamentalȱtruth:ȱ“itȱfollowsȱthatȱaȱmanȱisȱledȱto
commitȱfornicationȱbyȱtheȱwickednessȱofȱhisȱownȱfleshȱandȱnotȱthroughȱanyone
else.”14ȱMoreȱinterestingly,ȱtheȱpreacherȬauthorȱnotȱonlyȱexaminesȱtheȱlargerȱissues
pertainingȱ toȱ sexuality,ȱ heȱ alsoȱ investigatesȱ theȱ implicationsȱ andȱ necessary
punishmentsȱofȱrapeȱ(VII.viii);ȱadulteryȱ(VII.ix);ȱincestȱ(VII.x);ȱandȱsodomyȱ(VII.xi),
obviouslyȱfullyȱawareȱofȱtheȱrealityȱwithinȱhisȱownȱparishȱandȱtryingȱtoȱprovide
theologicalȱ andȱ legalȱ argumentsȱ forȱ hisȱ audience,ȱ otherȱ preachers.15ȱ Butȱ the
problemȱ becameȱ acerbatedȱ byȱ theȱ lateȱ Middleȱ Agesȱ whenȱ increasinglyȱ priests
themselvesȱwereȱoftenȱaccusedȱofȱhavingȱbeenȱinvolvedȱinȱsexualȱtransgressions.
Notȱsurprisingly,ȱtheȱdelegatesȱtoȱtheȱCouncilȱofȱTrentȱ(1545–1563)ȱvotedȱforȱa
muchȱmoreȱ“repressiveȱmachineryȱ.ȱ.ȱ.ȱtoȱenforceȱtheȱlegislationȱpassedȱatȱTrent.”
TheȱreasonsȱwereȱmanyȬfold,ȱamongȱthemȱtheȱgrowingȱnumberȱofȱwomenȱwho
wentȱtoȱconfessionȱandȱwhoȱwereȱthusȱmoreȱsubjectȱtoȱsexualȱsolicitationȱthanȱever
before.16ȱAlthoughȱtheȱInquisitionȱintensifiedȱitsȱwork,ȱaimingȱatȱeradicatingȱthe
immoralȱbehaviorȱofȱtheȱpriests,ȱnumerousȱfactorsȱcameȱintoȱplayȱtoȱundermine
theȱveryȱeffortsȱevenȱlongȱafterȱtheȱMiddleȱAges.ȱAsȱStephenȱHaliczerȱobserves,
12
QuotedȱfromȱFasciculumȱMorum:ȱAȱFourteenthȬCenturyȱPreacher’sȱHandbook,ȱed.ȱandȱtrans.ȱSiegfried
Wenzelȱ(UniversityȱParkȱandȱLondon:ȱTheȱPennsylvaniaȱStateȱUniversityȱPress,ȱ1989),ȱVII.vi,ȱ665.
13
FasciculumȱMorum,ȱVII.vi,ȱ669.
14
FasciculumȱMorum,ȱVII.vi,ȱ675.
15
SeeȱalsoȱtheȱcontributionsȱtoȱHandlingȱSin:ȱConfessionȱinȱtheȱMiddleȱAges,ȱed.ȱPeterȱBillerȱandȱA.ȱJ.
Minnis.ȱYorkȱStudiesȱinȱMedievalȱTheology,ȱIIȱ(York:ȱYorkȱMedievalȱPress;ȱWoodbridge,ȱSuffolk,
andȱRochester,ȱNY:ȱBoydellȱ&ȱBrewer,ȱ1998);ȱforȱaȱbroadȱselectionȱofȱrelevantȱpassagesȱinȱvarious
penitentials,ȱseeȱMedievalȱHandbooksȱofȱPenance.ȱAȱtrans.ȱofȱtheȱprincipalȱlibriȱpoenitentialesȱand
selectionsȱfromȱrelatedȱdocumentsȱbyȱJohnȱT.ȱMcNeillȱandȱHelenaȱM.ȱGamerȱ(NewȱYork:ȱOctagon
Books,ȱ1979).ȱTheyȱdoȱnotȱincludeȱaȱreferenceȱtoȱ‘sex’ȱinȱtheirȱindex,ȱbutȱinsteadȱtheyȱlistȱthe
individualȱsexualȱtransgressionsȱunderȱtheirȱspecificȱterms,ȱsuchȱasȱ‘masturbation,’ȱ‘sodomy,’ȱor
‘prostitution.’ȱ
16
StephenȱHaliczer,ȱSexualityȱinȱtheȱConfessional:ȱAȱSacramentȱProfaned.ȱStudiesȱinȱtheȱHistoryȱof
Sexualityȱ(NewȱYorkȱandȱOxford:ȱOxfordȱUniversityȱPress,ȱ1996),ȱ4.
“moreȱthanȱtwoȱandȱoneȬhalfȱcenturiesȱofȱpersecutionȱbyȱtheȱHolyȱOfficeȱfailedȱto
endȱtheȱproblemȱofȱsolicitationȱinȱspiteȱofȱtheȱfactȱthatȱfewȱpriestsȱcouldȱplead
ignoranceȱ ofȱ theȱ lawsȱ againstȱ it.ȱ Ifȱ anything,ȱ byȱ focusingȱ attentionȱ onȱ the
confessionalȱasȱaȱvenueȱforȱsexualȱactivity,ȱtheȱInquisitionȱmayȱhaveȱeroticized
confession.”17ȱ
Inȱfact,ȱtheȱproblemȱhasȱneverȱceased,ȱandȱcontinuesȱtoȱvexȱtheȱCatholicȱChurch
evenȱtoday:ȱ“InȱtheȱpresentȬdayȱChurch,ȱsexualȱscandalsȱcontinue,ȱbutȱtheyȱstem
entirelyȱ fromȱ theȱ continuedȱ insistenceȱ onȱ celibacyȱ andȱ takeȱ placeȱ inȱ locations
outsideȱtheȱorbitȱofȱconfession,ȱinȱseminaries,ȱschools,ȱorȱapartments.”18ȱThisȱseems
evenȱmoreȱsurprisingȱconsideringȱtheȱlongȱhistoryȱofȱtheȱstruggleȱofȱtheȱChurch
againstȱtheȱbodyȱandȱsexualityȱasȱtheȱmostȱdangerousȱaspectsȱforȱtheȱsalvationȱof
theȱhumanȱsoul.ȱFromȱearlyȱonȱtheȱclericalȱdiscourseȱ“acceptedȱsexualȱactivityȱin
marriageȱasȱnecessary,ȱperhapsȱevenȱcapableȱofȱsomeȱgood,ȱbutȱatȱtheȱsameȱtime
wasȱ oftenȱpermeatedȱwithȱdistrustȱofȱtheȱbodyȱ andȱitsȱpassion.”19ȱTheȱChurch
Fathers,ȱforȱinstance,ȱregardedȱ“women’sȱreproductiveȱorgansȱandȱtheȱprocessȱof
childbirthȱ[as]ȱ.ȱ.ȱ.ȱespeciallyȱdirtyȱandȱdisgusting.ȱ.ȱ.ȱ.ȱJeromeȱdepictedȱchildbirth
asȱaȱdisgustingȱaffairȱmarkedȱbyȱunpleasantnessȱandȱimpurity.”20ȱTertullianȱ(ca.
160–226)ȱvehementlyȱobjectedȱtoȱwomen’sȱattractiveȱappearanceȱandȱdemanded
thatȱ theyȱ putȱ onȱ nothingȱ butȱ penitentialȱ garbȱ inȱ reflectionȱ ofȱ theȱ sinfulness
committedȱ byȱ theȱ firstȱ woman,ȱ Eve.ȱ Jeromeȱ (ca.ȱ 340–420)ȱ revealedȱ howȱ much
sexualȱfantasiesȱplaguedȱhimȱinȱhisȱdesertȱisolation:ȱ“Myȱfaceȱwasȱpaleȱandȱmy
frameȱchilledȱwithȱfasting;ȱyetȱmyȱmindȱwasȱburningȱwithȱdesire,ȱandȱtheȱfiresȱof
lustȱkeptȱbubblingȱupȱbeforeȱmeȱwhenȱmyȱfleshȱwasȱasȱgoodȱasȱdead.”21ȱ
St.ȱAugustineȱ(354–430),ȱonȱtheȱotherȱhand,ȱinȱexplicitȱoppositionȱtoȱwideȬspread
Manicheanȱideologyȱwhichȱwasȱopposedȱtoȱallȱsexualityȱinȱaȱradicalȱrejectionȱof
everythingȱthatȱcouldȱdestroyȱtheȱpowerȱofȱdivineȱlight,ȱapprovedȱofȱmarriageȱas
17
Haliczer,ȱSexualityȱinȱtheȱConfessional,ȱ207.
18
Haliczer,ȱSexualityȱinȱtheȱConfessional,ȱ208.
19
PaulaȱM.ȱRieder,ȱOnȱtheȱPurificationȱofȱWomen:ȱChurchingȱinȱNorthernȱFrance,ȱ1100–1500.ȱTheȱNew
MiddleȱAgesȱ(NewȱYorkȱandȱHoundmills,ȱBasingstoke,ȱHampshire:ȱPalgraveȱMacmillan,ȱ2006),
20.ȱSeeȱalsoȱtheȱseminalȱstudyȱonȱthisȱsubject,ȱPeterȱBrown,ȱTheȱBodyȱandȱSociety:ȱMen,ȱWomen,ȱand
SexualȱRenunciationȱinȱEarlyȱChristianityȱ(NewȱYork:ȱColumbiaȱUniversityȱPress,ȱ1988).
20
Rieder,ȱOnȱtheȱPurificationȱofȱWomen,ȱ21.ȱSheȱalsoȱemphasizes:ȱ“Officialȱteachingȱonȱsexualȱmatters
forȱ theȱ laityȱ consideredȱ intercourseȱ appropriateȱ onlyȱ betweenȱ husbandȱ andȱ wife.ȱ Theȱ social
reality,ȱhowever,ȱwasȱdifferent.ȱTheȱsexualȱuseȱofȱslaveȱwomenȱandȱtheȱabilityȱofȱhigherȬstatus
menȱ toȱ haveȱ aȱ wifeȱ plusȱ oneȱ orȱ moreȱ concubinesȱ meantȱ thatȱ unmarriedȱ mothersȱ wereȱ not
uncommon.ȱCanonȱsettingȱpenancesȱforȱmenȱwhoȱviolatedȱconsecratedȱwomenȱsuggestsȱanother
situationȱinȱwhichȱanȱunmarriedȱwoman,ȱevenȱaȱnun,ȱmightȱbecomeȱaȱmother.ȱTheȱpenitentials,
whichȱwereȱdesignedȱaboveȱallȱforȱpracticalȱuse,ȱincludedȱtheȱecclesiasticalȱidealȱofȱintercourse
betweenȱmarriedȱcouplesȱbutȱalsoȱtheȱrealityȱofȱculticȱimpurityȱposedȱbyȱallȱmothers”ȱ(26–27).
21
GenderȱandȱSexualityȱinȱtheȱMiddleȱAges:ȱAȱMedievalȱSourceȱDocumentsȱReader,ȱed.ȱMarthaȱA.ȱBroČyna
(Jefferson,ȱNC,ȱandȱLondon:ȱMcFarlandȱ&ȱCompany,ȱ2005),ȱ25–27.
6 AlbrechtȱClassen
aȱsaveȱhavenȱforȱpeopleȱtoȱliveȱoutȱtheirȱsexualȱdesiresȱinȱanȱacceptableȱmannerȱif
theȱintercourseȱservedȱonlyȱtoȱbegetȱchildren:ȱ
Marriageȱhasȱalsoȱthisȱgood,ȱthatȱcarnalȱorȱyouthfulȱincontinence,ȱevenȱifȱitȱisȱbad,ȱis
turnedȱtoȱtheȱhonorableȱtaskȱofȱbegettingȱchildren,ȱsoȱthatȱmaritalȱintercourseȱmakes
somethingȱgoodȱoutȱofȱtheȱevilȱofȱlust.ȱFinally,ȱtheȱconcupiscenceȱofȱtheȱflesh,ȱwhich
parentalȱaffectionȱtempers,ȱisȱrepressedȱandȱbecomesȱinflamedȱmoreȱmodestly.ȱForȱa
kindȱofȱdignityȱprevailsȱwhen,ȱasȱhusbandȱandȱwifeȱtheyȱuniteȱinȱtheȱmarriageȱact,ȱthey
thinkȱofȱthemselvesȱasȱmotherȱandȱfather.22
Further,ȱinȱhisȱtreatiseȱonȱContinence,ȱAugustineȱemphasized
Theȱbodyȱisȱbyȱnatureȱcertainlyȱopposedȱtoȱtheȱsoul,ȱbutȱitȱisȱnotȱalienȱtoȱtheȱnatureȱof
man.ȱTheȱsoulȱisȱnotȱmadeȱupȱofȱtheȱbody,ȱbutȱmanȱisȱmadeȱupȱofȱsoulȱandȱbody,ȱand
surely,ȱwhomȱGodȱsetsȱfreeȱHeȱsetsȱfreeȱasȱaȱwholeȱman.ȱWhen,ȱtheȱSaviorȱHimself
assumedȱaȱwholeȱhumanȱnature,ȱdeigningȱtoȱfreeȱinȱusȱtheȱwholeȱthatȱHeȱhadȱmade.
.ȱ .ȱ .ȱ [N]otȱ everyoneȱ whoȱ restrainsȱ something,ȱ orȱ evenȱ oneȱ whoȱ restrainsȱ theȱ very
delightsȱofȱtheȱfleshȱorȱmindȱinȱaȱmarvelousȱmanner,ȱmustȱbeȱsaidȱtoȱpossessȱthat
continenceȱwhoseȱutilityȱandȱbeautyȱweȱhaveȱbeenȱdiscussing.23
Finally,ȱ inȱ hisȱ Cityȱ ofȱ God,ȱ Augustineȱ offeredȱ aȱ detailedȱ discussionȱ ofȱ the
theologicalȱmeaningȱofȱmarriage,ȱhenceȱalsoȱofȱsexuality:
Sinceȱtheseȱthingsȱareȱso,ȱweȱseeȱthatȱmarriage,ȱasȱmarriage,ȱisȱgood,ȱandȱman,ȱbeȱhe
bornȱofȱmarriageȱorȱofȱadultery,ȱisȱgoodȱinȱsoȱfarȱasȱheȱisȱman,ȱbecause,ȱinȱsoȱfarȱasȱhe
isȱaȱman,ȱheȱisȱtheȱworkȱofȱGod;ȱyet,ȱbecauseȱgeneratedȱwithȱandȱfromȱtheȱevilȱwhich
conjugalȱchastityȱusesȱwell,ȱitȱisȱnecessaryȱthatȱheȱbeȱfreedȱfromȱtheȱbondȱofȱthisȱevil
byȱregeneration.ȱ(III,ȱ22)24
2.ȱPrivateȱLifeȱinȱtheȱMiddleȱAgesȱandȱtheȱRenaissance
Undoubtedly,ȱ people’sȱ privateȱ livesȱ inȱ theȱ pastȱ carryȱ asȱ muchȱ weightȱ asȱ their
publicȱlivesȱbecauseȱbothȱinfluenceȱeachȱotherȱprofoundly.ȱIndividualȱhappiness
resulting,ȱforȱinstance,ȱfromȱsexualȱfulfillment,ȱcanȱhaveȱaȱtremendousȱimpactȱon
politicalȱdecisions,ȱeconomicȱnegotiations,ȱreligiousȱdisputes,ȱandȱallȱkindsȱofȱother
humanȱinteractions.ȱWeȱknowȱthatȱsexualȱperformanceȱbeforeȱanȱathleticȱeventȱis
oftenȱ strictlyȱ forbiddenȱ todayȱ becauseȱ itȱ negativelyȱ influencesȱ theȱ public
22
Quotedȱ fromȱ Genderȱ andȱ Sexuality,ȱ 32;ȱ seeȱ alsoȱ Sexuality,ȱ ed.ȱ Robertȱ A.ȱ Nye.ȱ Oxfordȱ Readers
(Oxford:ȱOxfordȱUniversityȱPress,ȱ1999),ȱwhichȱcontainsȱtextȱexcerptsȱfromȱrecentȱrelevantȱstudies
thatȱalsoȱaddressȱtheȱissueȱofȱsexualityȱinȱearlyȱChristianityȱandȱtheȱMiddleȱAges.
23
St.ȱAugustineȱonȱMarriageȱandȱSexuality,ȱed.ȱElizabethȱA.ȱClark.ȱSelectionsȱfromȱtheȱFathersȱofȱthe
Church,ȱ1ȱ(Washington,ȱDC:ȱTheȱCatholicȱUniversityȱofȱAmericaȱPress,ȱ1996),ȱ34.
24
St.ȱAugustineȱonȱMarriageȱandȱSexuality,ȱ90.
performance.25ȱAnȱunhappyȱmarriage,ȱperhapsȱasȱtheȱresultȱofȱanȱunsatisfactory
sexualȱrelationship,ȱwouldȱcertainlyȱhaveȱinfluenceȱonȱhowȱtheȱindividualȱpartner
behavesȱinȱpublic,ȱpossiblyȱleadingȱtoȱaggressivenessȱandȱrevengefulness.ȱ
Sinceȱtimeȱimmemorialȱmarriageȱhasȱregularlyȱbeenȱregarded,ȱatȱleastȱinȱthe
Westernȱworld,ȱasȱaȱsafeȱhavenȱforȱsexuality.ȱAlthoughȱcelibacyȱandȱabstinence
wereȱ consideredȱ ofȱ highestȱ valueȱ withinȱ theȱ Christianȱ Church,ȱ alreadyȱ the
apostles,ȱ foremostȱ St.ȱ Paulȱ amongȱ them,ȱ hadȱ realizedȱ thatȱ marriageȱ wasȱ a
necessaryȱevil,ȱorȱrather,ȱcompromise:ȱ“Itȱisȱbetterȱtoȱmarryȱthanȱtoȱburnȱ[with
desire].”ȱ Further,ȱ aȱ “husbandȱ shouldȱ giveȱ toȱ hisȱ wifeȱ herȱ conjugalȱ rights,ȱ and
likewiseȱtheȱwifeȱtoȱherȱhusbandȱ.ȱ.ȱ.ȱ.ȱDoȱnotȱrefuseȱoneȱanotherȱexceptȱperhaps
byȱagreementȱforȱaȱseason,ȱthatȱyouȱmayȱdevoteȱyourselvesȱtoȱprayer;ȱbutȱthen
comeȱtogetherȱagain,ȱlestȱSatanȱtemptȱyouȱthroughȱlackȱofȱselfȬcontrol”ȱ(IȱCor.ȱ7,
9ȱandȱ3–5).26ȱ
Theȱ realȱ question,ȱ however,ȱ isȱ aȱ matterȱ ofȱ rankingȱ theseȱ areasȱ inȱ termsȱ of
importance,ȱwhetherȱtheȱstudyȱofȱaȱbattleȱorȱofȱaȱpogromȱmightȱbeȱmoreȱimportant
thanȱ theȱ historyȱ ofȱ emotionsȱ amongȱ husbandȱ andȱ wife,ȱ parentsȱ andȱ children,
25
MichaelȱThomson,ȱEndowed:ȱRegulatingȱtheȱMaleȱSexedȱBody.ȱDiscoursesȱofȱtheȱLawȱ(NewȱYork:
Routledge,ȱ2007).ȱForȱrecent,ȱmostȱcontroversialȱdiscussionsȱpertainingȱtoȱhormonalȱandȱchemical
aspectsȱregardingȱtheȱquestionȱwhetherȱsexualȱactivityȱbeforeȱanȱathleticȱcompetitionȱreducesȱthe
energyȱlevelȱandȱstrength,ȱorȱwhetherȱitȱmightȱhaveȱtheȱveryȱoppositeȱeffect,ȱsee,ȱforȱexample,ȱthe
journalisticȱarticlesȱthatȱcouldȱbeȱeasilyȱmultipliedȱbyȱtheȱhundredsȱ(andȱhenceȱareȱnotȱnecessarily
reliableȱorȱretrievable,ȱȱonlineȱat:ȱhttp://misterscience.blogspot.com/2007/08/sexȬbeforeȬsport.html;
http://www.salzburg.com/sn/schwerpunkte/gesundheit/artikel/303232.html;
orhttp://www.gesundheitpro.de/SportȬStimmtȬesȬdassȬSexȬvorȬRatȬundȬHilfeȬA050805ANON
D019130.htmlȱ(lastȱaccessedȱonȱMarchȱ31,ȱ2008);ȱseeȱalsoȱSportsȱMeetsȱMedicineȱ:ȱUrologieȱundȱSport:
Lifestyle,ȱSexualität,ȱOnkologieȱundȱSport,ȱed.ȱFrankȱSommerȱandȱC.ȱGrafȱ(Göttingen:ȱCuvillier,ȱ2002).
SeeȱalsoȱtheȱcontributionȱtoȱthisȱvolumeȱbyȱAndrewȱHolt.
26
Thisȱhasȱbeenȱdiscussedȱmanyȱtimes,ȱsee,ȱforȱinstance,ȱReayȱTannahill,ȱSexȱinȱHistoryȱ(NewȱYork:
SteinȱandȱDay,ȱ1980),ȱ138–39.ȱForȱtheȱbyȱnowȱrichȱcorpusȱofȱcriticalȱstudiesȱdealingȱwithȱvirtually
everyȱfacetȱofȱsexuality,ȱincludingȱtransgressions,ȱdeviantȱpracticesȱ(accordingȱtoȱcontemporary
heterosexualȱ normativity),ȱ allegedlyȱ sinfulȱ behavior,ȱ andȱ soȱ forth,ȱ seeȱ Handbookȱ ofȱ Medieval
Sexuality,ȱ ed.ȱ Vernȱ L.ȱ Bulloughȱ andȱ Jamesȱ A.ȱ Brundage.ȱ Garlandȱ Referenceȱ Libraryȱ ofȱ the
Humanities,ȱ1696ȱ(NewȱYorkȱandȱLondon:ȱGarland,ȱ1996).ȱTheyȱcover,ȱinȱgeneralȱterms,ȱtheȱthree
majorȱcategories:ȱ1.ȱsexualȱnorms;ȱ2.ȱvarianceȱfromȱnorms;ȱ3.ȱculturalȱissues.ȱWithinȱthisȱgamut,
weȱcanȱfindȱanyȱtopicȱofȱrelevanceȱbothȱthenȱandȱtoday,ȱwhetherȱweȱturnȱtoȱprostitution,ȱabortion,
contraception,ȱcastration,ȱhomosexuality,ȱlesbianism,ȱJewishȱandȱIslamicȱconceptsȱofȱsexuality,
chastity,ȱandȱsoȱforth.ȱSeeȱalsoȱSexȱinȱtheȱMiddleȱAges:ȱAȱBookȱofȱEssays,ȱed.ȱJoyceȱE.ȱSalisbury.
GarlandȱReferenceȱLibraryȱofȱtheȱHumanities,ȱ1360ȱ(NewȱYorkȱandȱLondon:ȱGarland,ȱ1991).ȱHere
theȱlargerȱissuesȱare:ȱ1.ȱcourtship;ȱ2.ȱdisclosure;ȱ3.ȱdiversity;ȱandȱ4.ȱpublicȱimplications.ȱAnȱeven
widerȱsweepȱdeterminesȱtheȱcollectionȱofȱarticlesȱinȱWesternȱSexuality:ȱPracticeȱandȱPreceptȱinȱPast
andȱPresentȱTimes,ȱed.ȱPhilippeȱArièsȱandȱAndréȱBéjin.ȱTrans.ȱAnthonyȱForster.ȱFamily,ȱSexuality
andȱSocialȱRelationsȱinȱPastȱTimesȱ(1982;ȱOxfordȱandȱNewȱYork:ȱBasilȱBlackwell,ȱ1985).ȱHereȱthe
discussionȱ ofȱ sexualityȱ jumpsȱ fromȱ investigationsȱ ofȱ St.ȱ Paul’sȱ viewpointsȱ (Ariès)ȱ to
homosexualityȱinȱhistoryȱ(Ariès)ȱtoȱprostitutionȱinȱfifteenthȬcenturyȱFranceȱ(JacquesȱRossiaud)ȱand
theȱcourtesanȱinȱsixteenthȬcenturyȱVeniceȱ(AchilloȱOlivieri).ȱ
8 AlbrechtȱClassen
lovers,ȱandȱsoȱforth.ȱShouldȱweȱratherȱfocusȱonȱeconomicȱandȱmilitaryȱdata,ȱand
onȱphilosophicalȱandȱtheologicalȱtextsȱthanȱonȱdocumentsȱinȱwhichȱhumanȱdesire
forȱsexualityȱcomesȱtoȱtheȱfore?27ȱToȱraiseȱthisȱquestionȱisȱtantamountȱtoȱdenying
it,ȱ asȱ aȱ floodȱ ofȱ recentȱ scholarshipȱ hasȱ amplyȱ demonstrated,28ȱ thoroughly
examiningȱissuesȱpertainingȱtoȱlove,ȱmarriage,ȱsexuality,ȱperversion,ȱandȱallȱkinds
ofȱtransgressions.29
Byȱnow,ȱfortunately,ȱitȱamountsȱtoȱcarryingȱproverbialȱowlsȱtoȱAthensȱtoȱstate
thatȱtheȱhistoryȱofȱmentalityȱandȱofȱeverydayȱlifeȱisȱasȱimportant,ȱifȱnotȱevenȱmore
so,ȱasȱtheȱhistoryȱofȱwarfare,ȱpoliticalȱnegotiations,ȱtheȱestablishmentȱofȱpower
structures,ȱ ofȱ theȱ formationȱ ofȱ nations,ȱ religion,ȱ theȱ arts,ȱ andȱ literature.30ȱ All
people’sȱactionsȱareȱsomehowȱmotivatedȱbyȱsomething,ȱsoȱitȱwouldȱbeȱfoolishȱto
ignoreȱbasicȱinstincts,ȱurges,ȱneeds,ȱemotions,ȱdesires,ȱfantasies,ȱandȱtheȱlikeȱasȱthe
basisȱofȱspecificȱactions,ȱattitudes,ȱideas,ȱconcepts,ȱvalueȱsystems,ȱandȱethicalȱand
moralȱ norms.ȱ Evenȱ theȱ medievalȱ acknowledgedȱ theȱ positiveȱ andȱ constructive
valueȱofȱmarriageȱasȱanȱinstitutionȱwhereȱsexualityȱcouldȱbeȱlivedȱout.31ȱSocialȱand
culturalȱhistoriansȱconstantlyȱstriveȱtoȱprobeȱdeeperȱandȱtoȱdecipherȱmoreȱinȱdepth
theȱ reasonsȱ thatȱ ledȱ toȱ specificȱ decisions,ȱ theȱ underlyingȱ purposesȱ ofȱ specific
actions,ȱandȱtheȱanxietiesȱorȱfearsȱthatȱdroveȱindividualsȱtoȱdisplayȱindividual
behavior.ȱSoȱitȱhasȱbecomeȱentirelyȱlegitimateȱtoȱinvestigateȱtheȱmeaningȱofȱanger,
forȱ instance,ȱ orȱ fear,ȱ sorrow,ȱ pain,ȱ attitudesȱ towardȱ oldȱ age,ȱ children,ȱ the
27
RobertȱM.ȱStein,ȱRealityȱFictions:ȱRomance,ȱHistory,ȱandȱGovernmentalȱAuthority,ȱ1025Ȭ1185ȱ(Notre
Dame:ȱUniversityȱofȱIndianaȱPress,ȱ2006).ȱKathyȱM.ȱKrause,ȱinȱherȱreviewȱ(TheȱMedievalȱReview.
08.08.03;ȱinternet),ȱpoignantlyȱcomments:ȱheȱchallengesȱtwoȱ‘classic’ȱgenericȱparadigmsȱofȱliterary
history,ȱnamely:ȱtheȱseparationȱofȱhistoriographicalȱfromȱ‘fictional’ȱnarrativesȱandȱtheȱideaȱofȱa
linearȱdevelopmentȱfromȱepicȱtoȱromance.ȱAlthoughȱhisȱfocusȱisȱclearlyȱpolitical,ȱheȱemphasizes
thatȱhisȱprojectȱisȱnotȱconcernedȱwithȱnarratingȱ‘theȱtrajectoryȱofȱpoliticalȱchangeȱinȱitself’ȱbut
ratherȱheȱisȱinterestedȱinȱ‘theȱpressuresȱonȱmodesȱofȱrepresentationȱthatȱareȱcorrelativeȱtoȱchanges
inȱtheȱstructureȱofȱpoliticalȱpower.’ȱ(2).ȱItȱisȱthisȱlastȱstatementȱthatȱisȱtheȱkeyȱtoȱStein’sȱanalysis.
28
PhilippeȱBraunstein,ȱ“TowardȱIntimacy:ȱTheȱFourteenthȱandȱFifteenthȱCenturies,”ȱRevelationsȱof
theȱMedievalȱWorld,ȱ535–630;ȱregardingȱmakingȱlove,ȱmarriage,ȱcareȱofȱtheȱbody,ȱandȱtheȱlike,ȱsee
589–610.
29
SeeȱnowȱtheȱexcellentȱoverviewȱbyȱShannonȱMcSheffrey,ȱMarriage,ȱSex,ȱandȱCivicȱCultureȱinȱLate
MedievalȱLondon.ȱTheȱMiddleȱAgesȱSeriesȱ(Philadelphia:ȱUniversityȱofȱPennsylvaniaȱPress,ȱ2006),
thoughȱhere,ȱasȱsoȱoften,ȱtheȱfocusȱrestsȱonȱtheȱpragmatic,ȱlegal,ȱsocial,ȱreligious,ȱandȱeconomic
aspects,ȱnotȱsoȱmuchȱonȱtheȱspecificȱexperienceȱofȱsexuality.ȱCf.ȱtheȱdetailedȱreviewȱbyȱPhilip
DayleaderȱinȱTheȱMedievalȱReviewȱ07–06–16ȱ(onlineȱat:
http://quod.lib.umich.edu/cgi/t/text/textȬidx?c=tmr;cc=tmr;q1=McSheffrey;rgn=main;view=text;
idno=baj9928.0706.016).
30
ȱ Seeȱ theȱ variousȱ contributionsȱ toȱ Europäischeȱ Mentalitätsgeschichte:ȱ Hauptthemenȱ in
Einzeldarstellungen,ȱed.ȱPeterȱDinzelbacher.ȱKrönersȱTaschenausgabe,ȱ469ȱ(Stuttgart:ȱKröner,ȱ1993).
31
PierreȱJ.ȱPayer,ȱTheȱBridlingȱofȱDesire:ȱViewsȱofȱSexȱinȱtheȱLaterȱMiddleȱAgesȱ(TorontoȱandȱBuffalo:
UniversityȱofȱTorontoȱPress,ȱ1993),ȱ68–83,ȱetȱpassim;ȱGuidoȱRuggiero,ȱBindingȱPassionsȱ:ȱTalesȱof
Magic,ȱMarriage,ȱandȱPowerȱatȱtheȱEndȱofȱtheȱRenaissanceȱ(NewȱYork:ȱOxfordȱUniversityȱPress,ȱ1993).
experienceȱ ofȱ joyȱ andȱ happiness,ȱ andȱ theȱ relationship,ȱ orȱ lackȱ thereof,ȱ with
foreigners,ȱminorities,ȱandȱ“deviantȱgroups”ȱ(whateverȱthatȱmightȱmean).32ȱ
3.ȱHistoryȱofȱEmotionsȱWithinȱtheȱContextȱofȱSexuality
ȱ
Althoughȱallȱemotionsȱconsistȱofȱaȱhighlyȱcomplexȱsetȱofȱfacets,ȱmakingȱthemȱsome
ofȱ theȱ mostȱ difficultȱ studyȱ objects,ȱ thereȱ areȱ incrediblyȱ expressiveȱ documents
availableȱ inȱ thisȱ field,ȱ suchȱ asȱ literaryȱ documents,ȱ musicalȱ compositions,ȱ and
artisticȱproductions.33ȱPeterȱN.ȱStearnsȱdefinesȱtheȱpurposeȱandȱgoalsȱofȱtheȱhistory
32
EmotionsȱandȱSensibilitiesȱinȱtheȱMiddleȱAges,ȱed.ȱC.ȱStephenȱJaegerȱandȱIngridȱKasten.ȱTrendsȱin
MedievalȱPhilology,ȱ1ȱ(BerlinȱandȱNewȱ York:ȱ deȱ Gruyter,ȱ2003);ȱseeȱalsoȱMarthaȱNussbaum,
Upheavalsȱ ofȱ Thought:ȱ Theȱ Intelligenceȱ ofȱ Emotionsȱ (Cambridgeȱ andȱ Newȱ York:ȱ Cambridge
UniversityȱPress,ȱ2001);ȱBarbaraȱH.ȱRosenwein,ȱEmotionalȱCommunitiesȱinȱtheȱEarlyȱMiddleȱAges
(Ithacaȱ andȱ London:ȱ Cornellȱ Universityȱ Press,ȱ 2006);ȱ Albrechtȱ Classen,ȱ “Angerȱ andȱ Anger
ManagementȱinȱtheȱMiddleȱAges:ȱMentalȬHistoricalȱPerspectives,”ȱMediavistikȱ19ȱ(2006):ȱ21–50;
id.,ȱ“RitualeȱdesȱTrauernsȱalsȱSinnstiftungȱundȱethischeȱTransformationȱdesȱeigenenȱDaseinsȱim
agonalenȱRaumȱderȱhöfischenȱWelt.ȱZweiȱFallstudien:ȱDiuȱKlageȱundȱMaiȱundȱBeaflor,”ȱZeitschrift
fürȱLiteraturwissenschaftȱundȱLinguistikȱ36ȱ(2006):ȱ30–54;ȱseeȱalsoȱtheȱotherȱcontributionsȱtoȱthis
volume.
33
PeterȱN.ȱStearnsȱandȱCarolȱZ.ȱStearns,ȱ“Emotionality:ȱClarifyingȱtheȱHistoryȱofȱEmotionsȱand
EmotionalȱStandards,”ȱAmericanȱHistoricalȱReviewȱ90,ȱ4–5ȱ(1985):ȱ813–36;ȱKulturenȱderȱGefühleȱin
MittelalterȱundȱFrüherȱNeuzeit,ȱed.ȱIngridȱKasten,ȱGesaȱStedmann,ȱandȱMargareteȱZimmermann.
Querelles,ȱ7ȱ(StuttgartȱandȱWeimar:ȱMetzler,ȱ2002).ȱWilliamȱM.ȱReddy,ȱTheȱNavigationȱofȱFeeling:
AȱFrameworkȱforȱtheȱHistoryȱofȱEmotionsȱ(CambridgeȱandȱNewȱYork:ȱCambridgeȱUniversityȱPress,
2001),ȱexamines,ȱafterȱaȱcriticalȱanalysisȱofȱwhatȱemotionsȱreallyȱmeanȱfromȱanȱanthropological
andȱ psychologicalȱ perspective,ȱ theȱ historyȱ ofȱ emotionsȱ inȱ earlyȱ modernȱ Franceȱ andȱ beyond.
Another,ȱmostȱintriguing,ȱaspectȱwouldȱbeȱlaughterȱasȱaȱmostȱpowerfulȱexpressionȱofȱemotions.
Touchedȱuponȱbyȱmanyȱscholars,ȱthereȱareȱnoȱgoodȱstudiesȱonȱthisȱtopicȱyet,ȱsee,ȱforȱinstance,ȱthe
preliminaryȱinvestigationȱbyȱJacquesȱLeȱGoff,ȱ“LaughterȱinȱtheȱMiddleȱAges,”ȱAȱCulturalȱHistory
ofȱ Humour:ȱ Fromȱ Antiquityȱ toȱ theȱ Presentȱ Day,ȱ ed.ȱ Janȱ Bremmerȱ andȱ Hermanȱ Roodenburg
(Cambridge,ȱ Oxford,ȱ andȱ Malden,ȱ MA:ȱ Polityȱ Pressȱ andȱ Blackwell,ȱ 1997),ȱ 40–53;ȱ Komische
Gegenwelten:ȱLachenȱundȱLiteraturȱinȱMittelalterȱundȱFrüherȱNeuzeit,ȱed.ȱWernerȱRöckeȱandȱHelga
Neumannȱ(Paderborn,ȱMunich,ȱetȱal.:ȱFerdinandȱSchöningh,ȱ1999);ȱKlausȱGrubmüller,ȱ“Werȱlacht
imȱMäreȱ–ȱundȱwozu?,”ȱLachgemeinschaften:ȱKulturelleȱInszenierungenȱundȱsozialeȱWirkungenȱvon
Gelächterȱ imȱ Mittelalterȱ undȱ inȱ derȱ Frühenȱ Neuzeit,ȱ ed.ȱ Wernerȱ Röckeȱ andȱ Hansȱ Rudolfȱ Velten.
Trendsȱ inȱ Medievalȱ Philology,ȱ 4ȱ (Berlinȱ andȱ Newȱ York:ȱ deȱ Gruyter,ȱ 2005),ȱ 111–22,ȱ argues,
curiously,ȱ thatȱ laughterȱ indicatesȱ anarchyȱ andȱ chaos.ȱ Gerdȱ Althoff,ȱ “Vomȱ Lächelnȱ zum
Verlachen,”ȱibid.,ȱ3–16,ȱassumes,ȱalsoȱhighlyȱquestionably,ȱthatȱlaughterȱrepresentsȱaȱcodified
meansȱofȱcommunicationȱandȱwouldȱhenceȱbeȱtheȱresultȱofȱdeliberateȱsocialȬpoliticalȱstrategiesȱto
establishȱritualȱperformance;ȱforȱaȱcontrastiveȱperspective,ȱseeȱAlbrechtȱClassen,ȱ“Derȱkomische
HeldȱTillȱEulenspiegel:ȱDidaxe,ȱUnterhaltung,ȱKritik,”ȱWirkendesȱWortȱ42,ȱ1ȱ(1992):ȱ13–33.ȱForȱa
moreȱcomplexȱanalysisȱofȱliteraryȱscenesȱwhereȱlaughterȱeruptsȱinȱMiddleȱHighȱGermanȱtexts,ȱsee
SebastianȱCox,ȱ“doȱlacheteȱdieȱgote:ȱZurȱliterarischenȱInszenierungȱdesȱLachensȱinȱderȱhöfischen
Epik,”ȱ WolframȬStudienȱ XVIII.ȱ Erzähltechnikȱ undȱ Erzählstrategienȱ inȱ derȱ deutschenȱ Literaturȱ des
Mittelalters:ȱSaarbrückerȱKolloquiumȱ2002,ȱed.ȱWolfgangȱHaubrichs,ȱEckartȱConradȱLutz,ȱandȱKlaus
Ridderȱ(Berlin:ȱErichȱSchmidt,ȱ2004),ȱ189–210.
10 AlbrechtȱClassen
ofȱemotionsȱasȱfollows:ȱ“Theȱhistoryȱofȱemotionsȱdealsȱwithȱprocessesȱofȱchange
inȱemotionalȱstandardsȱandȱemotionalȱexperiences,ȱor,ȱsomewhatȱmoreȱcomplexly,
withȱ emotionalȱ continuitiesȱ amidȱ changingȱ contextsȱ .ȱ .ȱ .ȱ seekingȱ toȱ graspȱ the
characteristicȱemotionalȱstylesȱofȱaȱparticularȱperiod,ȱinȱandȱofȱthemselves,ȱasȱa
meansȱofȱenrichingȱtheȱportrayalȱofȱthatȱpastȱtimeȱandȱlaunchingȱtheȱprocessȱof
comparingȱoneȱpreviousȱperiodȱtoȱanother.”34ȱ
Emotions,ȱhowever,ȱhaveȱalsoȱaȱmaterialȱbase,ȱwhetherȱinȱhormonesȱorȱinȱother
physiologicalȱreactions.ȱHenceȱtheȱworldȱofȱsexualityȱalsoȱdeservesȱtoȱbeȱstudied
closely;ȱnotȱsurprisinglyȱtheȱcorpusȱofȱrelevantȱscholarshipȱhasȱgrownȱinȱleapsȱand
boundsȱforȱtheȱlastȱtwentyȱyearsȱandȱmore,ȱthoughȱuntilȱtodayȱcommonȱnotions
aboutȱsexualityȱinȱtheȱMiddleȱAgesȱandȱtheȱRenaissanceȱseemedȱtoȱhighlightȱthe
negative,ȱasȱifȱtheȱCatholicȱChurchȱdominatedȱeveryȱaspectȱofȱhumanȱlifeȱandȱwas
highlyȱintolerantȱofȱanyȱsexualȱactȱthatȱdidȱnotȱintendȱtoȱconceiveȱaȱchild.35ȱThe
oppositeȱextremeȱofȱthisȱstereotypeȱcanȱalsoȱbeȱobserved,ȱreflectedȱinȱstudiesȱor
anthologiesȱofȱprimaryȱtextsȱfromȱthatȱtime,ȱarguingȱthatȱitȱwasȱaȱtimeȱofȱutmost
lustfulness,ȱmoralȱdepravity,ȱandȱindividualȱfreedom,ȱasȱperhapsȱbestȱexpressed
byȱCarlȱOrff’sȱmodernȱversionȱofȱtheȱmedievalȱCarminaȱBuranaȱ(firstȱperformedȱin
Frankfurtȱa.ȱM.ȱinȱ1937).36
Ifȱweȱconsiderȱtheȱtremendous,ȱfarȬreachingȱinfluenceȱofȱsexualityȱonȱalmost
everyȱaspectȱofȱmodernȱculture,ȱandȱthenȱtraceȱtheȱhistoryȱofȱthisȱinfluenceȱfurther
back,ȱsuchȱasȱtoȱtheȱMiddleȱAgesȱandȱantiquity,ȱweȱwouldȱhaveȱtoȱrealizeȱthat
thereȱ hasȱ hardlyȱ everȱ beenȱ anyȱ otherȱ innerȱ forceȱ inȱ humanȱ lifeȱ thatȱ impacted
culture,ȱreligion,ȱpolitics,ȱandȱeconomyȱmore—weȱwould,ȱhowever,ȱalsoȱhaveȱto
acknowledgeȱthatȱallȱtheseȱareasȱofȱhumanȱactivitiesȱhaveȱhadȱaȱconstantȱandȱfarȬ
34
PeterȱN.ȱStearns,ȱ“HistoryȱofȱEmotions:ȱIssuesȱofȱChangeȱandȱImpact,”ȱHandbookȱofȱEmotions,ȱed.
Michaelȱ Lewisȱ andȱ Jeannetteȱ M.ȱ HavilandȬJones.ȱ 2ndȱ ed.ȱ (1993;ȱ Newȱ Yorkȱ andȱ London:ȱ The
GuilfordȱPress,ȱ2000),ȱ16–29;ȱhereȱ16.
35
See,ȱforȱinstance,ȱGuidoȱRuggiero,ȱTheȱBoundariesȱofȱEros:ȱSexȱCrimeȱandȱSexualityȱinȱRenaissance
Venice.ȱStudiesȱinȱtheȱHistoryȱofȱSexualityȱ(NewȱYork:ȱOxfordȱUniversityȱPress,ȱ1985);ȱSanderȱL.
Gilman,ȱSexuality:ȱAnȱIllustratedȱHistory.ȱRepresentingȱtheȱSexualȱinȱMedicineȱandȱCultureȱfromȱthe
MiddleȱAgesȱtoȱtheȱAgeȱofȱAIDSȱ(NewȱYork:ȱWiley,ȱ1989);ȱRuthȱMazoȱKarras,ȱCommonȱWomen:
Prostitutionȱ andȱ Sexualityȱ inȱ Medievalȱ England.ȱ Studiesȱ inȱ theȱ Historyȱ ofȱ Sexualityȱ (Newȱ York:
Oxfordȱ Universityȱ Press,ȱ 1996);ȱ Michaelȱ Rocke,ȱ Forbiddenȱ Friendship:ȱ Homosexualityȱ andȱ Male
CultureȱinȱRenaissanceȱFlorence.ȱStudiesȱinȱtheȱHistoryȱofȱSexualityȱ(NewȱYork:ȱOxfordȱUniversity
Press,ȱ 1996);ȱ seeȱ alsoȱ theȱ Journalȱ ofȱ theȱ Historyȱ ofȱ Sexualityȱ 1ȱ (1990),ȱ andȱ everȱ since;ȱ Alejandra
Faúndezȱ Meléndezȱ andȱ Franciscaȱ Sotomayor,ȱ Historiaȱ deȱ laȱ sexualidad:ȱ unaȱ aproximación
históricaȱ([Santiago:]ȱColectivoȱElȱTelar,ȱ1993);ȱWolfgangȱErtler,ȱImȱRauschȱderȱSinnlichkeit:ȱdie
Geschichteȱ derȱ unterdrücktenȱ Lustȱ undȱ dieȱ Visionȱ einerȱ paradiesischenȱ Sexualitätȱ (Kreuzlingen:ȱ H.
Hugendubel,ȱ2001);ȱseeȱalsoȱtheȱolder,ȱbutȱstillȱvaluableȱstudyȱbyȱCarlȱvanȱBolen,ȱGeschichteȱder
Erotik:ȱDasȱgrosseȱStandardwerkȱüberȱdieȱSexualitätȱundȱErotikȱinȱderȱMenschengeschichte.ȱ3rdȱed.ȱDas
HeyneȬSachbuch,ȱ 64ȱ (1966;ȱ Munich:ȱ H.ȱ Heyne,ȱ 1967);ȱ seeȱ alsoȱ JeanȬPierreȱ Poly,ȱ Leȱ cheminȱ des
amoursȱbarbares:ȱgȱenèseȱmédiévaleȱdeȱlaȱsexualitéȱeuropéenneȱ(Paris:ȱPerrin,ȱ2003);ȱFabienneȱCastaȬ
Rosaz,ȱHistoireȱdeȱlaȱsexualitéȱenȱoccidentȱ(Paris:ȱEditionȱdeȱlaȱMartinière,ȱ2004).ȱ
36
ȱhttp://www.inkpot.com/classical/carminaburana.htmlȱ(lastȱaccessedȱonȱMarchȱ31,ȱ2008).
reachingȱimpactȱonȱtheȱwayȱthatȱsexualityȱwasȱviewedȱandȱdealtȱwithȱthroughout
times.37ȱAlthoughȱsometimesȱtheȱsourcesȱdoȱnotȱflowȱrichlyȱenoughȱtoȱmakeȱaȱsolid
case,ȱ evenȱ theȱ publicȱ discourseȱ duringȱ theȱ AngloȬSaxonȱ timesȱ reflectsȱ definite
elementsȱpertainingȱtoȱsexȱandȱsexuality.38ȱNotȱsurprisingly,ȱtheȱCatholicȱChurch,
asȱwellȱasȱmostȱotherȱreligiousȱgroupsȱandȱinstitutionsȱthenȱandȱafterwardsȱasȱwell,
harshlyȱ attackedȱ theȱ lustfulȱ experienceȱ ofȱ sexualityȱ andȱ combatedȱ thisȱ human
experienceȱ asȱ mostȱ sinfulȱ andȱ henceȱ condemnableȱ inȱ theȱ theologicalȱ context,
meaningȱthatȱitȱhadȱtoȱbeȱsuppressedȱatȱalmostȱanyȱcost.39ȱ
Theȱissueȱtoday,ȱhowever,ȱinȱlightȱofȱlongȬtermȱresearchȱeffortsȱreachingȱasȱfar
backȱ asȱ toȱ theȱ earlyȱ twentiethȬcenturyȱ whenȱ Sittengeschichteȱ (theȱ historyȱ of
morality)ȱdominatedȱtheȱpublicȱandȱscholarlyȱdiscourse,ȱorȱtoȱtheȱ1970sȱandȱ80s,
whenȱmedievalistsȱandȱRenaissanceȱscholars,ȱamongȱothers,ȱinfluencedȱtheȱfield,
isȱnoȱlongerȱwhetherȱFreudianȱprinciplesȱcanȱbeȱadducedȱforȱtheȱexaminationȱof
sexualȱpractices,ȱsocialȱresponses,ȱandȱclericalȱreactions.ȱMoreȱimportant,ȱweȱare
calledȱuponȱnowȱtoȱanalyzeȱtheȱfunctionȱwhichȱsexualityȱassumedȱinȱtheȱpastȱin
lightȱ ofȱ newȱ insightsȱ producedȱ byȱ mentalȱ historyȱ (histoireȱ deȱ mentalité,
Mentalitätsgeschichte)ȱandȱsocialȱapproachesȱtoȱmedievalȱandȱearlyȬmodernȱhistory,
asȱoutlined,ȱparadigmatically,ȱbyȱMichelȱFoucaultȱinȱhisȱHistoryȱofȱSexuality.40ȱIn
37
Forȱ theȱ issueȱ ofȱ sexualityȱ inȱ antiquity,ȱ seeȱ Wernerȱ Krenkel,ȱ Naturaliaȱ nonȱ turpia:ȱ Schriftenȱ zur
antikenȱKulturȬȱundȱSexualwissenschaft,ȱed.ȱWolfgangȱBernardȱandȱChristianeȱReitzȱ(Hildesheim:
GeorgȱOlms,ȱ2006);ȱJohnȱG.ȱYounger,ȱSexȱinȱtheȱAncientȱWorldȱfromȱAȱtoȱZȱ(LondonȱandȱNewȱYork:
Routledge,ȱ2005).
38
SexȱandȱSexualityȱinȱAngloȬSaxonȱEngland:ȱEssaysȱinȱMemoryȱofȱDanielȱGilmoreȱCalder,ȱed.ȱCarolȱBraun
PasternackȱandȱLisaȱM.ȱC.ȱWeston.ȱMedievalȱandȱRenaissanceȱTextsȱandȱStudies,ȱ277ȱ(Tempe:
ArizonaȱCenterȱforȱMedievalȱandȱRenaissanceȱStudies,ȱ2004).
39
PeterȱDinzelbacher,ȱ“Sexualität/Liebe:ȱMittelalter,”ȱEuropäischeȱMentalitätsgeschichte,ȱ70–89.ȱHis
conceptȱ ofȱ sexualityȱ inȱ theȱ Middleȱ Agesȱ isȱ deeplyȱ influencedȱ byȱ theȱ numerousȱ testimonies
producedȱbyȱmembersȱofȱtheȱChurch,ȱwhereasȱvernacular,ȱbutȱtoȱsomeȱextentȱalsoȱLatinȱliterature,
especiallyȱ fromȱ theȱ lateȱ Middleȱ Ages,ȱ speaksȱ aȱ somewhatȱ differentȱ language.ȱ Seeȱ alsoȱ his
discussionȱofȱloveȱarrowsȱthatȱcouldȱcauseȱgreatȱfearȱandȱserved,ȱinȱtheirȱmetaphoricalȱfunction,
toȱintensifyȱtheȱreligiousȱoperationȱagainstȱtheȱlustfulȱexperienceȱofȱsexuality,ȱreplacingȱitȱwithȱa
spiritualȱ formȱ ofȱ love:ȱ Angstȱ imȱ Mittelalter:ȱ TeufelsȬ,ȱ TodesȬȱ undȱ Gotteserscheinung:
Mentalitätsgeschichteȱ undȱ Ikonographieȱ (Paderborn,ȱ Munich,ȱ Viennaȱ andȱ Zurich:ȱ Ferdinand
Schöningh,ȱ1996),ȱ216–24.
40
Michelȱ Foucault,ȱ Histoireȱ deȱ Sexualité.ȱ 3ȱ vols.ȱ (Paris:ȱ Gallimard,ȱ 1976–1984),ȱ basicallyȱ argued
againstȱtheȱFreudianȱandȱMarxistȱreadingȱofȱsexuality,ȱopposingȱtheirȱtheoryȱofȱrepressionȱand
essentialism,ȱsuggesting,ȱinstead,ȱtoȱgraspȱsexualityȱasȱaȱmediumȱofȱdiscourse,ȱandȱasȱmodeȱof
power.ȱ Seeȱ theȱ comprehensiveȱ analysisȱ byȱ Ireneȱ Diamondȱ andȱ Leeȱ Quinby,ȱ “Introduction,”
FeminismȱandȱFoucault:ȱReflectionsȱonȱResistance,ȱed.ȱeademȱ(Boston:ȱNortheasternȱUniversityȱPress,
1988),ȱix–xx;ȱand:ȱFeminismȱandȱtheȱFinalȱFoucault,ȱed.ȱDiannaȱTaylorȱandȱKarenȱVintgesȱ(Urbana:
UniversityȱofȱIllinoisȱPress,ȱ2004).ȱSeeȱalsoȱtheȱ excellentȱ criticalȱsummaryȱofȱcurrentȱresearch
trendsȱ regardingȱ theȱ historyȱ ofȱ sexualityȱ byȱ Franzȱ X.ȱ Eder,ȱ “‘Sexualunterdrückung’ȱ oder
‘Sexualisierung’?ȱZuȱdenȱtheoretischenȱAnsätzenȱderȱ‘Sexualitätsgeschichte’,”ȱPrivatisierungȱder
Triebe?:ȱ Sexualitätȱ inȱ derȱ Frühenȱ Neuzeit,ȱ ed.ȱ Danielaȱ Erlach,ȱ Markusȱ Reisenleitner,ȱ andȱ Karl
Vocelka.ȱFrühneuzeitȬStudien,ȱ1ȱ(Frankfurtȱa.ȱM.,ȱBerlin,ȱetȱal.:ȱPeterȱLang,ȱ1994),ȱ7–29.ȱDespiteȱthe
addition,ȱ theȱ historyȱ ofȱ sexualityȱ requires,ȱ becauseȱ ofȱ itsȱ enormousȱ culturalȬ
historicalȱcomplexity,ȱanȱinterdisciplinaryȱapproach,ȱinvitingȱhistoriansȱandȱart
historians,ȱliteraryȱscholarsȱandȱsociologists,ȱanthropologistsȱandȱtheologiansȱto
theȱsameȱtable.41ȱThisȱbecomesȱparticularlyȱevidentȱinȱlightȱofȱFoucault’sȱargument
thatȱsexualityȱisȱ“aȱhistoricallyȱconstitutedȱdiscourseȱcharacteristicȱofȱaȱparticular
socialȱformation.”42ȱHowever,ȱthisȱshouldȱnotȱmisleadȱusȱtoȱassumeȱthatȱmedieval
andȱ earlyȬmodernȱ approachesȱ toȱ sexualityȱ areȱ toȱ beȱ evaluatedȱ asȱ expressions
merelyȱofȱindividualisticȱhistoryȱdependingȱonȱwhoȱisȱspeakingȱtheȱloudestȱand
withȱtheȱmostȱauthority.ȱSexualityȱprovesȱtoȱbeȱaȱphenomenonȱwithȱaȱdoubleȱlens
intoȱtheȱpast,ȱinsofarȱasȱitȱprovesȱtoȱbeȱaȱreflectionȱofȱveryȱpersonalȱchoicesȱand
alsoȱ anȱ indicationȱ ofȱ theȱ guidelinesȱ andȱ principlesȱ institutedȱ byȱ theȱ various
authorities.43
4.ȱSomeȱReflectionsȱonȱtheȱTerminology
Beforeȱweȱproceedȱfurther,ȱletȱusȱconsiderȱbrieflyȱhowȱweȱmightȱhaveȱtoȱdefine
sexualityȱinȱtheȱMiddleȱAgesȱandȱinȱtheȱearlyȱmodernȱage,ȱifȱthatȱmightȱbeȱpossible
atȱall.ȱRuthȱMazoȱKarrasȱoffersȱtheȱpreliminaryȱformulation:ȱ“‘Sexuality’ȱrefersȱto
theȱ setȱ ofȱ meaningsȱ aȱ givenȱ cultureȱ constructsȱ aroundȱ sexualȱ behaviorȱ .ȱ .ȱ .
medievalȱschemesȱputȱmoreȱemphasisȱonȱwhetherȱoneȱplayedȱanȱactiveȱorȱpassive
roleȱthanȱonȱwhoȱone’sȱpartnerȱwas.”ȱSheȱcontinues,ȱrefiningȱtheȱresearchȱarea
pertainingȱtoȱtheȱphenomenonȱofȱsexuality:ȱ“Theȱhistoryȱofȱsexualityȱisȱaȱhistory
ofȱattitudesȱorȱwaysȱofȱthinkingȱandȱfeelingȱratherȱthanȱaȱhistoryȱofȱwhoȱdidȱwhat
toȱwhomȱ.ȱ.ȱ.ȱ;ȱthereȱisȱnoȱsuchȱthingȱasȱ‘theȱmedievalȱattitude’ȱtowardȱsex.ȱ.ȱ.ȱ.
Differentȱkindsȱofȱwriting,ȱwrittenȱforȱdifferentȱpurposes,ȱexpressȱdifferentȱideas
aboutȱsexuality.”44ȱPeterȱDinzelbacherȱemphasizesȱthatȱinȱmedievalȱLatinȱsexuality
wasȱtranslatedȱasȱluxuriaȱandȱsexualȱintercourseȱasȱfornicatio.ȱCitingȱfromȱtheȱLiber
deȱmodoȱbeneȱvivendi,ȱheȱdeterminesȱthatȱforȱmedievalȱclerics,ȱsomeȱofȱtheȱmost
powerful,ȱ thoughȱ manyȱ timesȱ alsoȱ ratherȱ dubiousȱ authoritiesȱ ofȱ sexuality,
fornicationȱrepresentsȱtheȱworstȱenemyȱofȱGodȱbecauseȱitȱsulliesȱnotȱonlyȱtheȱbody,
butȱalsoȱtheȱconsciousness,ȱthatȱis,ȱtheȱsoul.45ȱ
title,ȱ theȱ volumeȱ containsȱ aȱ numberȱ ofȱ highlyȱ relevantȱ studiesȱ pertainingȱ toȱ sexualityȱ inȱ the
MiddleȱAges.
41
FranzȱX.ȱEder,ȱKulturȱderȱBegierde:ȱEineȱGeschichteȱderȱSexualitätȱ(Munich:ȱC.ȱH.ȱBeck,ȱ2002),ȱ7–27.
42
CarlasȱSalazar,ȱAnthropologyȱandȱSexualȱMorality:ȱAȱTheoreticalȱInvestigationȱ(NewȱYorkȱandȱOxford:
BerghahnȱBooks,ȱ2006),ȱ33.
43
TinaȱChanter,ȱGender:ȱKeyȱConceptsȱinȱPhilosophyȱ(NewȱYorkȱandȱLondon:ȱContinuum,ȱ2006),ȱ56–68.
44
RuthȱMazoȱKarras,ȱ“Sexuality,”ȱDictionaryȱofȱtheȱMiddleȱAges:ȱSupplement,ȱ1,ȱed.ȱWilliamȱChester
Jordanȱ(NewȱYork,ȱDetroit,ȱetȱal.:ȱCharlesȱScribner’sȱSons,ȱ2004),ȱ569–77;ȱhereȱ569.
45
PeterȱDinzelbacher,ȱEuropaȱimȱHochmittelalterȱ1050–1250:ȱEineȱKulturȬȱundȱMentalitätsgeschichte.
Globally,ȱtheȱCatholicȱChurchȱhasȱconsistentlyȱbattledȱagainstȱconcupiscenceȱand
sexualityȱ untilȱ today,ȱ imposingȱ feelingsȱ ofȱ guiltȱ onȱ thoseȱ whoȱ enjoyedȱ sexual
relationshipsȱandȱexperiencesȱforȱtheirȱownȱsake.ȱAtȱtheȱsameȱtime,ȱitȱwouldȱbe
erroneousȱtoȱassumeȱthatȱ“Christianȱsexualȱethicsȱhaveȱbeenȱ.ȱ.ȱ.ȱuniformȱ[]orȱstatic.
Instead,ȱChristianȱviewsȱofȱsexȱhaveȱchangedȱoverȱtimeȱasȱtheȱChurchȱhasȱadapted
itselfȱtoȱchangesȱinȱsociety.”46ȱ
Theȱtermȱ‘sexuality’ȱwasȱunknownȱinȱtheȱMiddleȱAges,ȱsinceȱ‘sexus’ȱpertained
toȱtheȱsexualȱidentityȱofȱeachȱpersonȱ(male,ȱfemale,ȱorȱsomethingȱelse,ȱasȱweȱwould
addȱtoday).ȱWhereasȱchastityȱwasȱregardedȱbyȱtheȱCatholicȱChurchȱasȱoneȱofȱthe
highestȱideals,ȱtheȱpervasiveȱandȱeverȬpresentȱpowerȱofȱsexualityȱcouldȱnotȱbe
deniedȱ andȱ wasȱ simplyȱ explainedȱ asȱ aȱ consequenceȱ ofȱ Adam’sȱ andȱ Eve’s
transgressionȱ andȱ subsequentȱ expulsionȱ fromȱ Paradise.ȱ However,ȱ sex,ȱ asȱ the
concreteȱ act,ȱ wasȱ ofȱ courseȱ acceptedȱ asȱ partȱ ofȱ conjugalȱ life,ȱ andȱ wasȱ actually
treatedȱasȱaȱnecessity,ȱifȱpracticedȱaccordingȱtoȱveryȱlimitingȱrulesȱandȱregulations
graduallyȱimposedȱonȱsecularȱsocietyȱbyȱcanonȱlawȱthroughoutȱtheȱMiddleȱAges.
Theȱfourth,ȱandȱlast,ȱstageȱofȱloveȱhasȱsystematicallyȱfoundȱdifferentȱterminology:
“medicalȱandȱscientificȱwritersȱdescribedȱ[it]ȱasȱcoitus,ȱpreachersȱasȱfornication,
poetsȱasȱdeȬflowering,ȱordinaryȱfolkȱasȱfucking,ȱandȱtheȱmoreȱprudishȱwithȱthe
Latinȱ euphemismȱ factumȱ –ȱ orȱ “doingȱ it.”47ȱ Inȱ fact,ȱ sexualityȱ wasȱ regardedȱ asȱ a
“remediumȱ concupiscentiae”ȱ andȱ definedȱ asȱ anȱ obligation.ȱ Impotence,ȱ for
instance,ȱcouldȱjustifyȱdivorce,ȱandȱthisȱevenȱinȱtheȱMiddleȱAges.48ȱ
“Luxuria,”ȱtheȱtermȱforȱillicitȱsex,ȱcomprisedȱ“fornicatioȱsimplex,”ȱorȱtheȱvisitȱof
aȱbrothel;ȱ“adulterium,”ȱorȱadultery;ȱ“incestus,”ȱorȱincest;ȱandȱ“peccatumȱcontra
naturam,”ȱ orȱ sinȱ againstȱ nature.ȱ Thomasȱ Aquinasȱ wasȱ oneȱ ofȱ theȱ manyȱ high
medievalȱ theologiansȱ toȱ discussȱ sexualȱ transgressions,ȱ comprisingȱ “mollities”
(masturbation);ȱ“bestialitas”ȱ(bestiality);ȱ“vitiumȱsodomiticum”ȱ(homosexuality);
andȱ“concubitusȱnonȱdebitus”ȱ(improperȱformsȱofȱsexualȱconduct,ȱsuchȱasȱanalȱor
dorsalȱsex).ȱMoreover,ȱmostȱtheologiansȱsharplyȱcondemnedȱallȱformsȱofȱsexual
practicesȱ thatȱ aimedȱ toȱ avoidȱ pregnancy,ȱ suchȱ asȱ “coitusȱ interruptus.”49
Nevertheless,ȱ despiteȱ allȱ theirȱ chastisement,ȱ criticism,ȱ condemnation,ȱ and
warnings,ȱbothȱincestȱandȱ‘perverse’ȱformsȱofȱsexualityȱhappenedȱallȱtheȱtime,ȱand
poetsȱthroughoutȱtheȱMiddleȱAgesȱandȱfarȱbeyondȱhaveȱdealtȱwithȱtheseȱthemes
bothȱ explicitlyȱ andȱ implicitly50—withȱ theȱ proviso,ȱ ofȱ course,ȱ thatȱ theȱ ideaȱ of
KulturȱundȱMentalitätȱ(Darmstadt:ȱPrimusȱVerlag,ȱ2003),ȱ127.
46
JamesȱA.ȱBrundage,ȱLaw,ȱSex,ȱandȱChristianȱSocietyȱinȱMedievalȱEurope,ȱ5.
47
MichaelȱCamille,ȱTheȱMedievalȱArtȱofȱLove:ȱObjectsȱandȱSubjectsȱofȱDesireȱ(London:ȱCalmannȱ&ȱKing,
1998),ȱ121.
48
CatherineȱRider,ȱMagicȱandȱImpotenceȱinȱtheȱMiddleȱAgesȱ(Oxford:ȱOxfordȱUniversityȱPress,ȱ2006).
49
BerndȬUlrichȱHergemöller,ȱ“ȱSexualität,”ȱLexikonȱdesȱMittelalters,ȱVIIȱ(Munich:ȱLexmAȱVerlag,
1995),ȱ1812–83.
50
Seeȱtheȱcontributionȱto:ȱSexuelleȱPerversionenȱimȱMittelalter,ȱed.ȱDanielleȱBuschingerȱandȱWolfgang
‘perversion’ȱdependsȱonȱtheȱstrategyȱ“toȱpathologizeȱparticularȱsexualȱpractices
andȱtheȱidentitiesȱ.ȱ.ȱ.ȱassociatedȱwithȱthem.51
Notȱsurprisingly,ȱmanyȱofȱtheseȱaspectsȱhadȱoriginallyȱbeenȱdiscussedȱbyȱthe
ChurchȱFathers,ȱforemostȱamongȱthemȱSt.ȱAugustine,ȱbutȱalreadyȱbeforeȱthemȱthe
Gnostics,ȱunderȱtheȱleadershipȱofȱJuliusȱCassianus,ȱhadȱardentlyȱarguedȱthatȱmen
basicallyȱturnedȱintoȱbeastsȱifȱtheyȱcopulated,ȱorȱpracticedȱsexualityȱinȱanyȱform.52
Curiously,ȱtheȱEasternȱChurchȱhadȱacceptedȱ sexualȱintercourseȱasȱnotȱsinful
withinȱ marriageȱ evenȱ whenȱ practicedȱ withoutȱ theȱ explicitȱ purposeȱ toȱ create
children,ȱsinceȱtheȱlatterȱonlyȱrequiredȱGod’sȱwords.ȱSaintȱJohnȱChrysostomȱ(d.
407),ȱbyȱcontrast,ȱharboredȱaȱmoreȱtolerantȱattitudeȱaboutȱmaritalȱsex,ȱbutȱseverely
warnedȱaboutȱtheȱpotentialȱdangersȱresultingȱfromȱhomosexualȱcontacts.ȱ
TheȱfamousȱCorpusȱIurisȱCivilisȱidentifiedȱhomosexualityȱasȱequallyȱcondemnable
asȱadultery,ȱthatȱis,ȱtoȱbeȱpunishedȱwithȱtheȱdeathȱpenalty,ȱaȱtenorȱthatȱwasȱto
reverberateȱ throughoutȱ theȱ nextȱ thousandȱ years,ȱ orȱ so.ȱ Theȱ seventhȬcentury
medicalȱwriterȱPaulusȱAginetaȱadvisedȱhisȱreadersȱtoȱenjoyȱcoitusȱasȱanȱexcellent
remedyȱ againstȱ melancholy.ȱ Butȱ inȱ theȱ Germanicȱ areasȱ theȱ missionaries,ȱ and
subsequentȱtoȱthem,ȱChristianȱtheologiansȱandȱlawmakersȱthroughoutȱtheȱMiddle
AgesȱhadȱtoȱconfrontȱtheȱconflictȱbetweenȱtraditionalȱGermanicȱlawȱandȱChurch
law.ȱAsȱVernȱL.ȱBulloughȱadvances,ȱ“UltimatelyȱtheȱChurchȱwasȱableȱtoȱassertȱits
ownȱcontrolȱoverȱfamilyȱfaithȱandȱmorals,ȱbutȱitȱhadȱtoȱdoȱsoȱwithȱanȱeducational
campaignȱbasedȱonȱfear,ȱpartlyȱuponȱteachings.”53
Theȱ Italianȱ Benedictineȱ Peterȱ Damianȱ (1007–1072),ȱ aȱ famousȱ reformerȱ ofȱ the
Church,ȱpublishedȱsomeȱofȱtheȱmostȱvehementȱcondemnationsȱofȱallȱformsȱofȱsex
thatȱwereȱnotȱdirectlyȱintendedȱforȱprocreationȱwithinȱtheȱframeworkȱofȱmarriage,
castingȱ themȱ asȱ ‘sinsȱ againstȱ nature’:ȱ “Fourȱ typesȱ ofȱ thisȱ formȱ ofȱ criminal
wickednessȱcanȱbeȱdistinguishedȱinȱanȱeffortȱtoȱshowȱyouȱtheȱtotalityȱofȱtheȱwhole
matterȱinȱanȱorderlyȱway:ȱsomeȱsinȱwithȱthemselvesȱalone;ȱsomeȱcommitȱmutual
masturbation;ȱsomeȱcommitȱfemoralȱfornication;ȱandȱfinally,ȱothersȱcommitȱthe
completeȱactȱagainstȱnature.”54ȱTheȱmoreȱweȱstudyȱmedievalȱcanonȱlaw,ȱhenceȱlaw
Spiewok.ȱXXIX.ȱJahrestagungȱdesȱArbeitskreisesȱ“DeutscheȱLiteraturȱdesȱMittelalters.”ȱWodan,
46.ȱ Tagungsbändeȱ undȱ Sammelschriften,ȱ 3.ȱ Actesȱ deȱ Collquesȱ etȱ Ouvragesȱ Collectifs,ȱ 26
(Greifswald:ȱReinekeȬVerlag,ȱ1994).
51
JamesȱPenney,ȱTheȱWorldȱofȱPerversion:ȱPsychoanalysisȱandȱtheȱImpossibleȱAbsoluteȱofȱDesire.ȱSUNY
SeriesȱinȱPsychoanalysisȱandȱCultureȱ(Albany:ȱStateȱUniversityȱofȱNewȱYorkȱPress,ȱ2006),ȱ173.
52
Vernȱ L.ȱ Bullough,ȱ “Introduction:ȱ Theȱ Christianȱ Inheritance,”ȱ Sexualȱ Practicesȱ &ȱ theȱ Medieval
Church,ȱed.ȱid.ȱandȱJamesȱBrundageȱ(BuffaloȱandȱNewȱYork:ȱPrometheusȱBooks,ȱ1982),ȱ6–7.
53
VernȱL.ȱBullough,ȱ“FormationȱofȱMedievalȱIdeals:ȱChristianȱTheoryȱandȱChristianȱPractice,”ȱSexual
Practicesȱ&ȱtheȱMedievalȱChurch,ȱ14–21;ȱhereȱ21.
54
PeterȱDamian,ȱBookȱofȱGomorrah:ȱAnȱEleventhȬCenturyȱTreatiseȱagainstȱClericalȱHomosexualȱPractices.
Trans.ȱwithȱanȱIntroductionȱandȱNotesȱbyȱPierreȱJ.ȱPayerȱ(Waterloo,ȱOntario,ȱCanada:ȱWilfrid
LaurierȱUniversityȱPress,ȱ1982),ȱ29.ȱHeȱexplainsȱtheȱphenomenonȱitselfȱwithȱaȱreferenceȱtoȱthe
devilȱandȱitsȱevilȱinfluence,ȱ60:ȱ“Whenȱaȱmaleȱrushesȱtoȱaȱmaleȱtoȱcommitȱimpurity,ȱthisȱisȱnotȱthe
directlyȱ addressingȱ sexualȱ practices,ȱ theȱ moreȱ weȱ alsoȱ haveȱ toȱ realizeȱ how
intensivelyȱtheȱauthorsȱofȱtheȱvariousȱpenitentialsȱthroughoutȱtheȱcenturiesȱwere
concernedȱwithȱsuchȱ“vices”ȱandȱtriedȱtoȱeradicateȱthemȱbothȱamongȱtheȱclergy
andȱ theȱ laity.ȱ Ifȱ weȱ wereȱ toȱ believeȱ theȱ penitentialȱ literatureȱ asȱ aȱ benchmark,
masturbation,ȱbestiality,ȱsodomy,ȱandȱlesbianismȱseemȱtoȱhaveȱbeenȱastonishingly
common.ȱTheȱauthorsȱofȱtheȱpenitentialsȱbasicallyȱworkedȱasȱlawȬmakers,ȱandȱwe
shouldȱnotȱnaivelyȱassumeȱthatȱtheyȱwereȱanythingȱbutȱhysterical,ȱorȱextremely
sensitiveȱtoȱanyȱpotentialȱformȱofȱsexualȱdeviation.ȱOnȱtheȱcontrary,ȱweȱcanȱsafely
claimȱthatȱalreadyȱtheȱearlyȱChristianȱChurchȱregularlyȱhadȱtoȱdealȱwithȱaȱplethora
ofȱsexualȱpractices,ȱinterests,ȱtendencies,ȱpreferences,ȱandȱorientations.55
Ordinaryȱpeople,ȱincludingȱtheȱnobility,ȱembracedȱsexualityȱquiteȱdifferently
thanȱ theȱ Churchȱ authorities,ȱ andȱ soȱ didȱ lawyers,ȱ artists,ȱ philosophers,ȱ and
theologians,ȱeachȱgroupȱpursuingȱdifferentȱinterestsȱinȱtheȱcriticalȱexaminationȱof
thisȱphenomenonȱwhichȱisȱsoȱfundamentalȱinȱtheȱlifeȱofȱalmostȱeveryȱadult.ȱFrom
theȱbeginningȱofȱallȱhumanȱlife,ȱsexȱprovidesȱidentityȱandȱmarksȱtheȱpersonȱin
his/herȱuniqueȱbodilyȱmakeȬup,ȱwhichȱmightȱexplainȱtheȱdifficultȱnatureȱofȱtransȬ
sexuality,ȱsameȬsexȱorientationȱ(inȱtheȱMiddleȱAgesȱcommonlyȱcalledȱ‘sodomy’),56
andȱmanyȱotherȱtypesȱofȱsexualȱtransgression.ȱSexȱinvolvesȱpotentialȱfertility,ȱand
soȱsexualityȱwouldȱbeȱtheȱlargerȱplatformȱforȱtheȱphysicalȱinteractionȱbetweenȱtwo
adultȱindividuals.ȱThis,ȱinȱturn,ȱleadsȱtoȱglobalȱexplorationsȱofȱidentity,ȱethicalȱand
moralȱnorms,ȱreligiousȱideals,ȱandȱtheȱcommunicativeȱexchangesȱamongȱpeople.
Curiously,ȱ butȱ perhapsȱ notȱ quiteȱ surprisingly,ȱ althoughȱ theȱ annalsȱ fromȱ the
MiddleȱAgesȱandȱtheȱearlyȱmodernȱageȱareȱfilledȱwithȱstatementsȱandȱcomments
aboutȱ sexuality,ȱ virtuallyȱ anyȱ attemptȱ toȱ comeȱ toȱ termsȱ withȱ ‘sexuality’ȱ has
regularlyȱprovenȱtoȱbe—noȱpunȱintended—mostȱslipperyȱandȱfracturedȱbyȱthe
problematicȱnatureȱofȱtheȱhumanȱlanguageȱinȱfaceȱofȱaȱmysteriousȱexperience.ȱThe
moreȱchurchȱlawsȱandȱsecularȱlawsȱwereȱissuedȱtoȱdirect,ȱcontrol,ȱchannel,ȱand
determineȱtheȱwayȱhowȱsexualityȱwasȱpracticed,ȱtheȱmoreȱtheȱindividualȱseemsȱto
haveȱfoundȱwaysȱtoȱsubterfugeȱthoseȱattempts;ȱotherwiseȱtheȱpenitentialȱbooks
wouldȱ notȱ haveȱ becomeȱ increasinglyȱ detailedȱ regardingȱ theȱ variousȱ typesȱ of
allegedȱsexualȱmisconduct.ȱ
naturalȱimpulseȱofȱtheȱflesh,ȱbutȱonlyȱtheȱgoadȱofȱdiabolicalȱimpulse.”
55
Payer,ȱ Sexȱ andȱ theȱ Penitentials,ȱ 40–54,ȱ forȱ theȱ earlyȱ Church.ȱ Heȱ offersȱ theȱ significantȱ andȱ far
reachingȱmethodologicalȱobservation,ȱ120:ȱ“Theȱmostȱrationalȱmethodologicalȱpositionȱwould
seemȱtoȱbeȱthatȱtheȱspecificȱsexualȱcontentȱofȱtheȱpenitentialsȱisȱaȱreflectionȱofȱactualȱbehaviourȱon
aȱscaleȱtoȱwarrantȱinclusion.ȱ.ȱ.ȱ.ȱItȱisȱworthȱrecallingȱthatȱoneȱofȱtheȱspecificȱquestionsȱaskedȱof
HrabanusȱMaurusȱconcernedȱthoseȱwhoȱhaveȱsexualȱrelationsȱwithȱfemaleȱdogsȱandȱcows.ȱItȱis
unlikelyȱthatȱsuchȱaȱquestionȱwasȱpromptedȱbyȱabstractȱlegalȱconcern.”
56
BerndȬUlrichȱ Hergemöller,ȱ Sodomȱ andȱ Gomorrah:ȱ onȱ theȱ Everydayȱ Realityȱ andȱ Persecutionȱ of
Homosexualsȱ inȱ theȱ Middleȱ Ages,ȱ trans.ȱ Johnȱ Phillipsȱ (1998ȱ ;ȱ Londonȱ andȱ Newȱ York:ȱ Free
AssociationȱBooks,ȱ2001).
Moreover,ȱsexualityȱcarriesȱaȱmyriadȱofȱmeaningsȱandȱapplications,ȱwhetherȱwe
thinkȱofȱtheȱphysicalȱorȱtheȱmetaphysical,ȱtheȱsacredȱorȱtheȱprofane.ȱTheȱdiscourse
ofȱsexuality,ȱpursuedȱeverȱsinceȱhumanȱrecordsȱhaveȱbeenȱavailable,ȱreflectsȱthe
highlyȱamorphous,ȱpotentiallyȱharmful,ȱbutȱalsoȱexhilaratingȱandȱtransforming,
spiritual,ȱmysterious,ȱandȱphysicalȱnatureȱofȱsexuality.ȱNoȱwonderȱthatȱpractically
everyȱphilosopher,ȱtheologian,ȱpoet,ȱandȱartistȱhasȱplungedȱintoȱthisȱdebate,ȱboth
inȱ theȱ Middleȱ Agesȱ andȱ farȱ beyond.ȱ Theȱ problemȱ consists,ȱ ofȱ course,ȱ ofȱ the
ephemeralȱ natureȱ ofȱ theȱ sexualȱ experience.ȱ “Happeningȱ inȱ time,”ȱ asȱ Michael
Camilleȱobserves,ȱ“itsȱinstinctualȱresponsesȱandȱsensationsȱcannotȱbeȱregisteredȱin
theȱstillȱmediumȱofȱtheȱimage,ȱwhichȱplacesȱusȱalwaysȱonȱtheȱoutsideȱofȱtheȱact,ȱas
voyeursȱ.ȱ.ȱ.ȱ.Thisȱisȱtheȱparadoxȱatȱtheȱheartȱofȱtheȱmedievalȱartȱofȱlove;ȱthatȱits
longedȬforȱ goalȱ canȱ soȱ easilyȱ seemȱ banal,ȱ evenȱ ridiculous.ȱ Sexȱ isȱ layeredȱ with
symbolsȱinȱorderȱnotȱsoȱmuchȱtoȱconcealȱitsȱphysicalȱnatureȱbutȱratherȱtoȱgiveȱit
someȱsemblanceȱofȱmeaning.”57
ȱ 5.ȱHistoryȱofȱSexualityȱandȱLove
Weȱ haveȱ determinedȱ forȱ aȱ longȱ timeȱ thatȱ courtlyȱ loveȱ wasȱ oneȱ ofȱ theȱ most
importantȱ factorsȱ inȱ theȱ historyȱ ofȱ theȱ Middleȱ Agesȱ atȱ leastȱ sinceȱ ca.ȱ 1100ȱ for
determiningȱtheȱcourseȱofȱsocialȱandȱculturalȱprogress.ȱInȱotherȱwords,ȱtheȱworld
ofȱ theȱ highȱ medievalȱ courtsȱ wouldȱ beȱ anȱ entirelyȱ differentȱ entityȱ withoutȱ the
elementȱofȱcourtlyȱlove.58ȱButȱitȱcouldȱnotȱhaveȱbeenȱonlyȱaȱfictionalizedȱconcept,
orȱ anȱ esotericȱ replacementȱ ofȱ theȱ physicalȱ attractionsȱ betweenȱ theȱ genders
(whetherȱheteroȬȱorȱhomosexual)ȱwithinȱtheȱliteraryȱdiscourse.ȱAsȱJamesȱA.ȱSchultz
poignantlyȱemphasizes,ȱperhapsȱevenȱwithȱaȱbitȱofȱirony,ȱ“Thatȱchildrenȱwereȱborn
inȱtheȱMiddleȱAgesȱdoesȱsuggestȱthatȱmedievalȱwomenȱandȱmenȱhadȱsexȱwithȱeach
other.”59ȱ Theȱ issue,ȱ however,ȱ wouldȱ notȱ beȱ whetherȱ peopleȱ engagedȱ inȱ sexual
relationships—theyȱcertainlyȱdid,ȱotherwiseȱweȱwouldȱnotȱbeȱhereȱtoday—but
howȱtheȱvariousȱgroupsȱwithinȱmedievalȱsociety,ȱsuchȱasȱtheȱChurch,ȱtheȱcourt,ȱthe
nobility,ȱtheȱuniversities,ȱetc.,ȱevaluatedȱsexuality,ȱwhetherȱtheȱtopicȱofȱsexuality
wasȱtabooed,ȱnegativelyȱconnoted,ȱorȱsilenced.ȱ
57
MichaelȱCamille,ȱTheȱMedievalȱArtȱofȱLove,ȱ122.
58
C.ȱ Stephenȱ Jaeger,ȱ Ennoblingȱ Love:ȱ Inȱ Searchȱ ofȱ aȱ Lostȱ Sensibility.ȱ Theȱ Middleȱ Agesȱ Series
(Philadelphia:ȱUniversityȱofȱPennsylvaniaȱPress,ȱ1999),ȱ159,ȱemphasizesȱwithȱregardȱtoȱsexuality:
“Butȱwhatȱwouldȱbeȱtheȱsourceȱofȱhonor?ȱItsȱsourceȱforȱennoblingȱloveȱhadȱbeenȱpreciselyȱthe
sovereignȱmanagingȱofȱsexuality.ȱThatȱhadȱshownȱstrength,ȱgivenȱinnocence,ȱallure,ȱfreedomȱof
eroticȱgestureȱandȱexpression,ȱandȱgrantedȱtheȱabilityȱtoȱconferȱaura.”
59
JamesȱA.ȱSchultz,ȱCourtlyȱLove,ȱtheȱLoveȱofȱCourtliness,ȱandȱtheȱHistoryȱofȱSexualityȱ(Chicagoȱand
London:ȱTheȱUniversityȱofȱChicagoȱPress,ȱ2006),ȱ53.
Althoughȱthereȱisȱnoȱdoubtȱthatȱtheȱ CatholicȱChurchȱheldȱaȱhighlyȱnegative
viewpointȱofȱsexuality,ȱcondemningȱitsȱenjoymentȱoutrightȱandȱacceptingȱitȱonly
asȱ aȱ necessaryȱ evilȱ forȱ theȱ survivalȱ ofȱ mankind,60ȱ curiously,ȱ moreȱ oftenȱ than
commonlyȱassumed,ȱcountlessȱcapitalsȱandȱcorbelsȱinȱRomanicȱandȱalsoȱGothic
churchesȱ allȱ overȱ Europeȱ exhibitȱ grossȬlooking,ȱ ifȱ notȱ obscene,ȱ figures,ȱ openly
displayingȱtheirȱgenitalsȱandȱpresentingȱallȱkindsȱofȱsexualȱacts.ȱSomeȱscholars
haveȱassumedȱthatȱhereȱweȱdealȱwithȱancientȱvestigesȱofȱfertilityȱrites,ȱorȱancient
power,ȱbutȱsinceȱtheseȱcarvingsȱwereȱattachedȱ toȱ Christianȱchurches,ȱitȱwould
seemȱ ratherȱ likely,ȱ asȱ Anthonyȱ Weirȱ andȱ Jamesȱ Jermanȱ haveȱ suggested,ȱ “that
sheelaȬnaȬgigsȱandȱalliedȱexhibitionistsȱareȱarguablyȱiconographicȱimagesȱwhose
purposeȱwasȱtoȱgiveȱvisualȱsupportȱtoȱtheȱChurch’sȱmoralȱteachings.ȱTheyȱreflect,
albeitȱ inȱ aȱ smallȱ way,ȱ theȱ subjectsȱ depictedȱ onȱ tympana,ȱ capitals,ȱ friezesȱ and
panels—theȱgreatȱdoomsȱandȱvisionsȱofȱjudgment.”61ȱTheȱtwoȱschoolsȱofȱthought
regardingȱtheȱsheelas’ȱmeaningȱeitherȱreferȱtoȱancientȱCelticȱfertilityȱrites,ȱorȱto
twelfthȬcenturyȱ Christianȱ misogynyȱ andȱ dramaticȱ fearȱ ofȱ femaleȱ sexuality.62ȱ It
60
Peterȱ Dinzelbacher,ȱ Europaȱ imȱ Hochmittelalter,ȱ 127–31.ȱ Heȱ pointsȱ outȱ aȱ curiousȱ discrepancy
betweenȱtheȱnumerous,ȱprobablyȱapotropaic,ȱrepresentationsȱofȱgenitalsȱandȱsexualȱpracticesȱon
theȱoneȱhand,ȱandȱtheȱprudishnessȱofȱaȱvastȱnumberȱofȱcontemporaryȱtextsȱandȱillustrationsȱwhere
theȱactualȱsexualȱactȱisȱnormallyȱleftȱoutȱ(hereȱ128).ȱForȱaȱcomprehensiveȱsurveyȱofȱtheȱrelevant
lawsȱregardingȱsinfulȱsexualȱacts,ȱwhetherȱinȱmarriageȱorȱoutside,ȱseeȱJamesȱA.ȱBrundage,ȱLaw,
Sex,ȱandȱChristianȱSocietyȱinȱMedievalȱ Europe.ȱHeȱoffersȱanȱexcellentȱgraphicȱchartȱonȱp.ȱ162;ȱa
scannedȬinȱ copyȱ ofȱ whichȱ canȱ nowȱ alsoȱ beȱ foundȱ onȱ myȱ homepage,ȱ see:
http://www.gened.arizona.edu/aclassen/Classen.pdfȱ(lastȱaccessedȱonȱMarchȱ31,ȱ2008).ȱSeeȱalso
Classen’sȱcontributionȱtoȱthisȱvolume,ȱ“SexualȱDesireȱandȱPornography.”
61
AnthonyȱWeirȱandȱJamesȱJerman,ȱImagesȱofȱLust:ȱSexualȱCarvingsȱonȱMedievalȱChurchesȱ(Londonȱand
NewȱYork:ȱRoutledge,ȱ1986),ȱ10.ȱInȱtheȱconclusionȱtheyȱreconfirmȱtheirȱfarȬreachingȱfinding:ȱ“We
haveȱnotȱfoundȱtheȱslightestȱsuspicionȱthatȱthereȱenteredȱintoȱanyȱofȱtheseȱworksȱanȱelementȱof
fertilityȱworship—unlessȱtheȱfoliageȬspewersȱareȱconstruedȱasȱshowingȱlifeȱspringingȱforthȱfrom
deadȱskulls—orȱanyȱsignȱofȱapotropaicȱmagic”ȱ(150).ȱSeeȱalsoȱtheȱstudyȱbyȱJackȱRoberts,ȱ“SheelaȬ
naȬgigs,”ȱ http://www.whitedragon.org.uk/articles/sheela.htm;ȱ seeȱ furtherȱ theȱ websiteȱ byȱ Jill
Schubert,ȱ “Sheelaȱ Naȱ Gigsȱ ofȱ Irelandȱ andȱ England”ȱ (2006)ȱ at:
http://jlschubert.tripod.com/index.htmȱ(bothȱlastȱaccessedȱonȱMarchȱ31,ȱ2008).ȱEamonnȱKelly,
“Irishȱ SheelaȬnaȬgigsȱ andȱ Relatedȱ Figuresȱ withȱ Referenceȱ toȱ theȱ Collectionsȱ ofȱ theȱ National
MuseumȱofȱIreland,”ȱMedievalȱObscenitiesȱ,ȱed.ȱNicolaȱF.ȱMcDonaldȱ(Woodbridge:ȱYorkȱMedieval
Press;ȱRochester:ȱBoydellȱ&ȱBrewer,ȱ2006),ȱ124–37;ȱhereȱ137,ȱreachesȱonlyȱtheȱconclusionȱthatȱthe
Sheelasȱ representȱ “figuresȱ [of]ȱ .ȱ .ȱ .ȱ aȱ complexȱ matterȱ and,ȱ perhapsȱ mostȱ importantly,ȱ their
significanceȱandȱfunctionȱappearȱtoȱhaveȱchangedȱacrossȱspaceȱandȱtime.”
62
JulietteȱDor,ȱ“TheȱSheelaȬnaȬGig:ȱAnȱIncongruousȱSignȱofȱSexualȱPurity?,”ȱMedievalȱVirginities,ȱed.
AnkeȱBernau,ȱRuthȱEvans,ȱandȱSarahȱSalih.ȱReligionȱandȱCultureȱinȱtheȱMiddleȱAgesȱ(Cardiff:
UniversityȱofȱWalesȱPress,ȱ2003),ȱ33–55;ȱhereȱ49,ȱconvincinglyȱsuggestsȱthatȱtheseȱfiguresȱwould
haveȱtoȱbeȱreadȱasȱdeliberatelyȱambiguousȱandȱpolysemantic:ȱ“TheȱpolysemousȱgazeȱofȱtheȱsheelaȬ
naȬgigsȱdidȱnotȱonlyȱperformȱaȱdangerousȱfemaleȱsexualityȱinȱorderȱtoȱfrightenȱwomenȱandȱto
fascinateȱtheȱeyesȱofȱtheȱmisogynisticȱclerksȱofȱaȱmaleȬdominatedȱsociety.ȱItȱalsoȱreactivatedȱa
hoardȱofȱCelticȱmythsȱthatȱportrayedȱaȱdifferentȱviewȱofȱwomanhoodȱandȱknewȱthatȱ‘femininity’
coveredȱandȱfusedȱallȱitsȱfacetsȱofȱwomanhood;ȱtheȱuglyȱhagȱandȱtheȱbeautifulȱmaiden,ȱtheȱmother
andȱtheȱvirgin.”ȱSeeȱalsoȱtheȱcontributionȱtoȱthisȱvolumeȱbyȱChristinaȱWeising.
remainsȱaȱprofoundȱchallengeȱtoȱcomeȱtoȱtermsȱwithȱthisȱdeliberateȱexposureȱofȱthe
vulva,ȱtechnicallyȱidentifiedȱasȱanasyrma,ȱinȱanȱeffortȱtoȱfrightenȱawayȱmenȱfolks,
orȱperhapsȱtheȱdevil.ȱTheȱlatterȱisȱindirectlyȱtestifiedȱevenȱbyȱanȱepisodeȱinȱtheȱActs
ofȱPaulȱandȱTheclaȱ(thirdȱcentury)ȱwhereȱSt.ȱTheclaȱofȱIconiumȱsavesȱherselfȱfrom
aȱwildȱlionȱwhoȱisȱsupposedȱtoȱdevourȱherȱinȱtheȱColiseumȱasȱpunishmentȱforȱher
religiousȱdevotionȱtoȱChristȱbyȱexposingȱherȱvulva.63
Nevertheless,ȱwhetherȱapotropaicȱorȱplayful,ȱwhetherȱreligiousȬmoralȱorȱartistic,
whetherȱ servingȱ toȱ warnȱ theȱ viewerȱ ofȱ theȱ basicȱ humanȱ sins,64ȱ orȱ ofȱ the
omnipresentȱ demonicȱ andȱ devilish,65ȱ notȱ toȱ disregardȱ theȱ associationȱ ofȱ these
sexualȱimagesȱwithȱtheȱenemiesȱofȱtheȱChurch,ȱespeciallyȱtheȱSaracens,ȱtheȱhuman
bodyȱinȱallȱofȱitsȱfunctions,ȱbothȱconcerningȱrelievingȱoneselfȱofȱurineȱandȱfeces,
andȱconcerningȱtheȱsexualȱact,ȱwasȱopenlyȱaȱtopicȱofȱpublicȱdiscourse,ȱinvolving
representativesȱofȱallȱintellectualȱgroups,ȱandȱthisȱbothȱinȱtheȱMiddleȱAgesȱandȱfar
intoȱmodernȱtimes.66ȱ
Numerousȱdocumentsȱwrittenȱbyȱtheologians,ȱphilosophers,ȱandȱothersȱaddress
allegedlyȱcontemptuous,ȱmorallyȱdebasedȱbehaviorȱbyȱcertainȱindividualsȱand
groups,ȱ oftenȱ leadingȱ toȱ theȱ chargeȱ ofȱ obscenity,ȱ inhibition,ȱ sodomy,ȱ sexual
contactsȱ withȱ theȱ devilȱ orȱ anȱ incubus,ȱ andȱ evenȱ orgiesȱ asȱ proxyȱ religious
ceremonies,ȱespeciallyȱcarriedȱoutȱbyȱheretics,ȱsuchȱasȱtheȱCathars.ȱWeȱfindȱan
intriguingȱexampleȱinȱBishopȱLiudprandȱofȱCremona’sȱRetributionȱ(orȱAntapodosis)
(ca.ȱ962)ȱwhereȱheȱheapsȱpilesȱofȱaccusationsȱonȱvariousȱmembersȱofȱtheȱhighȬ
rankingȱ Italianȱ nobility,ȱ bothȱ menȱ andȱ women,ȱ forȱ theirȱ sexualȱ transgression:
“onceȱAdalbert,ȱmargraveȱofȱtheȱcityȱifȱIvrea,ȱwasȱdead,ȱhisȱwifeȱErmengardȱ.ȱ.ȱ.
obtainedȱprimacyȱinȱallȱItaly.ȱTheȱcauseȱofȱherȱpowerȱwasȱthis:ȱthat—andȱitȱisȱmost
hideousȱevenȱtoȱsayȱit—sheȱexercisedȱcarnalȱtransactionsȱwithȱoneȱandȱall,ȱnotȱjust
princes,ȱbutȱevenȱwithȱordinaryȱmen.”67ȱPerhapsȱaȱlittleȱlessȱacrimoniously,ȱyetȱstill
63
EwaldȱKislinger,ȱ“Anasyrma:ȱNotizenȱzurȱGesteȱdesȱSchamwesens,”ȱSymboleȱdesȱAlltags,ȱAlltagȱder
Symbole:ȱ Festschriftȱ fürȱ Harryȱ Kühnelȱ zumȱ 65.ȱ Geburtstag,ȱ ed.ȱ Gertrudȱ Blaschitzȱ ,ȱ Helmut
Hundsbichler,ȱ Gerhardȱ Jaritz,ȱ andȱ Elisabethȱ Vavraȱ (Graz:ȱ Akademischeȱ DruckȬȱ und
Verlagsanstalt,ȱ1992),ȱ377Ȭ94;ȱseeȱalsoȱMalcolmȱJones,ȱ“SexȱandȱSexualityȱinȱLateȱMedievalȱand
EarlyȱModernȱArt,”ȱPrivatisierungȱderȱTriebe,ȱ187–304.
64
WeirȱandȱJerman,ȱImagesȱofȱLust,ȱ15–17.
65
Kislinger,ȱ“Anasyrma,”ȱ391.ȱSeeȱalsoȱtheȱcorrespondingȱreflectionsȱuponȱtheȱiconographicȱmotif
ofȱmenȱrevealingȱtheirȱintimateȱparts,ȱasȱdiscussedȱbyȱGerhardȱJaritz,ȱ“DieȱBruoch,”ȱSymboleȱdes
Alltags,ȱ395–416.
66
MedievalȱObscenities,ȱed.ȱNicolaȱF.ȱMcDonald,ȱ2006;ȱseeȱalsoȱValerieȱAllen,ȱOnȱFarting:ȱLanguage
andȱLaughterȱinȱtheȱMiddleȱAges.ȱTheȱNewȱMiddleȱAgesȱ(NewȱYorkȱandȱHoundmills,ȱBasingstoke,
Hampshire:ȱPalgraveȱMacmillan,ȱ2007).ȱForȱsheelaȬnaȬgigs,ȱseeȱalsoȱMalcolmȱJones,ȱ“SheelaȬnaȬ
Gig,”ȱ Medievalȱ Folklore:ȱ Anȱ Encyclopediaȱ ofȱ Myths,ȱ Legends,ȱ Tales,ȱ Beliefs,ȱ andȱ Customs,ȱ ed.ȱ Carl
Lindahl,ȱJohnȱMcNamara,ȱandȱJohnȱLindowȱ(SantaȱBarbara,ȱCA,ȱDenver,ȱandȱOxford:ȱABCȬCLIO,
2000),ȱ912–14;ȱCarolȱLeeȱRose,ȱ“TheȱEvolutionȱofȱtheȱEnigmaticȱSheelaȬNaȬGigȱ.ȱ.ȱ.,”ȱM.A.ȱThesis,
TexasȱWoman’sȱUniversity,ȱ2006.
67
TheȱCompleteȱWorksȱofȱLiudprandȱofȱCremona,ȱtrans.ȱwithȱanȱintrod.ȱandȱnotesȱbyȱPaoloȱSquatriti.
inȱmostȱcondemningȱterms,ȱheȱattackedȱKingȱHughȱforȱhisȱsexualȱdepravity:ȱ“who,
evenȱifȱheȱshoneȱwithȱvirtues,ȱbesmirchedȱthemȱthroughȱhisȱpassionȱforȱwomen”
(III,ȱ19;ȱp.ȱ118).ȱDeliberatelyȱtryingȱtoȱmeddleȱinȱtheȱdynasticȱpoliticsȱofȱItaly,ȱhe
happilyȱslanderedȱnotoriousȱwomenȱasȱprostitutesȱ(III,ȱ43;ȱp.ȱ133).
Forȱ propagandaȱ purposesȱ evenȱ theȱ Hohenstaufenȱ Emperorȱ Frederickȱ II
(1194–1250)ȱ andȱ theȱ entireȱ Orderȱ ofȱ theȱ Templarsȱ wereȱ accusedȱ ofȱ sexual
deviationsȱ andȱ pornography,ȱ andȱ theȱ entireȱ monasticȱ orderȱ ofȱ Franciscans
occasionallyȱfacedȱsimilarȱcharges.68ȱCouldȱweȱevenȱdareȱtoȱdrawȱaȱdemarcation
lineȱasȱtoȱwhenȱthisȱuninhibitedȱattitudeȱtowardȱtheȱbodyȱactuallyȱunderwentȱa
profoundȱtransformation?ȱAȱmostȱunusualȱobjectȱoftenȱincludedȱinȱAnnaȱSelbdritt
(St.ȱAnneȱtogetherȱwithȱtheȱVirginȱMaryȱandȱtheȱChristȱchild)ȱfigures,ȱsculptures,
andȱpaintingsȱcouldȱleadȱtheȱwayȱtowardȱaȱmuchȱmoreȱcomplexȱunderstandingȱof
theȱepistemologicalȱfunctionȱofȱsexualityȱasȱaȱtopicȱofȱdiscourse.ȱInȱtheȱlateȱMiddle
AgesȱmanyȱtimesȱartistsȱincludedȱaȱpomegranateȱwhichȱtheȱVirginȱMaryȱholdsȱout
toȱtheȱChristȱchild,ȱrightȱaboveȱSt.ȱAnna’sȱwomb,ȱtheȱpeelȱpartlyȱopened,ȱeasily
evokingȱtheȱimageȱofȱtheȱvulva,69ȱwhichȱfindsȱsurprisingȱparallelsȱinȱaȱnumberȱof
paintingsȱcreatedȱbyȱtheȱBenedictineȱnunsȱinȱSt.ȱWalburg,ȱEichstättȱ(Germany)
aroundȱ1500.ȱTheȱeroticȱimageryȱofȱtheȱpenetrationȱofȱChrist’sȱbodyȱthroughȱthe
lanceȱ woundȱ onȱ hisȱ rightȱ chestȱ wasȱ not,ȱ ofȱ course,ȱ pornographicȱ inȱ intention,
entirelyȱtheȱopposite.ȱNeverthelessȱweȱcannotȱdenyȱorȱignoreȱtheȱcuriousȱparallels
betweenȱ bothȱ levelsȱ ofȱ meaningȱ conveyedȱ byȱ thisȱ image.ȱ Thoughȱ Jeffreyȱ F.
Hamburgerȱ cautionsȱ usȱ notȱ toȱ imposeȱ anȱ anachronisticȱ reading,ȱ heȱ still
emphasizesȱtheȱepistemologicalȱ analogies:ȱ“Whereȱweȱareȱinclinedȱtoȱreadȱthe
openingȱinȱChrist’sȱsideȱasȱaȱfetishȱorȱanȱobjectificationȱofȱtheȱbody,ȱnunsȱregarded
itȱasȱanȱinvitationȱtoȱintrospection,ȱaȱliteralȱlookingȱinward.ȱTheyȱlinedȱtheȱwound
toȱtheȱportalȱorȱentranceȱleadingȱtowardȱtheȱwomblikeȱinteriorȱofȱhisȱheart.”70ȱ
ThisȱmightȱhelpȱusȱtoȱunderstandȱtheȱmeaningȱofȱnumerousȱlateȬmedievalȱmock
pilgrimageȱimagesȱmadeȱoutȱofȱmetalȱfoundȱinȱHolland,ȱinȱwhichȱaȱvulvaȱcarries
aȱpenisȱonȱitsȱtop,ȱholdingȱaȱpilgrimageȱstaffȱinȱitsȱrightȱhandȱandȱaȱrosaryȱinȱits
left.71ȱ Aȱ surprisinglyȱ largeȱ numberȱ ofȱ metallicȱ phallusȱ figuresȱ fromȱ the
Netherlands,ȱ eitherȱ inȱ combinationȱ withȱ animalȱ features,ȱ withȱ people,ȱ orȱ by
MedievalȱTextsȱinȱTranslationȱ(Washington,ȱDC:ȱTheȱCatholicȱUniversityȱofȱAmericaȱPress,ȱ2007),
III,ȱ7;ȱp.ȱ114.
68
ErnstȱEnglisch,ȱ“DieȱBeurteilungȱsexuellerȱVerhaltensweisenȱimȱMittelalter,”ȱPrivatisierungȱder
Triebe?ȱSexualitätȱinȱderȱFrühenȱNeuzeit,ȱed.ȱDanielaȱErlach,ȱMarkusȱReisenleitner,ȱandȱKarlȱVocelka.
FrühneuzeitȬStudien,ȱ1ȱ(FrankfurtȱandȱNewȱYork:ȱPeterȱLang,ȱ1994),ȱ171–76.
69
Virginiaȱ Nixon,ȱ Mary’sȱ Mother:ȱ Saintȱ Anneȱ inȱ Lateȱ Medievalȱ Europeȱ (Universityȱ Park:ȱ The
PennsylvaniaȱStateȱUniversityȱPress,ȱ2004),ȱ156–57.
70
Jeffreyȱ F.ȱ Hamburger,ȱNunsȱasȱArtists:ȱTheȱVisualȱCultureȱofȱaȱMedievalȱConventȱ(Berkeley,ȱLos
Angeles,ȱandȱLondon:ȱUniversityȱofȱCaliforniaȱPress,ȱ1997),ȱ219.
71
Nixon,ȱMary’sȱMother,ȱ156ȱandȱ158;ȱseeȱalsoȱJeffreyȱF.ȱHamburger,ȱ“TheȱVisualȱandȱtheȱVisionary:
TheȱImageȱinȱLateȱMedievalȱMonasticȱDevotions,”ȱViatorȱ20ȱ(1989):ȱ161–82,ȱfig.ȱ23.
themselves,ȱbutȱcombinedȱwithȱwings,ȱorȱwithȱtravelȱobjects,ȱsuchȱasȱships,ȱor
servingȱinȱplaceȱofȱhorsesȱtoȱtransportȱaȱperson,ȱthenȱalsoȱvulvae,ȱeitherȱalone,ȱor
attached,ȱcombined,ȱorȱimposedȱonȱotherȱobjects,ȱanimals,ȱorȱpeople,ȱallȱfromȱthe
lateȱfourteenthȱandȱfifteenthȱcentury,ȱindicateȱhowȱmuchȱtheȱdiscourseȱofȱsexuality
permeatedȱallȱkindsȱofȱsocialȱlevelsȱandȱclasses.ȱModernȱcollectorsȱandȱmuseum
directorsȱ mostlyȱ keptȱ theseȱ objectsȱ secret,ȱ butȱ weȱ canȱ noȱ longerȱ denyȱ their
existence,ȱ thoughȱ weȱ areȱ farȱ awayȱ fromȱ fullyȱ graspingȱ theirȱ significanceȱ and
purpose.72ȱ
Theyȱwereȱprobablyȱapotropaicȱinȱtheirȱprimaryȱfunction,ȱbutȱtheyȱcertainly
turnedȱintoȱhilariousȱobjectsȱnotȱonlyȱintendedȱtoȱfendȱoffȱtheȱ“EvilȱEye,”ȱbutȱalso
toȱtransgressȱsimpleȱtaboos,ȱtoȱpresentȱtheȱhumanȱbodyȱinȱaȱtopsyȬturvyȱcondition,
focusingȱonlyȱonȱtheȱanthropomorphizedȱgenitals,ȱandȱtoȱsatirize,ȱsurprisingly,
politicalȱandȱreligiousȱopponents,ȱorȱsimplyȱtheȱpilgrimsȱthemselves,ȱthoughȱit
seemsȱratherȱfarȬfetched,ȱfollowingȱMalcolmȱJones’sȱargument,ȱtoȱassumeȱthatȱthe
pilgrimsȱwereȱwillingȱtoȱpokeȱfunȱatȱthemselvesȱwearingȱtheseȱbadges.73ȱJohanȱH.
Winkelmanȱ nowȱ suggestsȱ thatȱ thisȱ openȱ displayȱ ofȱ femaleȱ genitalsȱ inȱ mostly
bizarreȱoversizeȱservedȱasȱprotectiveȱinstrumentsȱagainstȱtheȱseductiveȱforceȱof
femaleȱ sexualityȱ or,ȱ inȱ casesȱ ofȱ grotesqueȱ phalli,ȱ asȱ visualȱ objectsȱ toȱ exhibit
exorbitantȱsexualȱvirility.74ȱMoreover,ȱtheȱbasicallyȱpornographicȬlikeȱobjectsȱall
overȱlateȬmedievalȱEurope—weȱcanȱevenȱfindȱrelevantȱfiguresȱunderneathȱsome
misericordsȱinȱtheȱchoirȱstallsȱinȱmedievalȱcathedrals75—additionallyȱseemȱtoȱhave
helpedȱtheȱwearerȱorȱuserȱtoȱcomeȱtoȱtermsȱwithȱtheȱnormallyȱhiddenȱfeaturesȱof
sexualityȱbyȱwayȱofȱhumor.ȱAsȱMalcolmȱJonesȱsuggests:ȱ“Asȱwithȱtheȱmysteriesȱof
love,ȱtheȱmysteriesȱofȱsexualityȱpossiblyȱtouchȱusȱtooȱclosely,ȱandȱareȱperhapsȱtoo
importantȱtoȱus,ȱforȱusȱeverȱtoȱfeelȱentirelyȱatȱeaseȱinȱconsideringȱthem,ȱandȱso,ȱlike
ourȱforebears,ȱweȱescapeȱintoȱhumour.”76ȱ
Butȱtheȱoftenȱhighlyȱgraphic,ȱifȱnotȱgrotesqueȱdepictionȱofȱsexualȱactsȱandȱsexual
organsȱinȱobjectsȱandȱimages,ȱnotȱtoȱspeakȱofȱtheȱwideȱgamutȱofȱliteraryȱtextsȱ(see
72
HeiligȱenȱProfaan:ȱ1000ȱLaatmiddeleeuwseȱInsignesȱuitȱdeȱcollectieȱH.ȱJ.ȱE.ȱvanȱBeuningen,ȱed.ȱH.ȱJ.ȱE.ȱvan
BeuningenȱandȱA.ȱM.ȱKoldeweij.ȱRotterdamȱPapersȱVIII.ȱAȱContributionȱtoȱMedievalȱArcheology
(Cothen:ȱ Stichtingȱ Middeleeuwseȱ Religieuzeȱ enȱ Profaneȱ Insignes,ȱ 1993),ȱ 258–64;ȱ seeȱ alsoȱ the
catalogueȱtoȱtheȱexhibition,ȱStadtluft,ȱHirsebreiȱundȱBettelmönch:ȱdieȱStadtȱumȱ1300,ȱed.ȱMarianne
FlüelerȬGrauwilerȱandȱNiklausȱFlüelerȱ(ZürichȱandȱStuttgart:ȱK.ȱTheiss,ȱ1992),ȱespeciallyȱ434–35.
73
MalcolmȱJones,ȱTheȱSecretȱMiddleȱAgesȱ(Westport,ȱCT,ȱandȱLondon:ȱPraeger,ȱ2003),ȱ248–273;ȱsee
alsoȱhisȱ“SexȱandȱSexualityȱinȱLateȱMedievalȱandȱEarlyȱModernȱArt,”ȱ195.
74
Johannȱ H.ȱ Winkelman,ȱ “Mittelniederländischeȱ Tragezeichenȱ undȱ dieȱ nordwesteuropäische
Kulturlandschaft.ȱZumȱkulturellenȱTransferȱimȱSpätmittelalter,”ȱAmsterdamerȱBeiträgeȱzurȱälteren
Germanistikȱ63ȱ(2007):ȱ199–219;ȱhereȱ203–07.
75
GisbertȱPorsmann,ȱ“Misericordien:ȱZwischenȱsexuellerȱVersuchungȱundȱAskese,”ȱErosȱ–ȱMacht
–ȱAskese:ȱGeschlechterspannungenȱalsȱDialogstrukturȱinȱKunstȱundȱLiteratur,ȱed.ȱHelgaȱSciurieȱand
HansȬJürgenȱBachorski.ȱLiteraturȱ–ȱImaginationȱ–ȱRealität,ȱ14ȱ(Trier:ȱWVTȱWissenschaftlicher
Verlag,ȱ1996),ȱ93–103.
76
Jones,ȱTheȱSecretȱMiddleȱAges,ȱ273.
below),ȱ indicateȱ thatȱ furtherȱ levelsȱ ofȱ meaningȱ canȱ beȱ detected,ȱ oftenȱ closely
associatedȱwithȱepistemologicalȱeffortsȱtoȱcomeȱtoȱtermsȱwithȱtheȱcomplexitiesȱof
humanȱlife,ȱincludingȱtheȱgenderȱrelationship,ȱandȱhenceȱwithȱtheȱeternalȱforceȱof
sexuality.ȱNevertheless,ȱtheseȱ“obscene”ȱobjectsȱcontinueȱtoȱescapeȱourȱinterpretive
gripȱbecauseȱweȱhaveȱnoȱclearȱlexiconȱforȱthemȱsinceȱobscenityȱitselfȱ“isȱsolelyȱthe
productȱ ofȱ definition,ȱ ofȱ theȱ sharedȱ languageȱ (verbal,ȱ visualȱ andȱ sonic)ȱ ofȱ its
representation.”77ȱ However,ȱ theȱ simpleȱ existenceȱ ofȱ thoseȱ pilgrimȱ badges
demonstratesȱhowȱlittleȱweȱreallyȱknowȱofȱtheȱMiddleȱAgesȱandȱtheȱallegedlyȱtotal
predominanceȱofȱtheȱChristianȱChurchȱwithȱitsȱsetsȱofȱrulesȱandȱregulations,ȱnorms
andȱ values.ȱ Bothȱ theȱ sexualȱ andȱ theȱ obsceneȱ defyȱ authority,ȱ hegemony,ȱ and
dominanceȱinȱcultureȱandȱreligion.ȱInȱthisȱsenseȱIȱcanȱfullyȱconcurȱwithȱNicola
McDonaldȱthatȱ“Definitionsȱofȱtheȱobsceneȱareȱlocatedȱatȱtheȱjunctureȱofȱwhatȱone
group—usuallyȱtheȱcurrentȱdominantȱgroup—identifies,ȱatȱaȱgivenȱmoment,ȱas
decentȱandȱindecent.”78
RuthȱMazoȱKarrasȱhasȱrecentlyȱarguedȱthatȱtoȱstudyȱmedievalȱsexualityȱimplies
toȱstudyȱwhatȱoneȱpersonȱdidȱtoȱanother,ȱasȱifȱitȱhadȱbeenȱmerelyȱaȱmechanical
procedureȱthatȱneedsȱtoȱbeȱviewedȱfromȱaȱgenderȱperspective,ȱaboveȱall.79ȱFurther
differentiationȱandȱaȱdeepeningȱofȱourȱunderstandingȱofȱtheȱdiscourseȱofȱsexuality
seemȱtoȱbeȱwarranted,ȱasȱtheȱmanyȱcontributionsȱtoȱthisȱvolumeȱwillȱdemonstrate.
Theȱ purpose,ȱ however,ȱ cannotȱ beȱ toȱ feedȱ aȱ base,ȱ prurientȱ imaginationȱ ofȱ the
modernȱscholarȱandȱreader,ȱorȱtoȱisolateȱoneȱstrainȱofȱtheȱpublicȱdiscourseȱinȱthe
MiddleȱAgesȱandȱtheȱRenaissanceȱforȱmodernȱentertainment.ȱOnȱtheȱcontrary,ȱto
determineȱtheȱkeyȱissuesȱinȱaȱdiscourseȱbothȱinȱtheȱpastȱandȱtheȱpresentȱallowsȱus
toȱgraspȱtheȱfundamentalȱepistemologicalȱcategoriesȱthatȱdetermineȱtheȱcritical
elementsȱthatȱconstituteȱaȱcultureȱandȱaȱsocietyȱatȱlarge.ȱSimplyȱput,ȱweȱcouldȱsay:
showȱmeȱwhatȱpeopleȱinȱtheȱpastȱthoughtȱandȱsaidȱaboutȱsexuality,ȱandȱIȱamȱgoing
toȱtellȱyouȱwhoȱtheyȱwere.ȱMoreover,ȱthisȱkindȱofȱinvestigationȱwillȱleadȱusȱintoȱa
fullȱexaminationȱofȱourȱownȱtraditionȱvisȬàȬvisȱtheȱeroticȱandȱtheȱsexual.
6.ȱEroticȱImagination
Let’sȱfaceȱit,ȱallȱartisticȱandȱliteraryȱenterprisesȱhaveȱalwaysȱbeenȱsomehowȱthe
outcomeȱofȱhumanȱimagination,ȱandȱeachȱimaginationȱlendsȱitselfȱtoȱtheȱerotic
mind,ȱprobablyȱtheȱmostȱpowerfulȱengineȱinȱhumanȱexistence.ȱAfterȱall,ȱtheȱerotic
77
NicolaȱMcDonald,ȱ“Introduction,”ȱMedievalȱObscenities,ȱ1–16;ȱhereȱ11.
78
NicolaȱMcDonald,ȱ“Introduction,”ȱ12.
79
Ruthȱ Mazoȱ Karras,ȱ Sexualityȱ inȱ Medievalȱ Europe:ȱ Doingȱ Untoȱ Othersȱ (Newȱ Yorkȱ andȱ London:
Routledge,ȱ2005),ȱ3:ȱ“Medievalȱpeople,ȱforȱtheȱmostȱpart,ȱunderstoodȱsexȱactsȱasȱsomethingȱthat
someoneȱdidȱtoȱsomeoneȱelse.”
gazeȱ alwaysȱ translatesȱ externalȱ objectsȱ intoȱ anȱ imaginedȱ object,ȱ whichȱ inȱ turn
triggersȱaȱchainȱreactionȱofȱfeelings,ȱwhetherȱsexualȱorȱspiritual,ȱwhetherȱweȱthink
inȱthisȱcontextȱofȱrawȱOldȱFrenchȱ(Occitan)ȱfabliauxȱandȱlateȬmedievalȱGerman
mæren.ȱTheȱtranslationȱprocessȱofȱ‘desireȱintoȱart/literature’ȱhasȱalwaysȱbeenȱat
work.80
Inȱfact,ȱmedievalȱart,ȱdespiteȱitsȱstronglyȱreligiousȱnatureȱandȱproperties,ȱreveals
countlessȱeroticȱelements,ȱbothȱinȱtheȱcenterȱandȱonȱtheȱmargins,ȱsometimesȱsubtle,
andȱ sometimesȱ ratherȱ grotesqueȱ andȱ deft,ȱ carelesslyȱ transgressingȱ allȱ kindsȱ of
moralȱ andȱ ethicalȱ normsȱ andȱ taboos.81ȱ Asȱ recentȱ scholarshipȱ hasȱ amply
demonstrated,ȱ medievalȱ mentalityȱ wasȱ considerablyȱ moreȱ concernedȱ withȱ the
bodyȱ andȱ itsȱ implicationsȱ forȱ theȱ spiritualȱ wellȬbeingȱ thanȱ modernȱ culture,
althoughȱitȱwouldȱbeȱratherȱdifficultȱtoȱdetermineȱtheȱexactȱdemarcationȱlineȱin
historicalȱterms.82ȱInȱfact,ȱanyȱcarefulȱanalysisȱofȱsomeȱofȱtheȱlargerȱcollectionsȱof
verseȱandȱproseȱnarrativesȱcomposedȱbyȱanyȱofȱtheȱnumerousȱfourteenthȬȱthrough
seventeenthȬcenturiesȱcomposersȱand/orȱcollectorsȱwouldȱeasilyȱyieldȱcountless
examplesȱofȱdrasticȱaccountsȱthatȱfocusȱonȱtheȱbody,ȱitsȱvariousȱfunctions,ȱand
especially,ȱifȱnotȱpredominantly,ȱonȱitsȱsexualȱorgans.ȱPracticallyȱeveryȱEuropean
languageȱhasȱproducedȱremarkableȱrepresentatives,ȱandȱdespiteȱtheȱmajorȱthemes
ofȱtheȱProtestantȱReformationȱandȱtheȱCatholicȱCounterȱReformation,ȱeroticȱand
evenȱ pornographicȱ literatureȱ experiencedȱ itsȱ heydayȱ andȱ alsoȱ metȱ with
considerableȱapprovalȱbyȱtheȱcontemporaryȱaudiences.83
80
AlthoughȱIȱhaveȱsomeȱreservationsȱregardingȱtheȱtheoreticalȱthrustȱunderpinningȱtheȱindividual
contributions,ȱseeȱTranslatingȱDesireȱinȱMedievalȱandȱEarlyȱModernȱLiterature,ȱed.ȱCraigȱA.ȱBerryȱand
HeatherȱRichardsonȱHayton.ȱMedievalȱandȱRenaissanceȱTextsȱandȱStudies,ȱ294ȱ(Tempe:ȱArizona
CenterȱforȱMedievalȱandȱRenaissanceȱStudies,ȱ2005).ȱForȱaȱmuchȱmoreȱpoignantȱexaminationȱof
‘desire’ȱinȱaȱpostmodernȱfashion,ȱseeȱValerieȱTraub,ȱDesireȱandȱAnxiety:ȱCirculationsȱofȱSexualityȱin
Shakespeareanȱ Drama.ȱ Gender,ȱ Culture,ȱ Differenceȱ (Londonȱ andȱ Newȱ York:ȱ Routledge,ȱ 1992),
95–116.
81
Eduardȱ Fuchs,ȱ Geschichteȱ derȱ erotischenȱ Kunst:ȱ Dasȱ zeitgeschichtlicheȱ Problem.ȱ Geschichteȱ der
erotischenȱKunstȱinȱEinzeldarstellungen,ȱ1ȱ(Munich:ȱAlbertȱLangen,ȱ1922),ȱ158–76.
82
CarolineȱWalkerȱBynum,ȱTheȱResurrectionȱofȱtheȱBodyȱinȱWesternȱChristianity:ȱ200–1336.ȱLecturesȱon
theȱHistoryȱofȱReligion,ȱNewȱSeries,ȱ15ȱ(NewȱYork:ȱColumbiaȱUniversityȱPress,ȱ1995);ȱseeȱalsoȱher
collectionȱofȱessays,ȱFragmentationȱandȱRedemption:ȱEssaysȱonȱGenderȱandȱtheȱHumanȱBodyȱinȱMedieval
Religionȱ(NewȱYorkȱandȱCambridge,ȱMA:ȱZoneȱBooksȱandȱMITȱPress,ȱ1991);ȱSarahȱKayȱandȱMiri
Rubin,ȱ“Introduction,”ȱFramingȱMedievalȱBodies,ȱed.ȱead.ȱ(ManchesterȱandȱNewȱYork:ȱManchester
UniversityȱPress,ȱ1994),ȱ1–9;ȱPeterȱDinzelbacher,ȱKörperȱundȱFrömmigkeitȱinȱderȱmittelalterlichen
Mentalitätsgeschichteȱ(Paderborn,ȱMunich,ȱVienna,ȱandȱZurich:ȱFerdinandȱSchöningh,ȱ2007).
83
Forȱ theȱ Germanȱ context,ȱ see,ȱ forȱ example,ȱ Eroticȱ Talesȱ fromȱ Medievalȱ Germany:ȱ Selectedȱ and
TranslatedȱbyȱAlbrechtȱClassenȱ(Tempe:ȱArizonaȱCenterȱforȱMedievalȱandȱRenaissanceȱStudies,
2007);ȱtheȱrelevantȱsecondaryȱliteratureȱregardingȱtheȱgenreȱofȱtheȱmæreȱcanȱbeȱfoundȱthere.ȱFor
aȱpanȬEuropeanȱselection,ȱseeȱRobertȱJ.ȱClementsȱandȱJosephȱGibaldi.ȱAnatomyȱofȱtheȱNovella:ȱThe
EuropeanȱTaleȱCollectionȱfromȱBoccaccioȱandȱChaucerȱtoȱCervantesȱ(NewȱYork:ȱNewȱYorkȱUniversity
Press,ȱ1977);ȱseeȱalsoȱUrsulaȱPeters,ȱLiteraturȱinȱderȱStadt:ȱStudienȱzuȱdenȱsozialenȱVoraussetzungen
undȱkulturellenȱOrganisationsformenȱstädtischerȱLiteraturȱimȱ13.ȱundȱ14.ȱJahrhundert.ȱStudienȱund
Interestingly,ȱweȱareȱnotȱdealingȱwithȱmarginal,ȱcommonlyȱostracizedȱliterature.
GeoffreyȱChaucer,ȱforȱinstance,ȱhasȱhisȱWifeȱofȱBathȱsayȱinȱtheȱprologueȱtoȱherȱTale:
Telleȱmeȱalso,ȱtoȱwhatȱconclusion
Wereȱmembresȱmaadȱofȱgeneracion,
Andȱofȱsoȱparfitȱwysȱaȱwightȱywroght?
Trustethȱrightȱwel,ȱtheyȱwereȱnatȱmaadȱforȱnoght.
Gloseȱwhosoȱwole,ȱandȱseyeȱbotheȱupȱandȱdoun,
Thatȱtheyȱwereȱmakedȱforȱpurgacioun
Ofȱuryne,ȱandȱoureȱbotheȱthyngesȱsmale
ȱ Wereȱeekȱtoȱknoweȱaȱfemeleȱfromȱaȱmale,
Andȱforȱnoonȱootherȱcause,–sayȱyȱno?
Theȱexperienceȱwootȱwelȱitȱisȱnoghtȱso.
Soȱthatȱtheȱclerkesȱbeȱnatȱwithȱmeȱwrothe,
Iȱseyȱthis,ȱthatȱtheyȱmakedȱbenȱforȱbothe,
Thisȱisȱtoȱseye,ȱforȱoffice,ȱandȱforȱese
Ofȱengendrure,ȱtherȱweȱnatȱGodȱdisplese,
Whyȱsholdeȱmenȱellesȱinȱhirȱbookesȱsette
Thatȱmanȱshalȱyeldeȱtoȱhisȱwyfȱhirȱdette?
Nowȱwherwithȱsholdeȱheȱmakeȱhisȱpaiement,
Ifȱheȱneȱusedȱhisȱselyȱinstrument?
Thanneȱwereȱtheyȱmaadȱuponȱaȱcreature
Toȱpurgeȱuryne,ȱandȱeekȱforȱengendrure. 84
Weȱwould,ȱhowever,ȱcommitȱaȱfallacyȱbyȱidentifyingȱthisȱkindȱofȱsexualȱdiscourse
withȱobscenityȱorȱpornography.ȱOnȱtheȱcontrary,ȱquiteȱapartȱfromȱtheȱinabilityȱto
applyȱ theseȱ modernȱ termsȱ anachronisticallyȱ toȱ theȱ Middleȱ Ages,ȱ theȱ topicȱ of
sexualityȱcentrallyȱcontributedȱtoȱtheȱdiscourseȱonȱtheȱgenderȱrelationship,ȱlove,
andȱmarriage.ȱTheȱcomicȱelementȱwas,ȱofȱcourse,ȱirrepressible,ȱnotȱtoȱmentionȱthe
TexteȱzurȱSozialgeschichteȱderȱLiteratur,ȱ7ȱ(Tübingen:ȱNiemeyer,ȱ1983);ȱVictorȱMillet,ȱ“Märeȱmit
Moral?ȱ Zumȱ Verhältnisȱ vonȱ weltlichemȱ Sinnangebotȱ undȱ geistlicherȱ Moralisierungȱ inȱ drei
mittelhochdeutschenȱ Kurzerzählungen,”ȱ Geistlichesȱ inȱ weltlicherȱ undȱ Weltlichesȱ inȱ geistlicher
LiteraturȱdesȱMittelalters,ȱed.ȱChristophȱHuber,ȱBurghartȱWachinger,ȱandȱHansȬJoachimȱZiegeler
(Tübingen:ȱNiemeyer,ȱ2000),ȱ273–90;ȱforȱanȱinterdisciplinaryȱtextȱselection,ȱseeȱEroticismȱandȱLove
inȱ theȱ Middleȱ Ages,ȱ ed.ȱ Albrechtȱ Classen.ȱ 5thȱ rev.ȱ ed.ȱ (1994;ȱ Newȱ York:ȱ Thomsonȱ Custom
Publishing,ȱ2004).
84
Theȱ Riversideȱ Chaucer,ȱ ed.ȱ Larryȱ D.ȱ Bensonȱ (Boston:ȱ Houghtonȱ Mifflin,ȱ 1987),ȱ 115–33;ȱ Iȱ have
discussedȱ thisȱ openȱ discussionȱ ofȱ sexualityȱ alreadyȱ inȱ Derȱ LiebesȬȱ undȱ Ehediskursȱ vomȱ hohen
Mittelalterȱ bisȱ zumȱ frühenȱ 17.ȱ Jahrhundert.ȱ Volksliedstudien,ȱ 5ȱ (Münster,ȱ Newȱ York,ȱ etȱ al.:
Waxmann,ȱ2005),ȱ73–107;ȱtheȱcurrentȱscholarshipȱonȱChaucer’sȱWifeȱofȱBathȱPrologueȱandȱTaleȱis,
ofȱ course,ȱ legion,ȱ seeȱ alsoȱ S.ȱ H.ȱ Rigby,ȱ Chaucerȱ inȱ Context.ȱ Manchesterȱ Medievalȱ Studies
(ManchesterȱandȱNewȱYork:ȱManchesterȱUniversityȱPress,ȱ1996),ȱ137–51;ȱPeterȱG.ȱBeidler,ȱGeoffrey
Chaucer:ȱTheȱWifeȱofȱBath.ȱCaseȱStudiesȱinȱContemporaryȱCriticismȱ(Boston:ȱBedfordȱBooksȱofȱSt.
Martin’sȱPress,ȱ1996).ȱSeeȱalsoȱAȱCompanionȱtoȱChaucer,ȱed.ȱPeterȱBrown.ȱBlackwellȱCompanions
toȱLiteratureȱandȱCultureȱ(Oxford:ȱBlackwell,ȱ2000).
needȱtoȱentertainȱandȱtoȱofferȱmoralȱandȱethicalȱinstructionsȱatȱtheȱsameȱtime.85ȱIn
fact,ȱdespiteȱtheȱdominantlyȱreligiousȱdiscourse,ȱdeeplyȱimpactedȱbyȱtheȱprofound
conflictsȱbetweenȱtheȱCatholicsȱandȱtheȱProtestants,ȱpopularȱcultureȱwithȱitsȱgreat
interestȱinȱsecularȱthemes,ȱincludingȱsexualityȱasȱwell,ȱcontinuedȱunabatedly,ȱand
actuallyȱexpandedȱconsiderably.86ȱWhereasȱtheȱgrowingȱhysteriaȱoverȱwitchcraft
andȱtheȱsubsequentȱwitchȱcrazeȱalsoȱfocusedȱonȱdeviousȱpracticesȱofȱsexuality,
especiallyȱsexȱwithȱtheȱdevilȱasȱtheȱworstȱtransgression,87ȱtheȱurbanȱandȱcourtly
publicȱ turnedȱ theirȱ attentionȱ alsoȱ toȱ eroticȱ topicsȱ andȱ continued,ȱ withoutȱ any
hesitation,ȱwithȱtheȱsameȱeroticȱtopicsȱasȱthoseȱthatȱhadȱalreadyȱbeenȱdeveloped
inȱmostȱdramaticȱfashionȱbyȱhighȬmedievalȱLatinȱpoets.ȱ
Aȱ comparisonȱ betweenȱ theȱ Carminaȱ Buranaȱ (earlyȱ thirteenthȱ century),ȱ for
example,ȱ andȱ Georgȱ Forster’sȱ sixteenth’sȱ songbooksȱ (1539–1556)ȱ wouldȱ yield
remarkableȱ parallels,ȱ especiallyȱ inȱ theȱ followingȱ areas:ȱ genderȱ relationships,
sexuality,ȱ drinking,ȱ andȱ love.ȱ Apparently,ȱ theȱ historyȱ ofȱ songȱ poetryȱ didȱ not
experienceȱmanyȱchangesȱandȱhasȱcontinuedȱwithȱtheȱsameȱtraditionsȱfromȱthe
MiddleȱAgesȱtoȱtheȱmodernȱage,ȱspendingȱsurprisinglyȱmuchȱattentionȱtoȱmatters
ofȱsexuality,ȱeroticism,ȱandȱlove.88ȱTheȱentireȱhistoryȱofȱtheȱdawnȬsongs,ȱcertainly
farȱintoȱtheȱseventeenthȱcentury,ȱbasicallyȱtheȱonlyȱlyricalȱgenreȱinȱwhichȱlovers
actuallyȱ meetȱ andȱ spendȱ timeȱ together,ȱ beforeȱ theȱ manȱ hasȱ toȱ departȱ theȱ next
morning,ȱisȱpredicatedȱonȱtheȱnotionȱthatȱsexualityȱwasȱaȱmostȱdesirableȱhuman
experience,ȱthoughȱoutsiders,ȱespeciallyȱtheȱauthorities,ȱtendedȱtoȱopposeȱitȱforȱa
varietyȱofȱreasons.89ȱ
85
See,ȱ forȱ example,ȱ Elisabethȱ Wåghällȱ Nivre,ȱ Womenȱ andȱ Familyȱ Lifeȱ inȱ Earlyȱ Modernȱ German
Literature.ȱ Studiesȱ inȱ Germanȱ Literature,ȱ Linguistics,ȱ andȱ Cultureȱ (Rochester,ȱ NY,ȱ and
Woodbridge,ȱ Suffolk:ȱ Boydellȱ &ȱ Brewer,ȱ 2004),ȱ 8–9,ȱ 29,ȱ 31–32,ȱ 43–44,ȱ 51–53,ȱ etȱ passim.ȱ Forȱ a
varietyȱofȱviewpoints,ȱaimingȱtowardȱtheȱsameȱdirection,ȱseeȱTheȱMakingȱofȱtheȱCouple:ȱTheȱSocial
FunctionȱofȱShortȬFormȱMedievalȱNarrative:ȱAȱSymposium,ȱed.ȱFlemmingȱG.ȱAndersenȱandȱMorten
Nøjgaardȱ(Odense:ȱOdenseȱUniversityȱPress,ȱ1991);ȱcf.ȱWolfgangȱBeutin,ȱSexualitätȱundȱObszönität:
Eineȱ literaturpsychologischeȱ Studieȱ überȱ epischeȱ Dichtungenȱ desȱ Mittelaltersȱ undȱ derȱ Renaissance
(Würzburg:ȱKönigshausenȱundȱNeumann,ȱ1990).
86
Inȱthisȱregard,ȱhistoriansȱofȱtheȱReformationȱdoȱusȱaȱconsiderableȱdisserviceȱbyȱexcludingȱthe
everydayȱexperiences,ȱmentalȬhistoricalȱaspects,ȱtheȱhistoryȱofȱprivateȱlife,ȱhenceȱtheȱworldȱof
sexuality;ȱsee,ȱforȱexample,ȱTheȱReformationȱWorld,ȱed.ȱAndrewȱPettegreeȱ(LondonȱandȱNewȱYork:
Routledge,ȱ2000);ȱandȱAȱCompanionȱtoȱtheȱReformationȱWorld,ȱed.ȱR.ȱPoȬchiaȱHsiaȱ(Malden,ȱMA,
Oxford,ȱandȱCarlton,ȱVictoria,ȱAustralia:ȱBlackwell,ȱ2004/2006).
87
LyndalȱRoper,ȱWitchȱCraze:ȱTerrorȱandȱFantasyȱinȱBaroqueȱGermanyȱ(NewȱHavenȱandȱLondon:ȱYale
UniversityȱPress,ȱ2004),ȱ82–103,ȱunderscoresȱtheȱgreatȱfear,ȱprevalentȱatȱthatȱtime,ȱregardingȱthe
lossȱofȱfertility,ȱorȱchildlessness.ȱ
88
AlbrechtȱClassen,ȱDeutscheȱLiederbücherȱdesȱ15.ȱundȱ16.ȱJahrhunderts.ȱVolksliedstudien,ȱ1ȱ(Münster:
Waxmann,ȱ 2001);ȱ seeȱ alsoȱ myȱ study:ȱ “Liederrepertoireȱ andȱ Themenvielfalt:ȱ Vomȱ didaktischȬ
religiösenȱLiedgutȱzumȱLiebesȬȱundȱTrinklied.ȱDieȱBegegnungȱzwischenȱdemȱhohenȱMittelalter
undȱdemȱsechzehntenȱJahrhundert:ȱdieȱCarminaȱBuranaȱundȱGeorgȱForstersȱLiederbücher,”ȱLied
undȱpopuläreȱKultur:ȱJahrbuchȱdesȱdeutschenȱVolksliedarchivsȱ52ȱ(2007):ȱ53–82.
89
Thisȱhasȱbeenȱdiscussed,ȱofȱcourse,ȱmanyȱtimesȱalready,ȱbutȱseeȱoneȱofȱtheȱlatestȱstudiesȱonȱthis
Moreover,ȱitȱdeservesȱtoȱbeȱnotedȱthatȱtheȱearlyȱmodernȱstageȱprovidedȱmuch
spaceȱ forȱ theȱ openȱ displayȱ ofȱ sexuality,ȱ especiallyȱ throughȱ verbalȱ allusions,
gestures,ȱand,ȱaboveȱall,ȱthemesȱthatȱdidȱnotȱlackȱinȱanyȱfranknessȱandȱopenness
regardingȱtheȱhumanȱbodyȱandȱsexuality,ȱwhetherȱtheseȱtermsȱmeantȱtheȱsameȱas
today,ȱorȱwhetherȱtheyȱhaveȱtoȱbeȱreadȱinȱtheirȱownȱdistinct,ȱmentalȬhistorical
context.90ȱIfȱweȱextendedȱourȱinvestigationȱfurtherȱandȱalsoȱincludedȱscholarly,
medical,ȱandȱphilosophicalȱdiscussionsȱofȱtheȱeroticȱimagination,ȱweȱwouldȱeasily
comeȱ acrossȱ aȱ vastȱ corpusȱ ofȱ relevantȱ documentsȱ thatȱ confirmȱ theȱ profound
awarenessȱaboutȱtheȱsignificanceȱofȱsexualityȱbothȱforȱtheȱindividual’sȱphysical
healthȱandȱforȱtheȱdesiredȱfertility.ȱOfȱcourse,ȱbyȱtheȱeighteenth,ȱandȱevenȱmuch
moreȱ byȱ theȱ nineteenth,ȱ centuryȱ theȱ publicȱ suppressionȱ ofȱ sexualityȱ andȱ its
discourseȱintensifiedȱconsiderably,ȱforcingȱmanyȱwritersȱandȱartistsȱtoȱresortȱto
moreȱsophisticatedȱmetaphors,ȱliteraryȱmasks,ȱallegoricalȱscreens,ȱdoubleȬentendre
inȱ theirȱ rhetoricalȱ approaches,ȱ andȱ otherȱ poeticȱ andȱ artisticȱ strategies.91
Nevertheless,ȱ theȱ artistic,ȱ andȱ alsoȱ prurient,ȱ interestȱ inȱ theȱ nudeȱ body,ȱ mostly
female,ȱ withȱ itsȱ longȱ traditionȱ harkingȱ backȱ atȱ leastȱ toȱ theȱ Renaissance,ȱ and
consideringȱtheȱmaleȱnude,ȱasȱfarȱbackȱasȱtoȱGreekȱantiquity,ȱhasȱcontinuedȱuntil
today.92
topicȱwhichȱnicelyȱsummarizesȱtheȱbasicȱaspectsȱofȱthisȱgenreȱandȱprovidesȱaȱgoodȱsurveyȱofȱthe
historyȱofȱrelevantȱresearchȱliterature,ȱMaríaȱdelȱCarmenȱBalbuenaȱTorezano,ȱLaȱcancíónȱdeȱalbaȱen
laȱ lirícaȱ alemanaȱ deȱ laȱ bajaȱ edadȱ medía:ȱ Análisisȱ deȱ losȱ poemasȱ delȱ Monjeȱ deȱ Salzburgo.ȱ Estudios
Literarios:ȱColecciónȱNuevosȱHorizontes,ȱ16ȱ(Córdoba:ȱServicioȱdeȱPublicacionesȱUniversidadȱde
Córdoba,ȱ2007),ȱ160–61.ȱForȱanȱexaminationȱofȱlateȬmedievalȱandȱearlyȬmodernȱGermanȱdawnȬ
songs,ȱ seeȱ Albrechtȱ Classen,ȱ “Dasȱ deutscheȱ Tageliedȱ inȱ seinenȱ spätmittelalterlichenȱ und
frühneuzeitlichenȱVarianten,”ȱEtudesȱGermaniquesȱ54,ȱ2ȱ(1999):ȱ173–96.ȱSeeȱalso,ȱatȱleastȱforȱaȱgood
summaryȱfromȱaȱcomparativeȱperspective,ȱGaleȱSigal,ȱEroticȱDawnȬSongsȱofȱtheȱMiddleȱAges:ȱVoicing
theȱLyricȱLadyȱ(Gainesville,ȱTallahassee,ȱetȱal.:ȱUniversityȱPressȱofȱFlorida,ȱ1996).
90
EroticȱPolitics:ȱDesireȱonȱtheȱRenaissanceȱStage,ȱed.ȱSusanȱZimmermanȱ(NewȱYorkȱandȱLondon:
Routledge,ȱ 1992);ȱ Sexualityȱ andȱ Politicsȱ inȱ Renaissanceȱ Drama,ȱ ed.ȱ Caroleȱ Levinȱ andȱ Karen
Robertson.ȱStudiesȱinȱRenaissanceȱLiterature,ȱ10ȱ(Lewiston,ȱQueenston,ȱandȱLampeter:ȱTheȱEdwin
Mellenȱ Press,ȱ 1991);ȱ seeȱ alsoȱ Jodyȱ Enders,ȱ Deathȱ byȱ Dramaȱ andȱ Otherȱ Medievalȱ Urbanȱ Legends
(ChicagoȱandȱLondon:ȱTheȱUniversityȱofȱChicagoȱPress,ȱ2002),ȱ29–42.
91
SeeȱtheȱcontributionsȱtoȱImaginationȱundȱSexualität:ȱPathologienȱderȱEinbildungskraftȱimȱmedizinischen
DiskursȱderȱfrühenȱNeuzeit,ȱed.ȱStefanieȱZaun,ȱDanielaȱWatzke,ȱandȱJörnȱSteigerwald.ȱAnalecta
Romanica,ȱ71ȱ(Frankfurtȱa.ȱM.:ȱVittorioȱKlostermann,ȱ2004).
92
LyndalȱNead,ȱTheȱFemaleȱNude:ȱArt,ȱObscenityȱandȱSexualityȱ(LondonȱandȱNewȱYork:ȱRoutledge,
1992),ȱ97,ȱcomments:ȱ“Pornographyȱexistsȱonȱtheȱmarginsȱofȱvisibility.ȱItȱcirculatesȱinȱtermsȱof
beingȱbothȱexplicitȱandȱillicit;ȱitȱisȱcharacterizedȱbothȱbyȱaȱrelentlessȱdisplayȱofȱsexualȱdifference
andȱtheȱsexualizedȱfemaleȱbody,ȱandȱbyȱitsȱexistenceȱwithinȱtheȱcovert,ȱhiddenȱandȱdisguised
spacesȱofȱpublicȱandȱprivateȱculture.”
7.ȱTheȱLiteraryȱEvidenceȱRevisited
Beforeȱweȱrushȱintoȱtheȱearlyȱmodernȱage,ȱhowever,ȱletȱusȱreviewȱbrieflyȱsome
relevantȱliteraryȱexamplesȱfromȱtheȱearlierȱMiddleȱAgesȱandȱthenȱworkȱourȱway
upȱtoȱtheȱRenaissance,ȱcreatingȱaȱcyclicalȱargument.ȱAfterȱall,ȱtheȱsameȱobservation
canȱ beȱ madeȱ withȱ respectȱ toȱ eroticȱ literature,ȱ atȱ leastȱ sinceȱ theȱ earlyȱ twelfth
century,ȱwhereasȱtheȱworldȱofȱtheȱearlyȱMiddleȱAges,ȱatȱleastȱuntilȱca.ȱ1100,ȱwas
primarilyȱconcernedȱwithȱmoreȱexistentialȱquestions,ȱatȱleastȱasȱfarȱasȱvernacular
literatureȱisȱconcerned.93ȱ
Alreadyȱtheȱveryȱfirstȱtroubadourȱpoet,ȱDukeȱWilliamȱIXȱ(GuillaumeȱleȱNeuf,ȱor
deȱ Peitieus)ȱ ofȱ Aquitaine,ȱ Countȱ VIIȱ ofȱ Poitiers,ȱ oftenȱ praisedȱ forȱ hisȱ highly
sophisticatedȱandȱculturedȱloveȱsongs,ȱrevealsȱanȱuncannyȱtendencyȱtoȱtransgress
hisȱownȱ‘highȱstyle’ȱandȱtoȱinjectȱslyȱcomments,ȱprurientȱaccounts,ȱandȱdeft,ȱifȱnot
highlyȱgraphic,ȱsexualȱimagery.ȱInȱaȱsurprisinglyȱcarefreeȱapproach,ȱtheȱsinger
announcesȱinȱ“Faraiȱunȱvers,ȱposȱmiȱsonelh”ȱthatȱwomenȱtendȱtoȱactȱwronglyȱif
theyȱcauseȱgriefȱandȱsorrowȱforȱaȱknight,ȱwhenȱtheyȱultimatelyȱallȱwantȱtheȱsame
thing,ȱsex.ȱProjectingȱaȱtheatricalȱsetting,ȱtheȱpoetȱpresentsȱhimselfȱasȱaȱknight
roamingȱ theȱ countrysideȱ onȱ aȱ searchȱ forȱ anȱ eroticȱ adventure,ȱ whenȱ heȱ comes
acrossȱ theȱ wifeȱ ofȱ Lordȱ Guariȱ andȱ theȱ wifeȱ ofȱ Lordȱ Bernard.ȱ Foolingȱ themȱ by
pretendingȱtoȱbeȱanȱimbecile,ȱincapableȱofȱspeakingȱproperlyȱandȱcommunicating
anythingȱ meaningful,ȱ heȱ onlyȱ uttersȱ theȱ onomatopoeticȱ terms:ȱ “‘Barbariol,
Barbariol,ȱ/ȱBarbarian.’”94ȱ
Almostȱassuredȱofȱhavingȱfoundȱaȱwillingȱvictimȱtoȱenjoyȱillicitȱsexualȱpleasures,
theyȱtakeȱhimȱhomeȱandȱfeedȱandȱbathȱhimȱfirst,ȱbutȱthenȱtestȱhimȱaȱsecondȱtime,
andȱnowȱreally,ȱusingȱaȱcat’sȱclawȱonȱhisȱnakedȱback.ȱWilliam,ȱasȱhisȱownȱpoetic
projection,ȱwithstandsȱtheȱpainȱandȱdoesȱnotȱrevealȱhisȱsecretȱplan,ȱconvincing
93
Lateȱantiqueȱpoetryȱandȱotherȱgenresȱcouldȱbeȱusedȱasȱpowerfulȱargumentsȱtoȱtheȱcontrary,ȱsee
CynthiaȱWhite,ȱConcordiaȱVirginitatis:ȱPassionateȱMarriageȱinȱPaulinusȱofȱNola,”ȱWordsȱofȱLoveȱand
LoveȱofȱWords,ȱed.ȱAlbrechtȱClassen.ȱMedievalȱandȱRenaissanceȱTextsȱandȱStudies,ȱ347ȱ(Tempe:
Arizonaȱ Centerȱ forȱ Medievalȱ andȱ Renaissanceȱ Studies,ȱ 2007),ȱ 53–74.ȱ Seeȱ C.ȱ Stephenȱ Jaeger,
EnnoblingȱLove,ȱforȱaȱdiscussionȱofȱtheȱLatinȱtraditionȱthatȱantedatesȱtheȱmedievalȱvernacular
tradition.
94
Forȱ theȱ historicalȬcriticalȱ edition,ȱ seeȱ Jeanȱ Charlesȱ Payen,ȱ Leȱ Princeȱ d’Aquitaine:ȱ Essaisȱ sur
GauillaumeȱIX,ȱsonȱœuvreȱetȱsonȱérotiqueȱ(Paris:ȱH.ȱChampion,ȱ1980);ȱhereȱIȱquoteȱfromȱLyricsȱofȱthe
MiddleȱAges:ȱAnȱAnthology,ȱed.ȱJamesȱJ.ȱWilhelmȱ(NewȱYorkȱandȱLondon:ȱGarland,ȱ1990),ȱvv.
29–30;ȱseeȱalsoȱAnnaȱKukuÙkaȬWojtasik,ȱ“Littératureȱcourtoiseȱouȱleȱlibertinageȱavantȱlaȱlettre.
D’aprèsȱlesȱChansonsȱdeȱGuillaumeȱdeȱPoitiersȱetȱJoufroi,ȱromanȱduȱXIIIeȱsiècle,”ȱDiscoursesȱonȱLove,
Marriage,ȱandȱTransgressionȱinȱMedievalȱandȱEarlyȱModernȱLiterature,ȱed.ȱAlbrechtȱClassen.ȱMedieval
andȱRenaissanceȱTextsȱandȱStudies,ȱ278ȱ(Tempe:ȱArizonaȱCenterȱforȱMedievalȱandȱRenaissance
Studies,ȱ2004),ȱ211–24.ȱForȱlibertinageȱinȱtheȱeigtheenthȱcentury,ȱaȱtimeȱwhenȱweȱwouldȱexpectȱit,
perhaps,ȱtheȱleast,ȱseeȱTheȱLibertineȱReader:ȱEroticismȱandȱEnlightenmentȱinȱEighteenthȬCenturyȱFrance,
ed.ȱMichelȱFeherȱ(NewȱYork:ȱZoneȱBooks,ȱ1997).
Another Random Document on
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See AMERICAN ABORIGINES: ANDESIANS.
BAUTZEN, Battle of.
See GERMANY: A. D. 1813 (MAY-AUGUST).
BAUX, Lords of; Gothic Origin of the.
The illustrious Visigothic race of the "Balthi" or "Baltha"

("the bold"), from which sprang Alaric, "continued to flourish
in France in the Gothic province of Septimania, or Languedoc,
under the corrupted appellation of Baux, and a branch of that
family afterwards settled in the kingdom of Naples."
E. Gibbon, Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire,

chapter 30, note.
https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/25717
BAVARIA:
The name.
Bavaria derived its name from the Boii.
R. G. Latham, The Germania of Tacitus; Epilegomena,

section 20.
See, also, BOIANS.
The Ethnology of.
"Bavaria ... falls into two divisions; the Bavaria of the

Rhine, and the Bavaria of the Danube. In Rhenish Bavaria the
descent is from the ancient Vangiones and Nemetes, either
Germanized Gauls or Gallicized Germans, with Roman
superadditions. Afterwards, an extension of the Alemannic and
Suevic populations from the right bank of the Upper Rhine
completes the evolution of their present Germanic character.
Danubian Bavaria falls into two subdivisions. North of the
Danube the valley of the Naab, at least, was originally
Slavonic, containing an extension of the Slavonic population
of Bohemia. But disturbance and displacement began early. ...
In the third and fourth centuries, the Suevi and Alemanni
extended themselves from the Upper Rhine. ... The northwestern
parts of Bavaria were probably German from the beginning.
South of the Danube the ethnology changes. In the first place
the Roman elements increase; since Vindelicia was a Roman
province. ... Its present character has arisen from an
extension of the Germans of the Upper Rhine."
R. G. Latham, Ethnology of Europe, chapter 8.
BAVARIA: A. D. 547.
Subjection of the Bavarians to the Franks.
"It is about this period [A. D. 547] that the Bavarians first
become known in history as tributaries of the Franks; but at
what time they became so is matter of dispute. From the
previous silence of the annalists respecting this people, we
may perhaps infer that both they and the Suabians remained
independent until the fall of the Ostrogothic Empire in Italy.
The Gothic dominions were bounded on the north by Rhætia and
Noricum; and between these countries and the Thuringians, who
lived still further to the north, was the country of the
Bavarians and Suabians. Thuringia had long been possessed by
the Franks, Rhætia was ceded by Vitisges, king of Italy, and
Venetia was conquered by Theudebert [the Austrasian Frank
King]. The Bavarians were therefore, at this period, almost
surrounded by the Frankish territories. ... Whenever they may
have first submitted to the yoke, it is certain that at the
time of Theudebert's death [A. D. 547], or shortly after that
event, both Bavarians and Suabians (or Alemannians), had
become subjects of the Merovingian kings."
W. C. Perry, The Franks, chapter 3.

BAVARIA: A. D. 843-962.
The ancient Duchy.
See GERMANY: A. D. 843-962.
BAVARIA: A. D. 876.
Added to the Austrian March.
See Austria: A. D. 805-1246.
BAVARIA: A. D. 1071-1178.
The Dukes of the House of Guelf.
See GUELFS AND GHIBELLINES;

and SAXONY: A. D. 1178-1183.
BAVARIA: A. D. 1101.
Disastrous Crusade of Duke Welf.
See CRUSADES: A. D. 1101-1102.
BAVARIA: A. D. 1125-1152.
The origin of the Electorate.
BAVARIA: A. D. 1138-1183.
Involved in the beginnings of the Guelf and Ghibelline
Conflicts.
The struggles of Henry the Proud and Henry the Lion.
See GUELFS AND GHIBELLINES, and SAXONY: A. D. 1178-1183.
Separation of the Austrian March, which becomes a distinct
Duchy.
See AUSTRIA: A. D. 805-1246.
BAVARIA: A. D. 1180-1356.
The House of Wittelsbach.
Its acquisition of Bavaria and the Palatinate of the Rhine.
Loss of the Electoral Vote by Bavaria.
When, in 1180, the dominions of Henry the Lion, under the ban
of the Empire, were stripped from him (see SAXONY: A. D.
1178-1183), by the imperial sentence of forfeiture, and were
divided and conferred upon others by Frederick Barbarossa, the
Duchy of Bavaria was given to Otto, Count Palatine of
Wittelsbach. "As he claimed a descent from an ancient royal
family of Bavaria, it was alleged that, in obtaining the
sovereignty of that state, he had only in some measure
regained those rights which in former times belonged to his
ancestors."
Sir A. Halliday, Annals of the House of Hanover,

volume 1, page 276.
"Otto ... was a descendant of that Duke Luitpold who fell in

combat with the Hungarians, and whose sons and grandsons had
already worn the ducal cap of Bavaria. No princely race in
Europe is of such ancient extraction. ... Bavaria was as yet
destitute of towns: Landshutt and Munich first rose into
consideration in the course of the 13th century; Ratisbon,
already a flourishing town, was regarded as the capital and
residence of the Dukes of Bavaria. ... A further accession of
dignity and power awaited the family in 1214 in the
acquisition of the Palatinate of the Rhine. Duke Ludwig was
now the most powerful prince of Southern Germany. ... His son
Otto the Illustrious, remaining ... true to the imperial
house, died excommunicate, and his dominions were placed for
several years under an interdict. ... Upon the death of Otto a
partition of the inheritance took place. This partition became
to the family an hereditary evil, a fatal source of quarrel
and of secret or open enmity. ... In [the] dark and dreadful
period of interregnum [see GERMANY: A. D. 1250-1272], when all
men waited for the final dissolution of the empire, nothing
appears concerning the Wittelsbach family. ... Finally in 1273
Rudolf, the first of the Hapsburgs, ascended the
long-unoccupied throne. ... He won over the Bavarian princes
by bestowing his daughters upon them in marriage.
{274}
Louis remained faithful and rendered him good
service; but the turbulent Henry, who had already made war
upon his brother for the possession of the electoral vote,
deserted him, and for this Bavaria was punished by the loss of
the vote, and of the territory above the Enns." Afterwards,
for a time, the Duke of Bavaria and the Count Palatine
exercised the right of the electoral vote alternately; but in
1356 by the Golden Bull of Charles IV. [see GERMANY: A. D.
1347-1493], the vote was given wholly to the Count Palatine,
and lost to Bavaria for nearly 300 years.
J. I. von Döllinger, The House of Wittelsbach (Studies

in European History, chapter 2).
Election of Louis to the imperial throne.
Formation of the Circle.
The Duke at the head of the Catholic League.

The Duke in command of the forces of the Catholic League.
Transfer to the Duke of the Electoral dignity of the Elector
Palatine.
Occupation by Gustavus Adolphus.
BAVARIA: A. D. 1646-1648.
Ravaged by the Swedes and French.
Truce made and renounced by the Elector.
The last campaigns of the war.
Acquisition of the Upper Palatinate in the Peace of
Westphalia.
See GERMANY: A. D. 1648.
The League of Augsburg.
BAVARIA: A. D. 1689-1696.
The war of the Grand Alliance against Louis XIV.
See FRANCE: A. D. 1689-1690; 1689-1691; 1692; 1693 (JULY);
1694; 1695-1696.
Claims of the Electoral Prince on the Spanish Crown.
See SPAIN: A. D. 1698-1700.
The Elector joins France against the Allies.
Successes of the French and Bavarians.
Ravaged, crushed and surrendered by the Elector.
Dissolution of the Electorate.
The Elector restored to his Dominions.
See UTRECHT: A. D. 1712-1714.
Claims of the Elector to the Austrian succession.
See AUSTRIA: A. D. 1740 (OCTOBER).

The Elector crowned Emperor.
See AUSTRIA: A. D. 1741 (OCTOBER).
BAVARIA: A. D. 1743 (April).

The Emperor-Elector recovers his Electoral territory.
See AUSTRIA: A. D. 1742 (JUNE-DECEMBER), and 1743.
BAVARIA: A. D. 1743 (June).

The Emperor-Elector again a fugitive.
The Austrians in Possession.
See AUSTRIA: A. D. 1743.
Death of the Emperor-Elector.
Peace with Austria.
See AUSTRIA: A. D. 1744-1745.
Termination and results of the war of the Austrian Succession.
See AIX-LA-CHAPELLE, THE CONGRESS.
Expulsion of the Jesuits.
See JESUITS: A. D. 1761-1769.
BAVARIA: A. D. 1777-1779.
The Succession question.
"With the death of Maximilian Joseph, of Bavaria (30 December,

1777), the younger branch of the house of Wittelsbach became
extinct, and the electorate of Bavaria ... came to an end. By
virtue of the original partition in 1310, the duchy of Bavaria
ought to pass to the elder branch of the family, represented
by Charles Theodore, the Elector Palatine. But Joseph [the
Second, the Emperor], saw the possibility of securing valuable
additions to Austria which would round off the frontier on the
west. The Austrian claims were legally worthless. They were
based chiefly upon a gift of the Straubingen territory which
Sigismund was said to have made in 1426 to his son-in-law,
Albert of Austria, but which had never taken effect and had
since been utterly forgotten. It would be impossible to induce
the diet to recognise such claims, but it might be possible to
come to an understanding with the aged Charles Theodore, who
had no legitimate children and was not likely to feel any very
keen interest in his new inheritance. Without much difficulty
the elector was half frightened, half induced to sign a treaty
(3 January, 1778), by which he recognised the claims put
forward by Austria, while the rest of Bavaria was guaranteed
to him and his successors. Austrian troops were at once
despatched to occupy the ceded districts. The condition of
Europe seemed to assure the success of Joseph's bold venture.
... There was only one quarter from which opposition was to be
expected, Prussia. Frederick promptly appealed to the
fundamental laws of the Empire, and declared his intention of
upholding them with arms. But he could find no supporters
except those who were immediately interested, the elector of
Saxony, whose mother, as a sister of the late elector of
Bavaria, had a legal claim to his allodial property, and
Charles of Zweibrücken, the heir apparent of the childless
Charles Theodore. ... Frederick, left to himself, despatched
an army into Bohemia, where the Austrian troops had been
joined by the emperor in person. But nothing came of the
threatened hostilities. Frederick was unable to force on a
battle, and the so-called war was little more than an armed
negotiation. ... France and Russia undertook to mediate, and
negotiations were opened in 1779 at Teschen, where peace was
signed on the 13th of May. Austria withdrew the claims which
had been recognised in the treaty with the Elector Palatine,
and received the 'quarter of the Inn,' i. e., the district
from Passau to Wildshut. Frederick's eventual claims to the
succession in the Franconian principalities of Anspach and
Baireuth, which Austria had every interest in opposing, were
recognised by the treaty. The claims of Saxony were bought off
by a payment of 4,000,000 thalers. The most unsatisfactory
part of the treaty was that it was guaranteed by France and
Russia. ... On the whole, it was a great triumph for Frederick
and an equal humiliation for Joseph II. His schemes of
aggrandisement had been foiled."
R. Lodge, History of Modern Europe, chapter 20, section 3,
ALSO IN: T. H. Dyer, History of Modern Europe, book 6,

chapter 8 (volume 3).
BAVARIA: A. D. 1801-1803.
Acquisition of territory under the Treaty of Luneville.
{275}
BAVARIA: A. D. 1805-1806.
Aggrandized by Napoleon.
Created a Kingdom.
Joined to the Confederation of the Rhine.
See GERMANY: A. D. 1805-1806,

and 1806 (JANUARY-AUGUST).
The revolt in the Tyrol.
Heroic struggle of Hofer and his countrymen.
See GERMANY: A. D. 1809-1810 (APRIL-FEBRUARY).
Abandonment of Napoleon and the Rhenish Confederation.
Union with the Allies.
See GERMANY: A. D. 1813 (SEPTEMBER-OCTOBER), and

(OCTOBER-DECEMBER).
BAVARIA: A. D. 1814-1815.
Restoration of the Tyrol to Austria.
Territorial compensations.
See VIENNA, THE CONGRESS OF, and FRANCE: A. D. 1814

(APRIL-JUNE).
BAVARIA: A. D. 1848 (March).

Revolutionary outbreak.
Expulsion of Lola Montez.
Abdication of the King.
See GERMANY: A. D. 1848 (MARCH).
The Seven Weeks War.
Indemnity and territorial cession to Prussia.
BAVARIA: A. D. 1870-1871.
Treaty of Union with the Germanic Confederation, soon
transformed into the German Empire.
See GERMANY: A. D. 1870 (SEPTEMBER-DECEMBER), and 1871.
----------BAVARIA: End----------
BAVAY, Origin of.
See NERVII.
BAXAR, OR BAKSAR, OR BUXAR, Battle of (1764).
See INDIA: A. D. 1757-1772.
BAYARD, The Chevalier: His knightly deeds and his death.
See ITALY: A. D. 1501-1504,

and FRANCE: A. D. 1523-1525.
BAYEUX TAPESTRY.
A remarkable roll of mediæval tapestry, 214 feet long and 20

inches wide, preserved for centuries in the cathedral at
Bayeux, Normandy, on which a pictorial history of the Norman
invasion and conquest of England is represented, with more or
less of names and explanatory inscriptions. Mr. E. A.
Freeman (Norman Conquest, volume 3, note A) says: "It will be
seen that, throughout this volume, I accept the witness of the
Bayeux Tapestry as one of my highest authorities. I do not
hesitate to say that I look on it as holding the first place
among the authorities on the Norman side. That it is a
contemporary work I entertain no doubt whatever, and I
entertain just as little doubt as to its being a work fully
entitled to our general confidence. I believe the tapestry to
have been made for Bishop Odo, and to have been most probably
designed by him as an ornament for his newly rebuilt cathedral
church of Bayeux." The precious tapestry is now preserved in
the public library at Bayeux, carefully stretched round the
room under glass.
BAYEUX, The Saxons of.
See SAXONS OF BAYEUX

BAYLEN, Battle of (1808).
See SPAIN: A. D. 1808 (MAY-SEPTEMBER).
BAYOGOULAS, The.
See AMERICAN ABORIGINES: MUSKHOGEAN FAMILY.
BAYONNE:
Conference of Catharine de'Medici and the Duke of Alva (1565).
See FRANCE: A. D. 1563-1570.
BAZAINE'S SURRENDER AT METZ.
See FRANCE: A. D. 1870 (JULY-AUGUST), (AUGUST-

SEPTEMBER),
and (SEPTEMBER-OCTOBER).
BEACONSFIELD (Disraeli) Ministries.
See ENGLAND: A. D. 1851-1852; 1858-1859; 1868-1870, and

1873-1880.
BEAR FLAG, The.
See CALIFORNIA: A. D. 1846-1847.
BEARN: The rise of the Counts.
See BURGUNDY: A. D. 1032.
BEARN: A. D. 1620.
Absorbed and incorporated in the Kingdom of France.
See FRANCE: A. D. 1620-1622.
BEARN: A. D. 1685.
The Dragonnade.
Revocation of the Edict of Nantes.
See FRANCE: A. D. 1681-1698.
----------BEARN: End----------
BEATOUN, Cardinal, The assassination of.
See SCOTLAND: A. D. 1546.
BEAUFORT, N. C., Capture of, by the National forces (1862).
See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1862 (JANUARY-APRIL:

NORTH CAROLINA).
BEAUGÉ, Battle of.
The English commanded by the Duke of Clarence, defeated in

Anjou by an army of French and Scots, under the Dauphin of
France; the Duke of Clarence slain.
BEAUMARCHAIS'S TRANSACTIONS WITH THE UNITED STATES.
See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1776-1778.
BEAUMONT, Battle of.
See FRANCE: A. D. 1870 (AUGUST-SEPTEMBER).
BEAUREGARD, General G. T.
Bombardment of Fort Sumter.
See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1861 (MARCH-APRIL).

At the first Battle of Bull Run.
See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1861 (JULY: VIRGINIA).
Command in the Potomac district.
See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1861-1862

(DECEMBER-
APRIL: VIRGINIA).
Command in the West.
See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1862 (FEBRUARY-

APRIL:
TENNESSEE), and (APRIL-MAY: TENNESSEE--MISSISSIPPI).
The Defence of Charleston.
See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1863 (AUGUST-

DECEMBER:
SOUTH CAROLINA).
BEAUVAIS, Origin of.
See BELGÆ.
BEBRYKIANS, The.
See BITHYNIANS.
BEC, Abbey of.
One of the most famous abbeys and ecclesiastical schools of

the middle ages. Its name was derived from the little beck or
rivulet of a valley in Normandy, on the banks of which a pious
knight, Herlouin, retiring from the world, had fixed his
hermitage. The renown of the piety of Herlouin drew others
around him and resulted in the formation of a religious
community with himself at its head. Among those attracted to
Herlouin's retreat were a noble Lombard scholar, Lanfranc of
Pavia, who afterwards became the great Norman archbishop of
Canterbury, and Anselm of Aosta, another Italian, who
succeeded Lanfranc at Canterbury with still more fame. The
teaching of Lanfranc at Bec raised it, says Mr. Green in
his Short History of the English People, into the most
famous school of Christendom; it was, in fact, the first wave
of the intellectual movement which was spreading from Italy to
the ruder countries of the West. The fabric of the canon law
and of mediaeval scholasticism, with the philosophical
skepticism which first awoke under its influence, all trace
their origin to Bec. "The glory of Bec would have been as
transitory as that of other monastic houses, but for the
appearance of one illustrious man [Lanfranc] who came to be
enrolled as a private member of the brotherhood, and who gave
Bec for a while a special and honorable character with which
hardly any other monastery in Christendom could compare."
E. A. Freeman, Norman Conquest, chapter 8.
{276}
BECHUANAS, The.
See SOUTH AFRICA: THE ABORIGINAL INHABITANTS;

and AFRICA: THE INHABITING RACES.
BECKET, Thomas, and King Henry II.
See ENGLAND: A. D. 1162-1170.
BED-CHAMBER QUESTION, The.
See ENGLAND: A. D. 1837-1839.

BED OF JUSTICE.
"The ceremony by which the French kings compelled the

registration of their edicts by the Parliament was called a
'lit de justice' [bed of justice]. The monarch proceeded in
state to the Grand Chambre, and the chancellor, having taken
his pleasure, announced that the king required such and such a
decree to be entered on their records in his presence. It was
held that this personal interference of the sovereign
suspended for the time being the functions of all inferior
magistrates, and the edict was accordingly registered without
a word of objection. The form of registration was as follows:
'Le roi séant en son lit de justice a ordonné et ordonne que
les présents édits seront enregistrés;' and at the end of the
decree, 'Fait en Parlement, le roi y séant en son lit de
justice.'"
Students' History of France, note to chapter 19.
See, also, PARLIAMENT OF PARIS.
"The origin of this term ['bed of justice'] has been much

discussed. The wits complained it was so styled because there
justice was put to sleep. The term was probably derived from
the arrangement of the throne on which the king sat. The back
and sides were made of bolsters and it was called a bed."
J. B. Perkins, France under Mazarin, volume 1, page 388,

foot-note.
An elaborate and entertaining account of a notable Bed of

Justice held under the Regency, in the early part of the reign
of Louis XV., will be found in the
Memoirs of the Duke de Saint Simon, abridged translation

of St. John, volume 4, chapter 5-7.
BEDR, Battle of.
See MAHOMETAN CONQUEST: A. D. 609-632.
BEDRIACUM, Battles of.
See ROME: A. D. 69.
BEECHY HEAD, Battle of (A. D. 1690).
See ENGLAND: A. D. 1690 (JUNE).
BEEF-EATERS, The.
See YEOMEN OF THE GUARD.
BEEF STEAK CLUB, The.
See CLUBS: THE BEEF STEAK.
BEER-ZATH, Battle of.
The field on which the great Jewish soldier and patriot, Judas
Maccabæus, having but 800 men with him, was beset by an army
of the Syrians and slain, B. C. 161.
Josephus, Antiquity of the Jews, book 12, chapter 11.
ALSO IN: H. Ewald, History of Israel, book 5, section 2.
BEG.
A Turkish title, signifying prince or lord; whence, also, Bey.
See BEY.
BEGGARS (Gueux) of the Netherland Revolt.
See NETHERLANDS: A. D. 1562-1566.
BEGGARS OF THE SEA.
See NETHERLANDS: A. D. 1572.
BEGUINES, OR BEGHINES.--BEGHARDS.
Weaving Brothers.
Lollards.
Brethren of the Free Spirit.
Fratricelli.
Bizochi.
Turlupins.
"In the year 1180 there lived in Liege a certain kindly,

stammering priest, known from his infirmity as Lambert le
Bègue. This man took pity on the destitute widows of the town.
Despite the impediment in his speech, he was, as often
happens, a man of a certain power and eloquence in preaching.
... This Lambert so moved the hearts of his hearers that gold
and silver poured in on him, given to relieve such of the
destitute women of Liege as were still of good and pious life.
With the moneys thus collected, Lambert built a little square
of cottages, with a church in the middle and a hospital, and
at the side a cemetery. Here he housed these homeless widows,
one or two in each little house, and then he drew up a half
monastic rule which was to guide their lives. The rule was
very simple, quite informal: no vows, no great renunciation
bound the 'Swestrones Brod durch Got.' A certain time of the
day was set apart for prayer and pious meditation; the other
hours they spent in spinning or sewing, in keeping their
houses clean, or they went as nurses in time of sickness into
the homes of the townspeople. ... Thus these women, though
pious and sequestered, were still in the world and of the
world. ... Soon we find the name' Swestrones Brod durch Got'
set aside for the more usual title of Beguines or Beghines.
Different authorities give different origins of this word. ...
Some have thought it was taken in memory of the founder, the
charitable Lambert le Bègut. Others think that, even as the
Mystics or Mutterers, the Lollards or Hummers, the Popelhards
or Babblers, so the Beguines or Stammerers were thus nicknamed
from their continual murmuring in prayer. This is plausible;
but not so plausible as the suggestion of Dr. Mosheim and M.
Auguste Jundt, who derive the word Beguine from the Flemish
word 'beggen,' to beg. For we know that these pious women had
been veritable beggars; and beggars should they again become.
With surprising swiftness the new order spread through the
Netherlands and into France and Germany. ... Lambert may have
lived to see a beguinage in every great town within his ken;
but we hear no more of him. The Beguines are no longer for
Liege, but for all the world. Each city possessed its quiet
congregation; and at any sick-bed you might meet a woman clad
in a simple smock and a great veil-like mantle, who lived only
to pray and do deeds of mercy. ... The success of the Beguines
had made them an example. ... Before St. Francis and St.
Dominic instituted the mendicant orders, there had silently
grown up in every town of the Netherlands a spirit of
fraternity, not imposed by any rule, but the natural impulse
of a people. The weavers seated all day long alone at their
rattling looms, the armourers beating out their thoughts in
iron, the cross-legged tailors and busy cobblers thinking and
stitching together--these men silent, pious, thoughtful,
joined themselves in a fraternity modelled on that of the
Beguines. They were called the Weaving Brothers. Bound by no
vows and fettered by no rule, they still lived the worldly
life and plied their trade for hire. Only in their leisure
they met together and prayed and dreamed and thought. ... Such
were the founders of the great fraternity of 'Fratres
Textores,' or Beghards as in later years the people more
generally called them."
A. M. F. Robinson, The End of the Middle Ages, 1.

{277}
"The Lollards differed from the Beghards less in reality than

in name. We are informed respecting them that, at their origin
in Antwerp, shortly after 1300, they associated together for
the purpose of waiting upon patients dangerously sick, and
burying the dead. ... Very early, however, an element of a
different kind began to work in those fellowships. Even about
the close of the 13th century irregularities and extravagances
are laid to their charge. .... The charges brought against the
later Beghards and Lollards, in connection, on the one hand,
with the fanatical Franciscans, who were violently contending
with the Church, and on the other, with the Brethren and
Sisters of the Free Spirit, relate to three particulars, viz.,
an a version to all useful industry, conjoined with a
propensity to mendicancy and idleness, an intemperate spirit
of opposition to the Church, and a skeptical and more or less
pantheistical mysticism. ... They ... declared that the time
of Antichrist was come, and on all hands endeavoured to
embroil the people with their spiritual guides. Their own
professed object was to restore the pure primeval state, the
divine life of freedom, innocence, and nature. The idea they
formed of that state was, that man, being in and of himself
one with God, requires only to act in the consciousness of
this unity, and to follow unrestrained the divinely implanted
impulses and inclinations of his nature, in order to be good
and godly."
C. Ullmann, Reformers before the Reformation,

volume 2, pages 14-16.
"The names of beghards and beguines came not unnaturally to be

used for devotees who, without being members of any regular
monastic society, made a profession of religious strictness;
and thus the applications of the names to some kinds of
sectaries was easy--more especially as many of these found it
convenient to assume the outward appearance of beghards, in
the hope of disguising their differences from the church. But
on the other hand, this drew on the orthodox beghards frequent
persecutions, and many of them, for the sake of safety, were glad
to connect themselves as tertiaries with the great mendicant
orders. ... In the 14th century, the popes dealt hardly with
the beghards; yet orthodox societies under this name still
remained in Germany; and in Belgium, the country of their
origin, sisterhoods of beguines flourish to the present day.
... Matthias of Janow, the Bohemian reformer, in the end of
the 14th century, says that all who act differently from the
profane vulgar are called beghardi or turlupini, or by other
blasphemous names. ... Among those who were confounded with
the beghards--partly because, like them, they abounded along
the Rhine--were the brethren and sisters of the Free Spirit.
These appear in various places under various names. They wore
a peculiarly simple dress, professed to give themselves to
contemplation, and, holding that labour is a hindrance to
contemplation and to the elevation of the soul to God, they
lived by beggary. Their doctrines were mystical and almost
pantheistic. ... The brethren and sisters of the Free Spirit
were much persecuted, and probably formed a large proportion
of those who were burnt under the name of beghards."
J. C. Robertson, History of Christian Church,

book 7, chapter 7 (volume 6).
"Near the close of this century [the 13th] originated in Italy

the Fratricelli and Bizochi, parties that in Germany and
France were denominated Beguards; and which, first Boniface
VIII., and afterwards other pontiffs condemned, and wished to
see persecuted by the Inquisition and exterminated in every
possible way. The Fratricelli, who also called themselves in
Latin 'Fratres parvi' (Little Brethren), or 'Fraterculi de
paupere vita' (Little Brothers of the Poor Life), were
Franciscan monks, but detached from the great family of
Franciscans; who wished to observe the regulations prescribed
by their founder St. Francis more perfectly than the others,
and therefore possessed no property, either individually or
collectively, but obtained their necessary food from day to
day by begging. ... They predicted a reformation and
purification of the church. ... They extolled Celestine V. as
the legal founder of their sect; but Boniface and the
succeeding pontiffs, who opposed the Fratricelli, they denied
to be true pontiffs. As the great Franciscan family had its
associates and dependents, who observed the third rule
prescribed by St. Francis [which required only certain pious
observances, such as fasts, prayers, continence, a coarse,
cheap dress, gravity of manners, &c., but did not prohibit
private property, marriage, public offices, and worldly
occupations], and who were usually called Tertiarii, so also
the sect of the Fratricelli ... had numerous Tertiarii of its
own. These were called, in Italy, Bizochi and Bocasoti; in
France Beguini; and in Germany Beghardi, by which name all the
Tertiarii were commonly designated. These differed from the
Fratricelli ... only in their mode of life. The Fratricelli
were real monks, living under the rule of St. Francis; but the
Bizochi or Beguini lived in the manner of other people. ...
Totally different from these austere Beguini and Beguinæ, were
the German and Belgic Beguinæ, who did not indeed originate in
this century, but now first came into notice. ... Concerning
the Turlupins, many have written; but none accurately. ... The
origin of the name, I know not; but I am able to prove from
substantial documents, that the Turlupins who were burned at
Paris, and in other parts of France were no other than the
Brethren of the Free Spirit whom the pontiffs and councils
condemned."
J. L. Von Mosheim, Inst's of Ecclesiastical History,

book 3, century 13, part 2, chapter 2, section 39-41,
and chapter 5, section 9, foot-note.
ALSO IN: L. Mariotti (A. Gallenga), Fra Dolcino and his

Times.
See, also, PICARDS.
BEGUMS OF OUDE, Warren Hastings and the.
See INDIA: A. D. 1773-1785.
BEHISTUN, Rock of.
"This remarkable spot, lying on the direct route between

Babylon and Ecbatana, and presenting the unusual combination
of a copious fountain, a rich plain and a rock suitable for
sculpture, must have early attracted the attention of the
great monarchs who marched their armies through the Zagros
range, as a place where they might conveniently set up
memorials of their exploits. ... The tablet and inscriptions
of Darius, which have made Behistun famous in modern times,
are in a recess to the right of the scarped face of the rock,
and at a considerable elevation."
G. Rawlinson, Five Great Monarchies: Media, chapter 1.
The mountain or rock of Behistun fixes the location of the

district known to the Greeks as Bagistana. "It lies southwest
of Elvend, between that mountain and the Zagrus in the valley
of the Choaspes, and is the district now known as Kirmenshah."
M. Duncker, History of Antiquity, book 8, chapter 1.
BEHRING SEA CONTROVERSY, and Arbitration.
UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1886-1893.
{278}
BEIRUT, Origin of.

See BERYTUS.
BELA I., King of Hungary, A. D. 1060-1063.

Bela II., A. D. 1131-1141.
Bela III., A. D. 1173-1196.
Bela IV., A. D. 1235-1270.
BELCHITE, Battle of.
See SPAIN: A. D. 1809 (FEBRUARY-JUNE).
BELERION, OR BOLERIUM.
The Roman name of Land's End, England.
See BRITAIN: CELTIC TRIBES.
BELFORT.
Siege by the Germans (1870-1871).
See FRANCE: A. D. 1870-1871.
BELGÆ, The.
"This Belgian confederation included the people of all the

country north of the Seine and Marne, bounded by the Atlantic
on the west and the Rhine on the north and east, except the
Mediomatrici and Treviri. ... The old divisions of France
before the great revolution of 1789 corresponded in some
degree to the divisions of the country in the time of Cæsar,
and the names of the people are still retained with little
alteration in the names of the chief towns or the names of the
ante-revolutionary divisions of France. In the country of the
Remi between the Marne and the Aisne there is the town of
Reims. In the territory of the Suessiones between the Marne
and the Aisne there is Soissons on the Aisne. The Bellovaci
were west of the Oise (Isara) a branch of the Seine: their
chief town, which at some time received the name of
Cæsaromagus, is now Beauvais. The Nervii were between and on
the Sambre and the Schelde. The Atrebates were north of the
Bellovaci between the Somme and the upper Schelde: their chief
place was Nemetacum or Nemetocenna, now Arras in the old
division of Artois. The Ambiani were on the Somme (Samara):
their name is represented by Amiens (Samarobriva). The Morini,
or sea-coast men extended from Boulogne towards Dunkerque. The
Menapii bordered on the northern Morini and were on both sides
of the lower Rhine (B. G. iv., 4). The Caleti were north of
the lower Seine along the coast in the Pays de Caux. The
Velocasses were east of the Caleti on the north side of the
Seine as far as the Oise; their chief town was Rotomagus
(Rouen) and their country was afterwards Vexin Normand and
Vexin Français. The Veromandui were north of the Suessiones:
their chief town under the Roman dominion, Augusta
Veromanduorum, is now St. Quentin. The Aduatuci were on the
lower Maas. The Condrusi and the others included under the
name of Germani were on the Maas, or between the Maas and the
Rhine. The Eburones had the country about Tongern and Spa, and
were the immediate neighbours of the Menapii on the Rhine."
G. Long, Decline of the Roman Republic, volume 4, chapter 3.
"Cæsar ... informs us that, in their own estimation, they [the

Belgæ] were principally descended from a German stock, the
offspring of some early migration across the Rhine. ... Strabo
... by no means concurred in Cæsar's view of the origin of
this ... race, which he believed to be Gaulish and not German,
though differing widely from the Galli, or Gauls of the central
region."
C. Merivale, History of the Romans, chapter 5.
ALSO IN: E. Guest, Origines Celticæ, volume 1, chapter 12.

BELGÆ: B. C. 57.
Cæsar's campaign against the confederacy.
In the second year of Cæsar's command in Gaul, B. C. 57, he

led his legions against the Belgæ, whom he characterized in
his Commentaries as the bravest of all the people of Gaul. The
many tribes of the Belgian country had joined themselves in a
great league to oppose the advancing Roman power, and were
able to bring into the field no less than 290,000 men. The
tribe of the Remi alone refused to join the confederacy and
placed themselves on the Roman side. Cæsar who had quartered
his army during the winter in the country of the Sequani,
marched boldly, with eight legions, into the midst of these
swarming enemies. In his first encounter with them on the
banks of the Aisne, the Belgic barbarians were terribly cut to
pieces and were so disheartened that tribe after tribe made
submission to the proconsul as he advanced. But the Nervii,
who boasted a Germanic descent, together with the Aduatuci,
the Atrebates and the Veromandui, rallied their forces for a
struggle to the death. The Nervii succeeded in surprising the
Romans, while the latter were preparing their camp on the
banks of the Sambre, and very nearly swept Cæsar and his
veterans off the field, by their furious and tremendous
charge. But the energy and personal influence of the one, with
the steady discipline of the other, prevailed in the end over
the untrained valour of the Nervii, and the proud nation was
not only defeated but annihilated. "Their eulogy is preserved
in the written testimony of their conqueror; and the Romans
long remembered, and never failed to signalize their
formidable valour. But this recollection of their ancient
prowess became from that day the principal monument of their
name and history, for the defeat they now sustained well nigh
annihilated the nation. Their combatants were cut off almost
to a man. The elders and the women, who had been left in
secure retreats, came forth of their own accord to solicit the
conqueror's clemency. ... 'Of 600 senators,' they said, 'we
have lost all but three; of 60,000 fighting men 500 only
remain.' Cæsar treated the survivors with compassion."
C. Merivale, History of the Romans, chapter 7.
ALSO IN:
Julius Cæsar, Gallic Wars, book 2.
G. Long, Decline of the Roman Republic, volume 4, chapter 3.
Napoleon III., History of Cæsar, book 3, chapter 5.
BELGÆ OF BRITAIN, The.

Supposed to be a colony from the Belgæ of the continent. The
territory which they occupied is now embraced in the counties
of Wiltshire and Somerset.
See BRITAIN: CELTIC TRIBES.
BELGIUM: Ancient and Mediaeval History.
See BELGÆ, NERVII, FRANKS, LORRAINE, FLANDERS, LIEGE.

NETHERLANDS.
BELGIUM: Modern History.
See NETHERLANDS.
BELGRADE:
Origin.
During the attacks of the Avars upon the territory of the

Eastern Empire, in the last years of the 6th century, the city
of Singidunum, at the junction of the Save with the Danube,
was taken and totally destroyed. The advantageous site of the
extinct town soon attracted a colony of Sclavonians, who
raised out of the ruins a new and strongly fortified city--the
Belgrade, or the White City of later times. "The Sclavonic
name of Belgrade is mentioned in the 10th century by
Constantine Porphyorgenitus: the Latin appellation of Alba
Græca is used by the Franks in the beginning of the 9th."
E. Gibbon, Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire,

chapter 46, note.
https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/25717
BELGIUM: A. D. 1425.
Acquired by Hungary and fortified against the Turks.
See HUNGARY: A. D. 1301-1442.
{279}
First repulse of the Turks.
See TURKS (THE OTTOMANS): A. D. 1402-1451.
Second repulse of the Turks.
See HUNGARY: A. D. 1442-1458;

and TURKS (THE OTTOMANS): A. D. 1451-1481.
Siege and capture by Solyman the Magnificent.
BELGIUM: A. D. 1688-1690.
Taken by the Austrians and recovered by the Turks.
Recovery from the Turks.
Restored to the Turks.
See RUSSIA: A. D. 1725-1739.
BELGIUM: A. D. 1789-1791.
Taken by the Austrians and restored to the Turks.
See TURKS: A. D. 1776-1792.
Surprised and taken by the Servians.
See BALKAN AND DANUBIAN STATES: 14TH-19TH CENTURIES

(SERVIA).
Withdrawal of Turkish troops.
See BALKAN AND DANUBIAN STATES: 14TH-19TH CENTURIES

(SERVIA).
----------BELGIUM: End----------
BELGRADE, The Peace of.
See RUSSIA: A. D. 1725-1739.
BELIK, Battle on the (Carrhæ--B. C. 53).
See ROME: B. C. 57-52.
BELISARIUS, Campaigns of.

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BAUTZEN, Battle of.

See GERMANY: A. D. 1813 (MAY-AUGUST).

BAUX, Lords of; Gothic Origin of the.

The illustrious Visigothic race of the "Balthi" or "Baltha"

E. Gibbon, Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire,

R. G. Latham, The Germania of Tacitus; Epilegomena,

See, also, BOIANS.

The Ethnology of.

"Bavaria ... falls into two divisions; the Bavaria of the

R. G. Latham, Ethnology of Europe, chapter 8.

W. C. Perry, The Franks, chapter 3.

See GERMANY: A. D. 843-962.

See Austria: A. D. 805-1246.

See GUELFS AND GHIBELLINES;

See CRUSADES: A. D. 1101-1102.

See GERMANY: A. D. 1125-1152.

See GUELFS AND GHIBELLINES, and SAXONY: A. D. 1178-1183.

Sir A. Halliday, Annals of the House of Hanover,

"Otto ... was a descendant of that Duke Luitpold who fell in

J. I. von Döllinger, The House of Wittelsbach (Studies

See GERMANY: A. D. 1314-1347.

See GERMANY: A. D. 1493-1519.

See GERMANY: A. D. 1608-1618.

See GERMANY: A. D. 1618-1620.

See GERMANY: A. D. 1621-1623.

See GERMANY: A. D. 1631-1632.

See GERMANY: A. D. 1646-1648.

See GERMANY: A. D. 1648.

See GERMANY: A. D. 1686.

See SPAIN: A. D. 1698-1700.

See GERMANY: A. D. 1702.

See GERMANY: A. D. 1703.

See GERMANY: A. D. 1704.

See GERMANY: A. D. 1705.

See UTRECHT: A. D. 1712-1714.

See AUSTRIA: A. D. 1740 (OCTOBER).

See AUSTRIA: A. D. 1741 (OCTOBER).

BAVARIA: A. D. 1743 (April).

See AUSTRIA: A. D. 1742 (JUNE-DECEMBER), and 1743.

BAVARIA: A. D. 1743 (June).

See AUSTRIA: A. D. 1743.

See AUSTRIA: A. D. 1744-1745.

See AIX-LA-CHAPELLE, THE CONGRESS.

See JESUITS: A. D. 1761-1769.

"With the death of Maximilian Joseph, of Bavaria (30 December,

R. Lodge, History of Modern Europe, chapter 20, section 3,