• • te s / I

• General Gas Law !:!J

use th •
can feel a resistance opposing you. It is beca
• When you sque_eze an inflated balloon, you ere 1s
a gas pressure ,n the balloon.

+-' t ,I'
gas
pressure--+
~ - - balloon

✓ l'-
Fig. 4.1

inflated.
life. It can keep things like tyres and footballs
• We can make use of gas pressure in daily

Force F
• Pressure P = Area A
2
re (N m- ) or pascal (Pa).
• The unit of pressure is Newton per metre squa

No te
5
x 10 Pa
Normal atmospheric pressure = 1.01
ns 0°C
Standard temperature and pressure mea
5
and 10 Pa.

◄ 56 ►
 4. Gases (Extension) ~
ao
soyle's Law
, An experimental set-up used to study the relationship between the pressure and the volume of a fixed
mass of gas at constant temperature Is shown In the figure below.
Bourdon
gauge

syringe
Fig. 4.2

• The end of the syringe is connected to a Bourdon gauge which can measure the pressure of the gas.
• The volume of the gas can be read from the scale on the syringe.
• Push the piston slowly to increase the pressure on the gas. The following graphs show the results of
Boyle's Law experiment.
p p
T2
T, ,
''
'
'
''
'
'
.
'\
'

.
''
'

1
o~---------------v 0------------------v
Fig. 4,3

• Boyle's Law states that the volume of a fixed mass of gas is inversely proportional to its pressure,
provided that the temperature of the gas remains constant.
PV = constant or P1V1 = P2 V2

Precautions of the experiment I Reasons

The rubber tubing connecting the Bourdon To ensure the volume of air trapped inside is
gauge and the syringe should be as short as negligible
possible
The piston should be pushed slowly To keep the temperature of air inside constant
All joints must be smeared with Vaseline To prevent air leakage

◄ s1 ►
 Exam Tips
In public examination, students may be a_sked to _describe
the procedures and the precautions of this experiment.

Pressure Law
- \\le can study the pressure-temperature relationship of a gas using the experimental set-up bel
OW.
thermometer - - - . . .

Bourdon
gauge

water

Fig. 4.4

• The air in the flask is heated in a water bath. The pressure is measured by a Bourdon gauge.
• The pressure of a fixed mass of gas is proportional to its absolute temperature in Kelvin scale
provided that the volume of the gas remains constant. '
• This statement is known as the Pressure Law.
P1
P2
P oc Tor-=-
T1 T2

P/Pa
P/Pa

,,
0----- ------- --+-T TK --,--------___J~---~C
-273 0
Fig.4.5

• By extrapolating the graph in Celsius scale, it will cross the x-axis at about -273°C. This temperature
is called absolute zero.
• Extrapolation suggests that the pressure of a gas will reach zero when the gas is cooled to -273°C·

◄ 58 ►
 The them,ometer should not touch the
bOttom of the beaker To ensure the temperature measured Is the
water temperature
Stir the water thoroughly
To ensure uniform wafer temperature
All joints must be smeared with Vaseline
To prevent air leakage
Heat the flask in a water bath and immerse
it into water completely To ensure uniform heating

Charles' Law
• We can study th e volume-temperature relationship of a gas using the experimental set-up below.

stirrer thermometer

paraffin
oil

t!m--water

Fig.4.6
• When the water is heated, the air trapped inside the capillary tube expands. The length of the air
column indicates the volume of the air.
• The volume of a fixed mass of gas is proportional to its absolute temperature in Kelvin scale, provided
that the pressure of the gas remains constant.
• This statement is known as Charles' Law.
V1 V2
V oc Tor-= -
T1 T2
V/m 3 V/m3

,·

- , - - ~ - - - - - - J . . __ _ _ _ ~c
-273 0
Fig. 4.7
◄ s9 ►
Physics; Worked ExaJDl)les and Grade_d_E~~t HKOSf

• By extrapolating the graph In Celsius scale, It will cross the x-axis at about - 273 t!C.
• Extrapolation suggests that the volume of a gas will reach zero when the gas Is cooled to -273'C.

,
Precautions of tho expernnen t I Reasons

The them,ometer should not touch the To ensure the temperature measured is the
bottom of the beaker water temperature

Stir the water thoroughly To ensure uniform water temperature

Important Point!
Always use Kelvin as the unit of temperature when
applying the Pressure Law and Charles' Law.

General Gas Law

• For a fixed mass of gas of pressure P, volume V and absolute temperature T, the three gas laws can
be summarized as

PV oc T or TPV = constant
•
-
The equation can also be written as

--
PV = nRT (general gas law)
where R is called the universal gas constant and n is the number of moles of the gas.
• The value of the universal gas constant R is 8.31 J K-1 mor).
• The general gas law can be written in terms of the number of molecules present:

PV= (~) RT= NkT

where the Avogadro's number NA is the number of molecules per mole and has the value of
10 and k = ~ is called Boltzmann's constant and has the value of 1.38
23
6.02 x x 10-23 J K-1.

• N is the total number of molecules in the gas.

• The number of moles n in a given pure substance is equal to its mass (m) in grams divided by its
molecular mass (M) specified as gram per mole.
n--m
- M

• The gas which obeys the gas equations is regarded as an ideal gas - such a gas does not exist in
nature, but most gases behave like an ideal gas at high temperature and low pressure.

◄ 60 ►
~ Kinetic Theory •F-xJ
~,.,dom motion of molecules In a gas
Observe a smoke cell under a microsc Yi d I This
• kind of motion is called Brownian motioo:e. ou can see that the smoke particles move ran om Y·

• Th~ acairu~!:i~~:\~~ii:pt:~icslmotke cell move randomly in all directions, hitting the smoke particles.
ThIS es o move randomly.

air particles

Fig. 4.8
smoke particle

Gas pressure
• The pressure of a gas is generated when the molecules bombard the walls of its container.
plunger

f .,. f \ T

wall of syringe

air particles

Fig. 4.9

• When the plunger is pushed inwards, the air particles inside the syringe have lesser volume to move
and they will hit the wall of the syringe more frequently. This increases the pressure in the syringe.

Gas expansion
• The average kinetic energy of the gas molecules increases when the absolute temperature of the gas
increases. The molecules will move faster, so there will be more frequent collisions and each collision
is more vigorous. Both will cause the pressure to increase.
• In order to maintain a constant pressure, the gas molecules must bombard the wall of the container
less frequently. This can be done by increasing the distance between the gas molecules and the wall
of the container. Therefore, the volume of the gas should be increased.

◄ 61 ►
- Physics: Wo[ised ExampJ.eun_~JAd.e!lEM3.~l~slo~O_aE

Simulation of gas laws using a kinetic theory model

• The figure below shows e kinetic theory model.

cardboard
••• disc
•••
h small beads

vibrator

Fig. 4.10

• A large number of small beads are put inside the kineti

c theory model. The beads are set in motion by
a vibrator. A cardboard disc is placed inside the tube
to act as a piston.
• The table below shows how the components of the
kinetic theory model represent the properties of a
gas.

Component of the model \ Property of gas

Small beads Gas molecules
Height h Volume of the gas
Weights added on top of the piston Pressure of the gas
Voltage of the d.c. supply Temperature of the gas

• By varying the number of weights added or the voltag

e supplied, we can simulate the general gas law
using this kinetic theory model.

Assumptions of the kinetic model of an ideal gas

1. All collisions between the gas molecules and
the wall of its container are elastic and there is no
energy loss.
2. The gas molecules interact with one another only when
they collide. Therefore, the potential energy of
the inter-molecular interaction can be neglected.
3. The size of the gas molecules is small compared with
the volume of the gas.
4. The time of collision between molecule and the
wall is small compared with the time between
collisions.

◄ a2 ►
 4.__0ase, (E~ten,ion)_$ L
c,1culate th8 p~essure. In a gas quantitatively based on kinetic theory
• consi~er a cubical container of side l, containing N molecules. The mass of each molecule is m.
1
, suPrx;,~~~~~ ~,~: :~:~u~:o~~~~lesthinsld~ the. container moves with a velocity -v and we only focus on
ttie m 9 e X--direct,on.

-v
z

Fig. 4.11
------~x

• The momentum of that molecule along the x-direction is -mvx.

• After th e coll!sion. wit.h th e shaded wall, the velocity of that molecule is reversed and its momentum
along the x-drrect,on is mvx. Assume the collision is elastic.
• The change of momentum = 2mvx.
• After the collision, the molecule travels to the left, collides with the left wall of the container and then
comes back without striking any other molecules.
• So, the time between the successive collisions with the shaded wall is
M = distance travelled = 2L
velocity Vx

Therefore, the average force exerted on the shaded wall by this molecule along x-direction is
F = change of momentum = 2mvx = mv/
x time ~LI~) L
• Since there are N molecules inside the container, the total average force exerted on the shaded wall
along x-direction is

Fx
m (Vx12 + Vx22 + .... + VxN2)
= Fx1 + Fx2 + .... + FxN = T

, Thus, the pressure exerted on the shaded wall along x-direction is

_ total average force acted on the wall = £.
Px - area of the wall L2
m 2 2 2) _ Nm 2
= L3 ( Vx1 + Vx2 + .... + VxN - V Vx

or PxV= Nmv/
where V = L3 which is the volume of the container, and
2
Vx
1 (Vx1 2 +V.x22 + .. .. + VxN2)
=N

.. Nm - 2 p Nm2
• S1m11arty, Pr= V Vy and 1 = V Vz •

• As the molecules are moving randomly, the pressure exerted on each wall must be the same.
i.e. P=P=P=P
X y l

L ◄ 63 ►
 Since the ~toc.i\ies of the n,o
.._ ... .._ -.. .
V\:1: v)) • v~
• :-3V
,~ lcc ule9 are assumed to be ran
dom. HencEt

By oomblnlng the ebove equa

tions, PV"' { Nmv' •

Kinetic energy of an Ideal ga

s
~ The average kinetic energy of a
gas molecule is
, 2 ,
-2 2 1 2
mv, + 2 mv2 + .... + 2 mvN
K.E.1¥M91 - = _!_ mv2
N
• By PV= nRTand PV= Nmv2
,3 -
2

, - 1 -
PV = 3 Nmv2 = nRT ⇒ 2m 3 n
v2 = 2 N RT ⇒ K.E,average -_l__B_
2 NAT

or 1 - 3
=
2 mv2 = 2 kT
K.E.average

Root-mean-square velocity
• The square root of '1- is
called the root-mean-square
velocity, vrms·
v :W :~ 3k T
nns m

Real gases
• In Fig. 4.12, curves A, B, C,
and D represent the same gas
at different temperatures.
p

A
B
C
-- -- -~ -~ -- = -- V
------ -··

D
Fig. 4.12
• From the curves, we can
see that a real gas behaves
pressure. as an ideal gas at high tem
perature and loW
• At low temperature, the ave
rage kinetic energy of the
the inter-molecular interaction molecules decreases. The
is no longer negligible com potential enerQY of
• pared to the reduced kinetic
At high pressure, the sep energy.
arations between the gas
molecules is no longer neglig mo lecules are shortened. The siz
ible compared to the volum e of the gas
e of the gas.

◄ 64 ►
 8 t 5t dard temperature
(c) If the density of the gas inside the balloon an f 1 mole of the
and pressure is 0.8 kg m-3, calculate the mass o (3 marks)
gas.

Solution 1
(a) By Boyle's Law, P, V, = P2 V2
(100000) >< (4 x 10~) =(90000) ,c 3V2 ~ 1
V2 =4.44 x 10 m ,
The volume of the balloon Is 4.414 x 1O~ m •
1
(b) The temperature of the gos remains conStant. 1
No gas lea~age occurs.
1 Note
(c) PV~ nRT
m 1f Volume::
P (7>) = nRT 0en
pnRT
m= P
0.8 x 1 x 8.31 >< 273
= 105
1
= 0.018 kg

Worked Example 4.2 Inflating a balloon (Extension)

(Related section: 4.1) , F-X }
3
A gas cylinder of volume 0.3 m contains a compressed gas at a
6
pressure of 1.5 x 10 Pa. It is used to inflate a non-elastic balloon to
3 5
a volume of 1 m at a pressure of 10 Pa. Assume the temperature of
the gas is kept constant.
(a) Find the final pressure in the cylinder. (2 marks)

(b) Calculate the maximum volume of the non-elastic balloon that can
5
be inflated to a pressure of 10 Pa using the gas cylinder.
(3 marks)

Solution
Note
(a) PV = P1 V1 + P2V2 n = n1 + n 2 and
6 5
(1.5 X 10 X 0.3) = (10 X 1) + (P2 X 0.3) temperature is kept
P2 = 1.17 x 106 Pa constant
6
The final pressure in the cylinder is 1.17 x 10 Pa. :. PV= P1 V1 + P2V2

(b) The pressure in the balloon and the cylinder becomes equal. 1
6 5 5
(1.5 X 10 X 0.3)= (10 XV,)+ (10 X 0.3) 1
3
Vi= 4.2 m 1
3
The maximum volume of the balloon is 4.2 m .

◄ 66 ►
,,., rked Example 4.3 Applyl ng gas laws (Extonslon) r . - - - ---- ... - ~•
,,o _::_. -· •·-·-------·--~·-----
. . ===::'.:..~- __
(Related section: 4.2) _.!:!J
containers 1 and 2 of equal volume o. 1 ~ . •
artition. In container 1, there are mo~: ere separa ted by a th,n
5
~r,tainer 2, there are 3 motes of gas X at 1 "s1g!Pgas X at 300 K. In Container 2
a. Container 1
(B) Calculate the pressure of gas in container 1_ (2 marks)
(tl) Calculate the temper ature of gas in contain er _
2 (2 marks) Fig. 4.13
(C) n,e thin partition is now remove d, calculate the
{i) final tempe~ture of the gas, and (3 marks)
(ii) final pressure of the gas. (2 marks)

solution
(8) PV = nRT 1
p X 0.1 : 5 X 8.31 X 300
P = 1.25 x 105 Pa 1
(b) PV = nRT 1
5
10 X 0.1 = 3 X 8.31 X T
T = 401 K 1
I
Note
(c) (i) Let T1 and T2 be th • ·t·
e in1 1a temperatures of gas in containers
1 and 2 respec tively and T, be the final temperature of the gas. Assum e the total
K.E., = K.E., + K.E.2 1 kinetic energy of the
gas molec ules is
~
( ; )( ~: ) T, = ( )(-¼,-) T, + ( ; H{) T, 1
conserved.
BT,= 5T1 + 3T2
: (5 X 300) + (3 X 401)
T,= 338 K 1
(..II) p-
nRT 1
-V
8 X 8.31 X 338
=-----
0.1 + 0.1
= 1.12 x 105 Pa 1

Worked Example 4.4 Fire extinguisher (Extension)

(Related section: 4.2) !=.,J
The photo on the right shows a carbon dioxide fire extinguisher which
can be found in a school laboratory. The capacity of the cylinder is
0.2 m and the carbon dioxide is stored at a pressure of 23.5 MPa.
3

(a) Describe how the carbon dioxide molecules exert pressure on the

•
wall of the cylinder in terms of kinetic theory. (2 marks)

(b) Explain why the cylinder should not be exposed under direct
sunlight. (3 marks)

(c) Calculate the number of moles of carbon dioxide in the cylinder if

the temperature of the gas is 25°C. (2 marks)

Fig. 4.14

◄ 67 ►
Physics: Wor1'edh~IDPl~s..olliLOr.a~c.li_EM.~iso_lfqrJ.USD_se

Solution
(a) The carbon dioxide molecules move randomly 1
and bomb~rd the wall of the cylinder. 1
This sets tip a gas pressure on the wall of the cylinder.
(b) The gas molecules i1,side u,e cylinder will bombard the wall of 1
the cylinder more violently when the gas is heated.
The pressure in the cylinder thus increases. 1
Explosion will occur if the cylinder cannot withstand such a 1
high pressure.
(c) PV= nRT 1
6
23.5 x1Q x 0.2 = n x 8.31 x (25 + 273)
n = 1898 moles 1

Ex • es]
Consolidation Questions
Extension

1. Pour water into a glass until it is completely full. Then cover the
glass with a cardboard. It is found that the water does not leak out
when the glass is inverted.
(a) Explain why the water does not leak out. (2 marks)
(b) What would happen if the glass is not completely filled with
water? Explain your answer. (2 marks)

Fig. 4.15
I I

4.1 l
2. The diagram on the right shows a hanger with a rubber sucker.
(a) Explain the working principle of the rubber sucker. (3 marks)
5
{b) If the atmospheric pressure is 10 Pa and the diameter of the
sucker is 5 cm, what is the force acting on the sucker?
(3 marks)

Fig.4.16

L ◄ 68 ►
 0
4,
Q~E/(IP.O~ionl
..
.& -
@jl~~:·'-';;~==~~=--===----------------~--~----------------
3.

lifting force

Fig.4.17

The lifting force on a flying plane is mainly provided by the thrust due to the pressure difference
between th e uppe~ an? lower surfaces of its wings. Suppose the pressure difference is 1SO kPa a nd
the area of each wing Is 50 m2 . Find the lifting force. (3 marks)

4. A sealed syringe contains 80 cm 3 of air at 25°C and a pressure of 105 Pa.

(a) Calculate the number of moles of air inside the syringe. (2 marks)
(b) What is the new pressure if the temperature is reduced to 0°c at constant volume? (2 marks)
(c) What is the new volume if the pressure is increased to 1.2 x 105 Pa at constant temperature?
(2 marks)

5. An inverted test tube, with its mouth facing the water surface, test tube
3
contains 15 cm of air at 105 Pa. The test tube is then pressed into containing
the water and the volume of the air inside reduces to 12 cm3 . 15 cm3 of air
(a) What is the pressure inside the test tube at this depth?
(2 marks) I
I
I
I - water
(b) State two assumptions in your calculation in (a). (2 marks) I - -

'
Fig. 4.18.

rI I

·~1]
o
6- A balloon of volume .02 m3 contains oxygen gas of pressure 1.5 x 105 Pa at 40°C, It is warmed until
both pressure and volume are doubled.
(a) What is the final temperature of the gas? (2 marks)
(b) Calculate the number of moles of oxygen inside the balloon. (2 marks)

◄ 69 ►