Nelwor k Layer

the paeel rern the soyTe e

LIis ves ponuible lor covying
to hedestinadion.ur)
im porlant thah dala tayer
aNluwork Layer lowes layer thal deals with,end 4o end
Yonsmsi on

Transport Layer
Sprovides Serices to transfor!
Netwot Layer
’Tares cervices 'som dedo link (ayy

#Des ign Tssues

LMain hoals of Layer
) Service provided shoud be indepndent ef he underlying
tehnolog Users of Geryices need
physical implenentaion of nelworlk
not to knotw abou
BELERE
) Desgn odalayer mushnot disable ue Rrom tonnecing
to nelwork Gt di Rerent téchnolagies:
in] Tran gpov lyer 8hold be shelded from numbertype and
subnel u8er 08s.
diltevenl topologies of the
A the anspor lin k want is o Communi cation link
it need not lo know how tha link is establis hed
his bosis of -tonneeioe services emerqe d.
iJ conne ion orienled (icde phone rall) ) onnection les
’ reates proper connehon Lbondle kar ke send
reli able not reliable
’ AR ter trongter,doges the tonn bMore like post al system
 Issue8
’pegn
andFoword Pacee
1) 3tore - it to
whth hos a packel o gend delivers
1The node
Hhe TOWer
nearest
slore d in the rouder Un il it hos
-Packcl i6 Por error nelelion
is verified
arTived ond its cheksum
done, packed i forwoTded to next rouder.
’Once , his is it before
needs to tore the en enire pakel
’Since outeY
con PoT wOTd t to next
ching
It iG known os
gtore - and- foYtword soiH

9 ServitCs provided 4o Tronsporl Lay er connedion

be (onneion - oriente d ox
4 connetion can
les
nott
goas ’ n o dep end ent on sUbnel tech
Gsane
’ Trans por |ayer g hould not be
expoced to numbrr type ond topo lo9 g
’ nelwor address must u8e a Uniform
numbrirg plan.
tj Providing Connedion oricnted vivtval
8ervice.
iralt is slop blw
bA path or rowe caued
8ource estina ion
and A
AW packets ave sen adorg this path.
identifier thal denoles viual cirout i
Eah packet hot
blongs to ,virlua ir ut is terminal ed and
tongmis9'on is co mplele
er (onneion ie Tleosed

iy Providing Connedionlees Service.

L each pack ed is anami}ed ind ependen
eah packet cont ain its Tohing fo inlo and is termcd
dolagr a.
 municol ion inil ives

Feature Unicost Brood cosl tMUlticot

twhrre
Delinition A onnuniradion ACornnuni cati on whereA (ornmum cabion
mesoge is sen a mesage is sent
where a mes 0ge orn ene gen der
(rom One serdes to
1 Gernt Prom gYoup of
One serderl to onoth al recuvers.
eceives.

sbato is snt t
Tronstnission Gent t0 aJ receoient gvoup oreeipente
Sent

Tecipien
o
single in neeork

U8es a onique gpia bropdcol scs speval

Aadreirg detina ion oddres Oddre. multirost addre8.

huaranteed No al devices rmoy NOt au devices

be intoresled be intreted.

More Seure Les Seure Modevat ey seuwe

Desinaion Single re ceivry AN Teceivers (oroup
Bondwidth Moderole
usage High Moderade
L enoy Low
EDUCERE
High
ELLERE
Moderatton

Examples En aul File trawroHP requets, Video otreoming

ARP rcquet s online
#IPy4 Addreses Internd should
Conneed to the
Eahcompu er
dentified uniqu y e is caled od
i his puYp ot
J4enifrer us td Por
Tntornt Addrees

32bit Ad Avess. onique

space ’ 3 2
Adr es
32 bits

hostid
nedid
which identikes
hosd on tha neloork
ntwork
idenificotion
which iídentiis a
ndwork

Ciovkal Addrexsing
closes A B,C,D ond E,

Clos A Clo NO of Addresses

SO1. A S0
G. 251< 30
Uos B
229 12- S4.
C.2.61.
D (.254
6. 254.

24 bits

oNduwork Host
7 bils Nluor ield 24 bls HOst.
ranqe 00.0.0 1127. 2S52SS25SHot
Ly heYe can be 126 ye et nework 17 million hol
identifies dos A
 255. 255. 2400.
00 Range
’
S 3 25S2
sefature Reservcd
fos 11110
use Fulure freserved
or
E
malk Subne
su 2opto 0ih workg nel million d opto AUows
255.25s ddress
S5 ito39. A coy Multi 1130
2. OEREE
reserv
ed
’Clo3
D
2sS.2ss 3.22
O0, 92-0. Range
to
Hosto work Nd 110
bits 8 bils 1
ne On
host For
60.2 -89 128
0.0 25S- 191- ’
block Lost
2SS 25S- SS 2191-
i28.0.0.0 block LFirsl
S.2sS 25S- 128. to
25S 255.
numbers HoSt
Host Neoor 0
mmg
14bils
X
 Byle
Byle
127

clow c 40
c192-223
324-239
E240 -255

Starl

|Clots B Closs C loss E

Subnelingpriniple o spliling a block od address into SmaleY

block address es
Lwe divide a nelwork in to smaler Subnelw or k&
OY subnets
eah subnel hos its own Subhel addresse
’Subntt Mosk
32-bil number used in IP addressing to
Seperale the ne work porion of an TP addess fyom
hot porlion deviëes delermine which
T helgs Com pulers and
por ot TP adåyexs elers lo nel oork hey qre present
and which porl relers to heir speale localion or
address wthin nelwork, ie need 8 subnels
288eed 31's
in defal mote
in loe bletk.
mmand anioges ot Sobncling
provide, Searilj oto one nluoork rom an other nelwork.
bI mo be posible thal a porti oor subael might need
higher ncl uoorh prioriig Ihan othe%
Tn (o5e od Srnau nelwork s, maintanenre

4 Disodvant age&

Epersive.
In cose of single Nework ong fuwo TP addre8es are wosted
Brod ces Id

Cloles Adaresing
Even thovgh the number of adval devices conneded o
Interne much leas than 4 bi lion.
due to Plaws in doelul
de plelion hos fak en ploce
address deplekion
oddressing schemnt.
hove run out of closs h and B addresses.
TO ove cones this, clolegs odde ig S nouw being iried o
’No cdosses bu addre&s gener alion take place in blocks

Addyes blocks
Defintd os Tange ot a ddreses.d
when an eniy wanis
closless oddveirg
conneded to the iniernel, a block (7ange)
address is ranl ed to i
The size of the block ie num ber o addresses
depends on he
Hhe si2 e ot the enid os weu 6g is nalure
 enter

return
’Restridions
block should be
in a
manner
conlinuous shift
Serial in
addrees in a block
LTotal num ber
hos
40 be equ al to
evenly divisible
oddress showld be
addresses.
num ber

Avan tages
LLMore I p address al o cad ions.
balanced e IP addrees Tonges
bMove eRiçnt

+ Soprrnelting
C is till avau lablc.
LA an d B are almot deplelcd.
Need more ad dreseb needed bro,

LAnwer
Suprndhing
In sopevraig , an orqanizal ion combines
Several closs blocks lo creole a large range
Sever a nelworks are
addresses
Combln cd to
Goper ned work

Hhis the organizad ion Can Oppy Por a

doS C block ngtead ot od one
ot
nee ds 4000 address es ,they con be
on organiz ation
obtai ned by usina 4 C blockg
( one bl ock corres ponds to 256 addresies)
 ind subnt address
IP addvess Moh
a) 120 14. 22 6 253.2.5S. 128-0.

120 14 22
00001110 00010110 o0010000

255 128
10000 000 00000000

120 14
01111000 O0001110 0 000 0000 0000 0000

420 4.0. 0

Host id.
N id ERE
tp oddres ot a host on clo C nelwork is 192.123.46.237.
loed for his nel work
subnet

de aut mok 255.25S. 25S. 0

2
42
25S 255 192
1111 LL1L 4 111111 11 000 000

’255.25S. 255192
0.2sS 10.192 168 192
9t
16%t0 {28
192 {92.1S10.
3
427 40. 16B 192 to.G4 816 192
63
16810
10.0192 492468.
Ronge
Sobne
el per hosla
6456
idhost in O's
ele Gnumber
of
1'9 exlra T
11441111
0000 f100 11444t1t 111tttt
258.192 Bubnet256.
255.
100 16& 192
Ang
eath addhes
of cod bYoad and
subnel alcalud
e 3)
het irst addvess
ef TP the
hod st mond How 2)
subnel9 per hesto
the is wha 1)
subnehs number
of
9ed alere the wer ons
Pollotoing
veale 25S192
Io 255.25S
and subnels the (hiven ]
s he 08 10.0 t68 i32 nelwork Cdots
 X
Translaion
T Nel work Addre8
OY more l6c al
commg
LI iS a proces In which one
one
into
IP addreses are tranglaled
to provde
htobal IP addresses and vice versa
Intene Oces
to locad hosls

LBosic idea in NAT

TpP
eoh conpany is a ssiqntd a singe Ip
addrezs Or a most a smal number o Lp
addrees so os ECHNo acces he Tntern el
othin the conpang every com puter gels a
Uni (ue Ip addres which is 0ged Por
the intenal ra Plic of the ofice

But ohen a packe goes os o he compony

Gnd goez ko ISP then tranlaion tak es place.

’3ranges o IP addvexses have been dedared

as
privaleDUCERE ExOELLERE
40.00 0 to 10.265.2 55. 25s|8 > 1677721 6Hols
Most 11216. 0.0 to
USed 173.31255. 2ss12 ’104 STG Hod
492 168-0.0 192468.255. 25s66G 686 H4*

A NAT box 4nanslaes IP oddress

yit (onverts internal IP oddres to compoy's
ue TP address.
 Podel belore
LAN
Avorylation.
Packel ater
trordotion
18266-42-1d
12.00. 2)
-0
Router ISPs Youter
NAT box
Goith
Rire wall

+ Intecn et Proto col Version 4 IRy)

LI host to host delivevy protocol
which
bdongo to Hhe nelwork layer and is designed
for Tnternel

LIP is 0sed os the transnission mehonism by

the Tco/IP protocols.

TCP ODP pockels are ncap sul aled in the

and IP Carries it ron source to
packet
destinaion.
LP is a conneion leg8 dadagram protocol oitt no
Joovaniee No errOT or low contro
(ontrol

Gcan dele erroT and diG cavd corrupled packel

Best e Rort deliverg pYo to col
Ip pactel can 9l los or corTupled oY delayed.
ow o osder at the destinadion
>They may ovrive
or my cveal e conqetion in nelwork
d
Heade
-20- 6 55 636 byles
-20-60 bye Dalo grarn
Headex Dala

HLEN DS Total Lnglh

4bits LbilS 8 bits 16 bifs
Ldentilicalion tlags Frogmenlion oßlsel
16 bilG 3bils t3 bitG
Time to live ProBoco| Header theoksum
8 bits 2bifg

SourcesTP Addres
bedinahon TOkddre

Optpns

ij VER 4 bi Ricld defincs version ol IP protocol

) Heoder Length (HIEN)4bit Rield de lines total lengtth ot
daloqram header in 4- byde ooT da.
n) Type d Servite os) ’used to de fine the quality of service
EDUC For padketR entire
ijTotal length (tG bils) ’ Ritd speufics the lengeh of
IPy4 pack d . in cluding heoder and dala i
in

byles.
vJ Iden tificat ion 08ed for podhel Pragment aion and reo4 em bly
’0sed Por conlxoling ond idenhifying pockel fvogm niatn
ragment
vi) Fragr ent oflsel ’ speilics the posi ion ot
within

the original pockel.

vij Time ko Live rep res enls the mai mum number ot hops (r0atex
that pack el con rang Vese be ore i is dis cord ed

ix] Protocol ’indicad es he type of protocol used in dala

portion of padk el Such o3 TCP, UD othes.
 Header checsum T! is u3ed o veriy he int eg
10] Avorsmission
of Py4 heoder dvinA
recal)ode this dhekaurn
5Rodevs and devices
to chedk Por errors.
IP ad dvess f sender
IP AAdvess field contoin
11 Source oddrek deslinak(on
J2} Destinahion IP Addres TP oddrek

wos designed to enable high performance

and lorger addre space

TPy4
Achieved by ovevcoming 0eaknes of TPvt

’ Adv ant ages

JImproved hea der lorrn a
In is header Pormat , the option o
options ore seperaled
Rrom bobose hcader
ore in gerted when needed

y Larger addres epace

L Addre space of IPvG120
18) Now oplions
6inreos ed PunUionalil dae to odditon of
nou opiong

Lt indu des 8eurily in bosie speultration

T indudes enoryptio ol packchs and authenticat ion
of sender of pockels
for ehhanin 4he ser i
 Possibilit of extntion
L
desiqn of IPv6 is done thol

possibility of extcn sion of prolo col P

equir ed
6J Support allocaliorn

L implem ent bller &uppor for real time tralfic.

aood Por yideo conferen ce

Dolog and Play CHNOL

indudes plog and play in slond ard speuPicad ion
L musl be eeasier for
novice U3eYs
Conne their machineg to ndwors ) sl be done
Qulorm alicaJuy
Speufi caion ond oplimization
IPV6 Pallowe qood pya ices o IeN4 an d
omits the Plaus
EDUCERE EkcELLERE
40 byes uplo 65,53svyle

Base Header Payloa d

I?v6
’232 addvesses wnyg to epresn 128 ways to rep addreles
address
’ 4 billion oddr e8e poible addresre
’ dotted deim ad noalion -’ hexodeimal and 8 groups
-TaMp is us ed I O1P Yeplared by MLD
Manva) onfig >sfalic or dynamicAwdo - tonfiquraion
required
+ Rouing Alqovithms
pari of nelwork loyer so}ware.

5T is responsible or deoddng the owpud line

Over which
wohich a pade is to be Sent

stadic Rouling Algo

non- adaplive
adaplive rowing which doesn change
the roding table un\s admin Ch an ges
O modifies them monuoly
b Shorlest Poth Algorihm
# Dijkstva's Algoihm
a greedy adgori hm tha
thal is uge d to eind
minimum dislante blw a node ond other
nodes in the qraph.
Al o
f) Monr k the s0UsCe node cur ent distan ce as

) 3el the node with

inRinid malesl
the non Visite d nodes as
urmentdislance
Curent node. omong
) For each neighbour N, the c6sTent node

uTYent
the polentia ncw dist ance by adding the
distance c urr ent node with welght oe dge
conn
bjTR
eoing he wTrrent node to N
poBential ne distance 1S Smaler han urrnt
dislance N. ogdade N'S urent d(glance
witth

distance
 C

ake node as visitcd node

Unyisil ed node q0 to sBep 2 to Pind
nd
Find ony dis tan ce
next node whilh hos
and Continue the pro(eM

gBond ad a node,
Check where the SmaleB drstan e is,

+ Dynamic Pouting Algorithms.

adap ive rouding which changes he rouing lab le
A
Ao change in topolog y
accordinA algo and does not provide high
L 0se8 corn plexTouding
ge curibd
’stance Vedor vedor Rouling Algo.
’DVA protocol method Used by roueTS to
to Rind
the bet polth PoY dado to travel acros a nelwork
a table tha showg shortesl
’Each rolerDkecps
Otherocr
distance
eve
Algo
aSsUme eo ch ro ler KnowS the of
other TO er in He ndwork bul
pah is not Known

eoueY 4rangmils its dist anre ve dor to eo ch sf its

heighb ours in a vouing pakel,

LyEach router TRCVeg and saves the mot Tecently

receved distance vector rom each
 B

Tecalcul ales its dist once vedor when

1}TH re coves a diston ce vedor from neighbor

difleven inPor reaion thon belore
con\ajniàcovers thal a link to o nogh bour hos
)I4 dis
Jone down

O 2
2

Xy2
x0 5
2

X ’shoring with

D. (y)= min d c(xv) + Dvly) 3 Por esh node

X 3 3
2 S0 On.

4 3
y o2
z l3 2 0 L 3
Snk
Stade Rouding
Lroaling
perform
1S simple and each oul r
he Polluing s oprvaliong
hhos
o8 to

1] Each router shouwd dis cover its neighbours

and oblaun their nelwork addree es.
2 Then it should me 08 UTe the oY (ot to
eoch o hese nughb oUS S.
deloy
con toni ng the
3 I hould cong Ivud a pok e
nelwok addres8es delays d a the
and deay'
ncighbours
Send this pokels to al other 0 ers

5) Comp ule the shorles path to every other ro uder

Gvses Dij kshta's Alqo
Fe alures
i| Lin k Stae Pocke A small paket thot contauns
rouding info.
] Link s\ale DalabEREEX
o4e AA toliedion ot info qahere d
from link-stale packel.
i) Shorest Path Firs} Algo ’ A caluuta ion peormed o
(oijkshira's Aho) dodabos e results in ghovtext
path.
Table:A hst o kno on ph ond inlerforex
A B C DE
A 2 3
(A
1 0
L0 S
E3
t Pro\o cols

Addvess Resolulion Protoco |

used to deermine
TI is a nelwork protocol
Ahe MAC addres |hovduwave
actes) rom any
IP address

maPPing the TP Addves inta

’ARP is Used to mapping
MAC addres

This proto col is used when a device wanls

to commUnicate toith another device over O
a lo cal
area nelwork elherne.

’ I p Used to Communical e with any device a the

pplicaion (ayer, but to communi ca e with a device
al the dala 1ink Iauyer send dala to it
MAC addres is Tequir ed

Types of ARP
3 Proxy ARP
ARP a technique Hroug which proxy ARP
in a neloork Can answer ARP ueriCs
thal are not in tha

Jhraluitous ARp This is an ap re uet t a ho

ohi ch
to check dupli cale ip addres
3) Revese ARP to know I a ddress of ouY comp Server
a) Tnverse ARP it is oppegitc ot ARP
MAC
Comenon

os Adars Resoluion Protocol (RARP)

LLTha is 09ed to map a physi cad (MA) oddre
to IP address

on the Ndoork
Ndwork A
cces Layer and
19 employed to send doda blw a poini6
pointe in
S ame nelork

hod 2 Unigue
Unique addres TP and AAC.

LIP els ossigned sofloe and aPter that

bd use
hovd ware
the MAC addres is cortud ed into

RARP Sever that OLOG

responds to RARP reued s,
withe
Can be any nor ma cornpuder
ndwork

must hold he dala G al MAC addyesees

PARP ARP
o map an TP address
a physica (MA) Used physica
’ 0sed to mopaddreEEXCEo MAC oddrese es
to on IP
’0btoßn MAC addye8 when
’Oblain TP addreg b
Knoaging only TP
T
Knocoing only ils MAC
’Rovedy used in modern widely used in modern ndwork
to resolve IP addre to
nelwork mosB devices
MAC addregees.
hos pre- o33 1q ned TP addre
5T Uses value 3 or
requels and 4 or equ eyts and for regronses
reponses
 Pyotocol

Terned control Metage raloeol,

a neluork layer pv ol oeol.
5T is used for erroY handling in he nelwayb
\ayer
eqing cvvons and managenmanl queies

Nlook I6MP
Layer

Mes ageg
ij Error- reporhng meMages
means 4hal he rouer encounley s a
problem when it
proceses an TP packel
then it eporls a mesag e

L
Mesage
mesaqes tha help the hotl to qel he apeulie
informa ion of another hosd
For exanple ’ sUppose here are dient an d a aevveY
and the dien ants to know bkelher lhe stvver
is live oT nol,then i senda the TeMP est oge
to the scrver.
PIt solves IP pobl em& ie T1 does not have any error onlo)
mehanism
Solved|l doea nol have any osIlonee
prebtem
C
ernd hrou Monagement Protocol (I(AMP).
nrn unicadion proBo col vsed by hods
comn and
adjacent voulers
roulers lor multico_ltng (ommunicadion
bwith IP nel orke and ug es the re0 Urces
to tYangmi the mesogedala
<tiuenllg
packels.

1IntaP Carn be Used in streaming videos, ganing

tools
or socb conlevening
This protoco) is 0ed on IPvt nelworeg an d

Ror vsirg hi8 on Ipv6 , molH cohinA is manayed

by Multi cozf Lisl en er Dis covery (MLD).

Advantages
L proto col erienty rang mils he multict data
to recevers and so, n0no
SO, jonk padkels are
transmitt ed to he
hot ohich showg optirnieed pede
Bandwith EDUC
ie congumed otay
shared link are (onn ecd ed
b Hot can leove a multicog group ond join ano
ther
Disadvon tag e8
L does not pxovide g00 d eicnay in filkering and
Se uriy
bgue Ao lade of TCP neworle conqesdton
 control Algorithm
* Congesion happeng
L Congegtionie
compuler nlwovk wh
sent a the am e

here is too much

the
d al a
neloork
baing to slo w down.
tirne, cauesing
’ongeslion conlxol Techniques

jOpen - loop congeslion Conyol

Open loog congestion control polidcs are at plied to
b
prevent (ongetion belore it happens
a) pelrans nis sion Polig
bperansmission happen when pa ckel s coYY Upl-ed.
and (ong eition.
To prevert tongesion,dros mis8ion 4im ers must be
desighed to prevent congclion and also able to
oplimize eiieney
bJ oindou) Poliog
sever al packels in ho-back -n window are re-sn
al thouyh Some pack ets may be recaved Succeslu
Looplicalion moy inreose corgeglion
wTo solve his, seledive repe windo0 ehould
be adopled os it sende the speulic pokel
h owe b een lo.
mag
cJois cording Policy
broe may pevent Congetion and al he same
y
portiay discard the corrupted or les sersiive
packoges and aly o be able to moint ain
mesage
 Commuiru

Anooledaen en Polo
TeCover con also oed congest ion
LACK imposed by
showd send em ent or N pack ets
adknow le dqen
Lyeceiver
rolher th an 8ndig Por exe pockel
should gend an Adk only i hos to
yyccoveY xpiseg.
Send a packel oY imor
S) Admission
Policg
T there is a chance of congeion or there is
cong esAion in nelwork ouler shouwd deng edablist ing
a virtual nelwork connelion to pyevent fuY ther
(ong eg ion

+ Closed loop cong eion Control

or aleyial e
3 These techniques are used to tred
congeslior alter it happen.
Techniues
J BakpreBYe
con qestion coniro| tehni que
node tongestion
IH is a node to node
doda Ploco
thod pro pagale in oppotile diredion of
TH can be applied ony to virtual ci cu t
where eoch node hos info of its above wpstrea
nod e
batkpregure Bakpressure

8ource
corgetion

Dala FlOw,