UNIT-1 COMPUTER FUNDAMENTALS

INFORMATION CONCEPTS AND PROCESSING

Data: It is the collection of raw facts, figures & symbols.

Ex: Names of students and their marks in different subjects listed in random order.

Information: It is the data that is processed & presented in an organized manner.

Ex: When the names of students are arranged in alphabetical order, total and average
marks are calculated & presented in a tabular form, it is information

Information System:
Definition:
In a Computer based information system, Computers Collect, store and Process data into
information, according to instructions people provide via computer programs.

NEED, QUALITY AND VALUE OF INFORMATION:

1. Information need
Information need is an individual or group's desire to locate and obtain information to satisfy a
conscious or unconscious need.
The ‘information’ and ‘need’ in ‘information need’ are an inseparable interconnection. Needs
and interests call forth information.
The objectives of studying information needs are:

1. The explanation of observed phenomena of information use or expressed need;

2. The prediction of instances of information uses;
3. The control and thereby improvement of the utilization of information manipulation of
essentials conditions.
2. Information Quality

Information quality is a relatively new concept to many organizations. With the increase in data
collection and storage, and the mining of that data for business uses, the quality of the
information produced becomes increasingly important.

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  Quality Information

Quality information is defined as "Information that is suitable for all of an organization’s

purposes, not just my purposes." This means that the data is suitable for use in a mail merge, an
email, statistic analysis, etc.

“Quality must be built into the processes of an organization if it is to be successful and

sustainable in its information management”

 Measure and Manage

If attempting to improve the quality of existing data, you must first measure that existing
quality. This requires the identification of measurable criteria, for example:

 Completeness of records: are all required fields filled in?

1. E.g., if a contact name is filled in, make sure that the job title field and the salutation
field are also entered
2. A name and a phone number may well not constitute a complete record.
3. Completeness allows for use of the data for more purposes.

 Consistency: is the data entered in a uniform manner?

1. A given data field should have only one type of data in it, and only that type of data,
e.g. telephone numbers.
2. It should be formatted in a consistent manner, e.g. "(##) #######"
3. Consistency allows for less complicated retrieval of information from a database.

 Timeliness: is the data out of date?

1. Data protection law requires that data be discarded if older than and unverified in two
years.

 Accuracy

 Fixing Data

If a set of data is measured against identified criteria, then it is possible to establish a course of
remedial actions to increase the overall quality.

Data quality can also be estimated by taking a sample and determining how many records have
values that differ from the true values.

 The Outlook

It is essential for an organization to integrate quality processes into the fabric of the organization,
teaching the data collectors why data quality is important, making sure the correct collection
rules and principles are adhered to and collecting it, processing it and producing it in a
considered and well defined manner.

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3. Value of Information

Information is a resource fundamental to the success of any business as such it has monetary
value (i.e. its “worth” can be measured in money terms) and it can be bought and sold
Good quality information can be used to:
 Maximise sales
 Cut costs
 Develop new products
 Help make good management decisions

 Factors Affecting Value:

The value of information depends on a number of factors. The value of information depends
on it being:
o Up-to-date
o Complete
o Fit for intended use (relevant)
o Accurate
o From a reliable source
o Comprehensible

DATA PROCESSING CONCEPTS:

Components of an Information System:

In an Organization, an information system consists of various components Such as
 Data-Input that the system takes to produce information

 Hardware-A computer and its peripheral equipment: input, output and storage devices.
Hardware also includes data communication equipment.

 Software-sets of instructions that tell the computer how to take data in, how to process it,
how to display information, and how to store data and information.

 Telecommunication-Hardware and software that facilitate fast transmission and

reception of text, pictures, sound and animation in the form of electronic data.

 People-Information Systems professionals and users who analyze organizational

information needs, design and construct information systems, write computer programs,
operate the hardware and maintain software.

 Procedures-Rules for achieving optimal and secure operations in data processing.

Procedures include priorities in dispensing software application and security measures.

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ELEMENTS OF A COMPUTER SYSTEM

Definition: A Computer is an electronic device that can perform activities that involve
Mathematical, Logical and graphical manipulations. Generally, the term is used to describe a
collection of devices that function together as a system.

It performs the following three operations in sequence.

1. It receives data & instructions from the input device.

2. Processes the data as per instructions.

3. Provides the result (output) in a desired form.

CHARACTERISTICS OF COMPUTERS :

1. High speed: Computers have the ability to perform routine tasks at a greater speed than
human beings. They can perform millions of calculations in seconds.

2. Accuracy: Computers are used to perform tasks in a way that ensures accuracy.

3. Storage: Computers can store large amount of information. Any item of data or any
instruction stored in the memory can be retrieved by the computer at lightning speeds.

4. Automation: Computers can be instructed to perform complex tasks automatically

(which increases the productivity).

5. Diligence: Computers can perform the same task repeatedly & with the same accuracy
without getting tired.

6. Versatility: Computers are flexible to perform both simple and complex tasks.

7. Cost effectiveness: Computers reduce the amount of paper work and human effort,
thereby reducing costs.

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CLASSIFICATION OF COMPUTERS
Computers are classified according to the storage capacity, speed and the purpose for which
they are developed. These can be classified into three types:

1. Analog Computes 2. Digital Computers 3. Hybrid Computers

1. Analog computers: They operate by measuring instead of counting. The name (derived
from Greek word analog) denotes that the computer functions by establishing similarities
between the two quantities. They are powerful tools for solving differential equations.

2. Digital Computers: These computers operate by counting. All quantities are expressed
as discrete digits or numbers. These are useful for evaluating arithmetic expressions and
manipulations of data.

3. Hybrid Computers: Computers which combine the features of analog and digital
computers are known as Hybrid computers.

A majority of the computers that are in use are digital. These computers were essentially
developed for computations.

Later, the developments in the computers led to the use of digital computers in variety of
applications. Depending on the use of applications, the digital computers are classified into
1) Special Purpose Computers and 2) General Purpose Computers

1. Special Purpose Computers:

These are developed with a specific purpose. Some of the areas where these
computers are being used are – soil testing, drip irrigation, medical scanning, traffic
signals, spacecraft, rocket technology etc.,

2. General Purpose Computers:

These are developed to meet the requirements of several areas such as simulation,
solving mathematical equations, payroll and personnel database. These computers are
available in different sizes and capabilities and are further classified (based on memory,
speed, and storage) as follows.
a) Super Computers b) Mainframe Computers c) Mini Computers
d) Micro Computers

a) Super Computers:

These have extremely large storage capacities and computing speeds which are at least 10
times faster than other computers. These are used for large scale numerical problems in scientific
and engineering disciplines such as electronics, weather forecasting etc. The first super computer
was developed in U.S.A. by CRAY computers. In India the indigenous super computer was
developed under the name Param.

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b) Mainframe Computers:

They also have large storage and high computing speed (but relatively lower than the
super computers). They are used in applications like weather forecasting, space applications etc.,
they support a large number of terminals for use by a variety of users simultaneously, but are
expensive

c) Mini Computers:

It is a medium sized computer with moderate cost, available indigenously and

used for large volume applications. It can serve multi-user simultaneously

d) Micro Computers:

A micro computer is the smallest general purpose processing system. Micro computers
are also referred as ―personal computers (PC). These are self contained units and usually
developed for use by one person at a time but can be linked to very large systems. They are
cheap, easy to use even at homes and can be read for variety of applications from small to
medium range.
These are available in three models:

PC: Personal Computer

PC-XT: PC with Extended Technology

PC-AT: PC with Advanced Technology

LIMITATIONS OF COMPUTERS:

1. Computers need clear & complete instructions to perform a task accurately. If the
instructions are not clear & complete, the computer will not produce the required
result.

2. Computers cannot think.

3. Computers cannot learn by experience.

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 UNIT-2 HARDWARE FEATURES AND USES

HARDWARE:

The physical components of the computer are known as ―Hardware. It refers to the objects that
we can actually touch.

Ex: input and output devices, processors, circuits and the cables.

COMPONENTS OF COMPUTER

The computer system consists of three units:

1. Input device 2. Central Processing Unit (CPU) 3. Output device

Block diagram of a Computer:

CENTRAL PROCESSING UNIT

Memory unit

INPUT DEVICE ALU

OUTPUT DEVICE

Control Unit

The various functions of these units can be summarized as:

Unit Function
1.Input device : Reads information from input media and enters to
the Computer in coded form
2.CPU
(a) Memory unit : Stores program and data
(b)Arithmetic logic unit : Performs arithmetic and logical functions
Interprets program instructions and controls the input and
(c) Control Unit : output devices

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3. Output device : decodes information and presents it to the user

Central Processing Unit:

It is the part of the computer that carries out the instructions of a computer program. It is the unit
that reads and executes program instructions. Hence it is known as the brain of the computer.
The CPU consists of storage or memory unit, Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU) and control unit.

(a) Memory Unit: It is also known as the primary storage or main memory. It stores data,
program instructions, internal results and final output temporarily before it is sent to an
appropriate output device. It consists of thousands of cells called ―storage locations‖. These
cells activate with ―off-on or binary digits (0,1) mechanism. Thus a character either a letter or
numerical digit is stored as a string of (0, 1) Binary digits (BITS). These bits are used to store
instructions and data by their combinations.

(b) Arithmetic and Logical Unit (ALU): It is the unit where all Arithmetic operations (addition,
subtraction etc.) and logical functions such as true or false, male or female are performed. Once
data are fed into the main memory from input devices, they are held and transferred as needed to
ALU where processing takes place. No process occurs in primary storage. Intermediate
generated results in ALU are temporarily placed in memory until needed at later time. Data may
move from primary memory to ALU and back again to storage many times before the process is
finalized.

(c) Control Unit: It acts as a central nervous system and ensures that the information is stored
correctly and the programs instructions are followed in proper sequence as well as the data are
selected from the memory as necessary. It also coordinates all the input and output devices of a
system.

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PRIMARY STORAGE:

Primary memory is also called internal memory and is an important part of a computer. It
is the main area in a computer where the data is stored. The stored data can be recalled instantly
and correctly whenever desired. This memory can be quickly accessed by the CPU for reading or
storing information. Primary memory is further classified into two types:

Random Access Memory (RAM) and Read- Only Memory (ROM )

RAM:
RAM is also known as read/write memory as information can be read from and written
onto it. RAM is a place in a computer that holds instructions for the computer, its programs and
the data. The CPU can directly access the data from RAM almost immediately. However, the
storage of data and instructions in RAM is temporary, till the time the computer is running. It
disappears from RAM as soon as the power to the computer is switched off. i.e it is volatile
memory.

ROM:
It is called Read-only memory as information can only be read from and not written or
changed onto ROM. ROM is the built-in memory of a computer. It stores some basic input –
output instructions put by the manufacturer to operate the computer. The storage of data and
instructions in ROM is permanent. It does not depend on the power supply. i.e. it is non-volatile
memory.

SECONDARY STORAGE:

The primary memory which is faster (and hence expensive) is generally not sufficient for
large storage of data. As a result, additional memory, called the ―auxiliary or ―secondary
memory is used. It is also referred as ―backup storage as it is used to store large volume of data
on a permanent basis which can be transferred to the primary memory whenever required for
processing.
Data are stored in secondary storage in the same binary codes as in the main (primary memory)
storage.
Some of the devices of secondary storages are Floppy Disk, Hard Disk, CD-ROM, DVD and
Flash drive.

1. Floppy Disk:

It is also referred as ―Diskette: and is made of flexible Vinyl material. It has a small hole
on one side called ―Right protect notch, which protects accidental writing/deleting the

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information from the disk. There is a hole in the centre through which the spindle of drive unit
rotates the disk. The disks are available in two sizes of 5.25 and 3.5 inches and these could be
either low-density or high-density floppies. Storage capacities of floppies are measured in
kilobytes (KB) and megabytes (MB). The details about the storage capacities of the floppies are
presented below:

Floppy Disk Storage Capacity Size (Diameter)

Low Density 360 KB 5.25 inches

High Density 1.2 MB 5.25 inches

High Density 1.44 MB 3.5 inches

Extended 2.8 MB 3.5 inches

2. Hard Disk:

The hard disk can hold more information than the floppy disk and the retrieval of
information from hard disk is faster when compared to floppies or tapes. A hard disk is fixed
inside the CPU and its capacity ranges from 20 MB onwards. The hard disk is made up of a
collection of discs (one below the other) known as platters on which the data is recorded. These
platters are coated with magnetic material. It is less sensitive to external environmental disorders
and hence the storage in hard disk is safe. A small hard disk might be as much as 25 times larger
than a floppy disk. Storage Capacity of hard disks varies from 20 MB to several Giga bytes like
80GB, 160GB.

3. CD-ROM:

CD-ROM stands for Compact Disk–Read Only Memory. It is used to store a wide
variety of information. Its main advantage is that it is portable and can hold a large amount of
data.. The storage capacity of most CD-ROMs is approximately 650 MB or 700 MB.

CD-ROMs have the following variations:

(i) CD-R (Compact disc Recordable): Data can be written onto it just once. The stored data can
be read. Data once written onto it cannot be erased.

(ii) CD-RW (Compact disc Rewritable): It is also called erasable CD. Data once written onto it

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can be erased to write or record new information many times.

To use a CD-ROM, a device called CD drive is needed.

4. DVD:

DVD stands for Digital Versatile Disc. It is similar to a CD-ROM, except that it can
store larger amounts of data. The storage capacity of a DVD is at least 4.7MB. DVDs that can
store up to 17GBs are also available. Because of their capacity, DVDs are generally used to store
a very large multimedia presentations and movies that combine high quality sound and graphics.

5. Flash Drive:
It is a small, portable device that can be used to store, access and transfer data. Due to its
small size, it is commonly called Pen drive. It is also called USB drive. We can read, write,
copy, delete, and move data from computer to pen drive or pen drive to computer. It comes in
various storage capacities of 2GB, 4GB, and 8GB etc. It is popular because it is easy to use and
small enough to be carried in a pocket. This device is plugged into the USB port of the computer
and the computer automatically detects this device.
DATA ENTRY DEVICES

Devices used to provide data and instructions to the computer are called Input devices.

Some important input devices are

Key board, Mouse, Scanner, MICR, Web camera, Microphone

Keyboard:
The Key board is used for typing text into the computer. It is also known as standard
Input device. A computer keyboard is similar to that of a type writer with additional keys. The
most commonly available computer keyboard has 104 keys.

There are different types of keys on the keyboard. The keys are categorized as:
o Alphanumeric keys, including letters & numbers.
o Punctuation keys, such as colon (:), semicolon (;) Question mark (?),
Single & double quotes (“)
o Special keys such as arrow keys, control keys, function keys (F1 to F12), HOME,
END etc.

Mouse:
It is a device that controls the movement of the cursor on a monitor. A mouse will have 2
buttons on its top. The left button is the most frequently used button. There will be a wheel
between the left and right buttons. This wheel enables us to smoothly scroll through screens of
information. As we move the mouse, the pointer on the monitor moves in the same direction.
Optical mouse is another advanced pointing device that uses a light emitting component instead

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of the mouse ball. Mouse cannot be used for entering the data. It is only useful to select the
options on the screen.

Scanner:
It is an input device that can read text or illustrations printed on paper and translate into
digital form. The main advantage of these scanners is that the data need not be entered
separately resulting in saving lot of time.

Scanners are of two types: i) optical scanners ii) MICR

i) Optical scanners:

a. Optical character Recognition (OCR): In this, characters are read with the help of a
light. This is used in office atomization, documentation in library etc.

b. Optical mark recognition (OMR): It is a technology where an OMR device senses the
presence or absence of a mark such as a pencil mark. OMR is used in tests such as aptitude
tests.

c. Optical barcode recognition (OBCR): Barcode readers are photoelectric scanners that read
the bar codes or vertical zebra striped marks printed on product containers. This is used in
super markets, book shops etc.

ii. MICR: This is widely used in banks to process the cheques. This allows the computer to
recognize characters printed using magnetic ink.

4. Magnetic Ink Character Recognition (MICR):

It is a character recognition technology used primarily by the banking industry to
facilitate the processing of the cheques. MICR characters (cheque No., Acc.No.etc) are printed
in special ink usually containing iron oxide. When a document that contains the ink needs to be
read, it passes through a machine which magnetizes the ink and there will be a reader sorter unit
which translates the magnetic information into characters. MICR provides a secure, high speed
of scanning and processing information. It scans about 2600 cheques/min.

DATA OUTPUT DEVICES

Any device that is capable of representing information on a computer is called an

Output device. Output devices receive information from the CPU and present it to the
user in the desired form.

Some important Output devices are: Monitor, Printer

1 .Monitor:
It is similar to TV screen- either a monochrome (black & white) or colour – and it
displays the output. It is also referred as Visual Display Unit (VDU). Several types of monitors
are in use. Some of them are Color Graphic Adapter (CGA), Enhanced Graphics Adaptor
(EGA), Video Graphics Adapter (VGA) and Super Video Graphics Adapter (SVGA).

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 The screen sizes differ from system to system. The standard size is 24 lines by 80 characters.
Most systems have provision for scrolling which helps in moving the text vertically or
horizontally on the screen.

2. Printer:
A printer is used to transfer data from a computer onto paper.
The paper copy obtained from a printer is often referred as ―printout.

The different printers and their speeds are as follows:

S. No. Type Mode of Printing Speed

Prints the character in dotted pattern

1 Dot – Matrix through printer ribbon 200/300 to 700
printer using either 24 pin or 9 pin CPS

2 Ink Jet printer Work by spraying ionized ink Slow, 90 CPS

Also called page printer. Uses laser

3 Laser printer beam to produce an image. 6 to 12 PPM

Prints lines at a time instead of single

4 Line printer characters. 300 to 600 LPM

Produces drawings or graphs through

5 Plotter pens which are filled with different
colors
(CPS: Characters per second; PPM: Pages per Minutes; LPM: Lines per Minutes)

SOFTWARE CONCEPTS:

Software is a program or set of instructions that causes the Hardware to function in a

desired way.

Software is a set of programs, which is designed to perform a well-defined function. A

program is a sequence of instructions written to solve a particular problem.

There are two types of software

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  System Software
 Application Software

SYSTEM SOFTWARE

The system software is collection of programs designed to operate, control, and extend
the processing capabilities of the computer itself. System software are generally prepared by
computer manufactures. These software products comprise of programs written in low-level
languages which interact with the hardware at a very basic level. System software serves as the
interface between hardware and the end users.

Some examples of system software are Operating System, Compilers, Interpreter, and
Assemblers etc.

APPLICATION SOFTWARE

Application software products are designed to satisfy a particular need of a particular

environment. All software applications prepared in the computer lab can come under the
category of Application software.

Application software may consist of a single program, such as a Microsoft's notepad for writing
and editing simple text. It may also consist of a collection of programs, often called a software
package, which work together to accomplish a task, such as a spreadsheet package.

Examples of Application software are following:

 Payroll Software
 Student Record Software
 Inventory Management Software

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 Income Tax Software
 Railways Reservation Software
 Microsoft Office Suite Software
 Microsoft Word
 Microsoft Excel
 Microsoft PowerPoint

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LANGUAGE CLASSIFICATION:

There are three types of programming languages.

1. Machine Languages: Computers respond only to machine language. This language is in

terms of binary codes (0,1). i.e. all programs should be written with these codes, which is
difficult, time consuming and leading to errors while writing the programs. There is no
unique standard machine language. Rather there are many machine languages. These are
machine dependent. These are referred as the first generation languages.

2. Assembly Languages: It uses mnemonic codes rather than numeric codes (as in machine
languages). Ex. Add or A is used as a symbol for addition. It requires translators to
convert into machine language. Like machine language, writing program in assembly
language is also time consuming. These are also machine dependent.

3. High Level Languages (HLL): These are referred as problem oriented languages (POL).
These are referred as third generation languages. The advantages of these languages are

 The high level languages are convenient for writing programs as they can be written
without any codes. These languages follow rules like ―English language.

 Because of their English like nature, less time is required to write a program.

 They are machine independent. A program written in any HLL can be run on
computers of different types without any modifications.

Examples:

FORTRAN: Formula Translation

COBOL: Common Business Oriented Language
BASIC: Beginner’s all purpose Symbolic Instruction Code

COMPILERS AND INTERPRETERS

A Compiler checks the entire user – written program (known as the source program) and
if it is error free, produces a complete program in machine language (known as object program).
The source program is retained for possible modifications and corrections and the object
program is loaded into the computer for execution. If the source program contains errors, the
compilers produce a list of errors at the end of the execution of the program. i.e a compiler
translates the whole program before execution.

An Interpreter does a similar job but in a different style. The interpreter translates one
statement at a time and if it is error – free, executes. This continues till the last statement. Thus

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an interpreter translates or executes the first instruction before it goes to the second, while a
compiler translates the whole program before execution.

The major difference between compiler and interpreter is

1. Error correction is very much simpler in the case of interpreter as it translates the
statements in stages. The compiler produces an error list of the entire program at
the end.

2. Interpreter takes more time for the execution of the program compared to
compilers as it translates one statement at a time.

*************

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 UNIT-3 OPERATING SYSTEMS/ENVIRONMENTS

OPERATING SYSTEM (OS):

The software that manages the resources of a computer system and schedules its
operation is called Operating system. The operating system acts as interface between the
hardware and the user programs and facilitates the execution of programs.
BASICS OF MS-DOS
MS-DOS is a collection of programs and other files. It is a single user and single
programming environment.

MS-DOS is designed to provide a method of organizing and using the information stored
on disks, application programs, system programs and the computer itself.

TYPES OF DOS COMMANDS:

There are two types of commands: i) Internal and ii) External Commands

INTERNAL DOS COMMANDS:

Internal commands are those commands which manage files. They are loaded into the memory
of the PC when PC is booted. These are stored in a large file with file name COMMAND.COM,
when a PC is booted.

1. DIR: Displays the directory of file names, file size, date and time of creation
Syntax: DIR Example: c:\>dir a:

2. DEL: Deletes a specified file. Syntax: DEL {filename}

3. COPY: To copy files from one place to another. The way to execute copy
command is to type COPY leave a space followed by the source file name again
a space followed by destination file.
Syntax: copy {Drive name} <source file> {Drive name} <target file name>

4. REN: To rename the old file with another name. The way to execute rename command is to
type REN leave a space followed by the old file name again followed by a space and new file
name.
Ex: Suppose if you want to change the name of a file MATHS.TXT to STATS.TXT
the following command will work:

C :\> REN MATHS.TXT STATS.TXT

5. DATE: It displays current date and asks for new date in (mm)-(dd)-(YY) format. Syntax: C :\
> Date

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6. TIME: It displays current time and asks for new time
Syntax: C :\> Time

7. VER: It displays the version of DOS

Syntax: C :\> Ver

8. CLS: when you want to clear the screen, type in the following command:

Syntax: C :\> CLS

II) EXTERNAL COMMANDS:

External commands are small file programs used for doing specific jobs.

Some of the useful commands:

1. SORT:
It sorts the files in alphanumeric order: either A to Z or Z to A

DIR| SORT (or) DIR/ON: Displays all the files in A to Z order

DIR| SORT/R (or) DIR/O-N: Displays all the files in reverse order (i.e Z to A)

2. FORMAT:
Formatting a (new) disk imply organizing the new disk into magnetic tracks
and sectors that is readable by DOS. The PC copies files only on a
formatted disk. However, if an old disk is formatted, all the existing files on
it would be erased. Hence this command should be used carefully.
FORMAT a: formats disk in drive ―A

3. VOL: This command displays the volume label of the current disk
4. LABEL: It is used to create, change or delete the volume label on the disk

5. PATH: It is used to provide access to files located on other directories or on other disks

6. MD:
It is used to make a new directory (or sub-directory) which is subordinate to the current
(or root-directory).

It is specified as follows:
C:\> MD\STATS (or) MD STATS : This command makes (creates) a new directory with
the name-STATS

7. CD:
It is used to change from one directory to the other. If we have to work with files in the
directory- STATS, the directory has to be changed to STATS

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 Ex: C:\>CD\ STATS (or) CD STATS : This command changes the root directory to the
directory STATS

8. RD:
It removes or deletes a directory. To remove a directory, it is essential to first delete all
the files in the directory
To remove the directory STATS, the command is C:\> RD STATS

9. TREE:
It displays the directories and sub-directories existing in a drive with a
TREE diagram. The difference between TREE and DIR commands is that: DIR
displays all files with its size, date and time of creation. It also displays only directories
with symbol <DIR> (without files and sub directories in that directory) whereas; TREE
displays directories and sub directories in a drive without files.

INTRODUCTION TO WINDOWS

GUI/FEATURES

GUI stands for GRAPHICAL USER INTERFACE.

It is a user interface which user interacts with applications by making use of graphics. In GUI
more than one task can run simultaneously. The user interacts by pointing the applications using
devices like mouse. It is a very user friendly interface. Example (Windows, Linux)

Some feature the following basic components:

Pointer : A symbol that appears on the display screen and that you move to select objects and
commands. Usually, the pointer appears as a small angled arrow. Text -processing applications,
however, use an I-beam pointer that is shaped like a capital I.

Pointing device : A device, such as a mouse or trackball that enables you to select objects on the
display screen.

Icons : Small pictures that represent commands, files, or windows. By moving the pointer to the
icon and pressing a mouse button, you can execute a command or convert the icon into a
window. You can also move the icons around the display screen as if they were real objects on
your desk.

Desktop : The area on the display screen where icons are grouped is often referred to as the
desktop because the icons are intended to represent real objects on a real desktop.

20 APPLICATION OF COMPUTER
Windows: You can divide the screen into different areas. In each window, you can run a
different program or display a different file. You can move windows around the display screen,
and change their shape and size at will.

Menus : Most graphical user interfaces let you execute commands by selecting a choice from a
menu.

PARTS OF TYPICAL WINDOW AND THEIR FUNCTIONS

Desktop: The desktop is the on-screen work area on which Windows, Icons, menus & dialog
boxes appear. The Desktop can have several components. Parts of the desktop
include Icons & the taskbar.
Components of the Desktop:
 Icons
 Taskbar

Icons: Icon is a small image that represents a file, folder or program.

The text below each icon is the name of the Icon. When we rest the mouse pointer on
an icon, a rectangular box appears. This is referred to as Tooltip. It gives a brief description
of the Icon.
By default, there will be 4-5 icons on the
desktop. They are:
 My Computer
 My documents
 Internet Explorer
 Recycle bin
 Network Neighborhood
My Computer: This is the icon which represents all the files & folders which can be used in the
system.
It is used to access the drives, folders & files on the computer. i.e Floppy drive(A), Local C, D,
E, Printer, Control panel etc.
My Documents: This is the default storage location for the files created in the windows.
Internet Explorer: This is an application used to browse the internet.
Recycle bin: This is a folder that stores all the files & folders deleted from windows temporarily,
which can be restored again if needed.
Network Neighborhood: This is an application which display all the computers connected in
network with our computer.

21 APPLICATION OF COMPUTER
Taskbar: The rectangular bar that runs horizontally across the bottom of the screen is called
Taskbar.
The Taskbar has the START menu on the left & the Notification area on the right. We can start
an application using the start menu.
Notification area holds system icons that allow for functions such as changing the time &
Volume of the Computer.
All the open applications are available on the Taskbar.

Window Screen:
The window on a desktop is the rectangular area displaying content independently of other
areas of the screen.
The different parts of a window are the Title bar, Menu bar, the Toolbar, and the min, max
& close buttons. These tools are used to manage the window & the components within it.

Title bar – This is the title of the window, like your name at the top of a piece of paper.
The Title bar is also the handle for the window. If you click and hold the mouse button
down on the title bar, you can move it around the screen.

 Minimize – To have a window take the minimum amount of desktop space possible,
click the minimize button. This drops the window into the Task bar like a piece of
paper going into a drawer. The Task bar will show the task whether or not the
window is minimized.
 Maximize – To have a window take the maximum desktop space, click the maximize
button. This stretches the window out like an architect‘s floor plan being rolled out
over the desk.
 Restore – A maximized window will cover over all the other windows and icons on the
desktop. The Restore button places the window back so that more than one window can
display at a time.
 Close (X) – When done with a window, you can have it taken completely off the
desktop by closing it. Use the X button to do this.

22 APPLICATION OF COMPUTER
Menu bar: The Menu bar displays a list of commands that can be used to perform various
tasks. (This will be below the Title bar). Menu items are commands within the menu bar that
allow choosing of functions & tasks.
Tool bar: contains a set of buttons for frequently used commands.
Scroll Bars: On the bottom and right edges of a window we find scroll bars. They are used to
pan across the information in the window, when we have information which won‘t fit into the
window. The
Status Bar: The Status bar appears at the very bottom of the window and provides such
information as the cursor position, current page number, the number of words in the document
etc.
*****************

23 APPLICATION OF COMPUTER
 UNIT-4 NETWORKS
INTRODUCTION:
A computer network is a set of computers connected together for the purpose of sharing
resources. The most common resource shared today is connection to the Internet. Other shared
resources can include a printer or a file server. The Internet itself can be considered as a
computer network.

DEFINITION
A computer network is a set of connected computers. Computers on a network are called nodes.
The connection between computers can be done via cabling, most commonly the Ethernet cable,
or wirelessly through radio waves. Connected computers can share resources like access to the
Internet, printers, file servers, and others. A network is a multipurpose connection, which allows
a single computer to do more.
Characteristics of a computer network:

 Share Resources from one computer to another

 Create files and store them in one computer, access those files from the other computer(s)
connected over the network
 Connect a printer, scanner, or a fax machine to one computer within the network and let
other computers of the network use the machines available over network.

NETWORK TOPOLOGY:
Network topology specifically refers to the physical layout of the network, especially the
locations of the computers and how the cable is run between them.
Most common topologies are:
BUS TOPOLOGY:

Bus topologies
All the devices on a bus topology are connected by one single cable. When one computer
sends a signal up the wire, all the computers on the network receive the information, but only

24 APPLICATION OF COMPUTER
one accepts the information. The rest regrets the message. One computer can send a message at a
time. A computer must wait until the bus is free before it can transmit. When the signal reaches
the end of the wire, it bounces back and travels back up the wire. When a signal echoes back and
forth along an unterminated bus, it is called ringing. To stop the signals from ringing, attach
terminators at either end of the segment. The terminators absorb the electrical energy and stop
the reflection.
Advantages and disadvantages of network topology:
 Advantage of network topology
1. The bus is simple, reliable in small network, easy to use and understand
2. Requires the least amount of cable to connect the computers and less expensive
3. Easy to extend the bus
 Disadvantage of network topology
1. Heavy network traffic can slow a bus considerably
2. Each barrel connector weakens the electrical signal
3. Difficult to troubleshoot a bus
STAR TOPOLOGY:

Star Topology
All the cables run from the computers to a central location, where they are all connected
by a device called a hub. Each computer on a star network communicates with a central hub that
resends the message either to all the computers or only to the destination computers. Hub can be
active or passive in the star network Active hub regenerates the electrical signal and sends it to
all the computers connected to it. Passive hub does not amplify or regenerate signal and does not
require electrical power to run. We can expand a star network by placing another star hub.

Advantages:
 Easy to modify and add new computers to a star net
 Center of a star net is a good place to diagnose network faults
 Single computer failure do not necessarily bring down the whole net

25 APPLICATION OF COMPUTER
 Several cable types can be used with the hub
Disadvantages:
 Central hub fails, the whole network fails to operate
 Many star networks require a device at the central point to rebroadcast or switch network
traffic.
 Costs more for cabling in star net than bus.

RING TOPOLOGY:

Ring Topology
Each computer is connected to the next computer,with the last one connected to the first.
Every computer is connected to the next computer in the ring, and each retransmits what it
receives from the previous computer. The message flow around the ring in one direction. Some
ring networks do token passing. It passes around the ring until a computer wishes to send
information to another computer. The computer adds an electronic address and data and sends it
around the ring. Each computer in sequence receives the token and the information and passes
them to the next until either the electronic address matches the address of the computer or the
token returns to the origin. The receiving computer returns a message to the originator indicating
that the message has been received. The sending computer then creates another token and places
it on the network, allowing another station to capture the token and being transmitted.
Advantages:
 No computer can monopolize the network
 The fair sharing of the network allows the net to degrade gracefully as more users are
added.
Disadvantages:
 Failure of one compute can affect the total network
26 APPLICATION OF COMPUTER
 Difficult to troubleshoot
 Adding or removing Computers disrupts the network

APPLICATION OF NETWORKS

Some of the network applications of the different fields are the following.

1. Marketing and sales: Marketing professional uses them to collect exchange and
analyze data relating to customer needs and product development cycles. Sales
application includes Teleshopping, which uses order entry computers or telephone
connected to an order processing network, and online reservation services for railways,
hotels, airlines, restaurants theatre etc.

2. Financial services: It include credit history searches, foreign exchange and investment
services and electronic fund transfer (EFT), which allow a user to transfer money without
going to bank.

3. Manufacturing: computer networks are used today in many aspects of manufacturing,

including the manufacturing processes itself. Two aspects that uses network to provide
essential services are computer Assisted design (CAD) and computer Assisted
manufacturing (CAM), both of which allow multiple user to work on a project
simultaneously.

4. Electronic Messaging: E-mails transfer the messages between two and more users in a
network. With this application user can transfer the information in the form of text,
picture and voice.

5. Directory Services: It allows list of files to be stored in central location to speed up

the world wide search operation. E.g. search engines like Google, Britannia, and Yahoo
etc.

6. Information Services: It includes Bulletin Boards and data bank. A ‘www’ site
offering the technical specification for a new product in a information services.

7. Electronic Data Exchange (EDI): EDI allows business information (including

documents such as purchase orders and services) to be transferred without using paper.

8. Teleconferencing: It allows conference to occur without the participant being in the

same location. It includes:
Text Conferencing: Participant communicates through their keywords and computer
monitors.
Voice Conferencing: Participant at a number of locations communicates simultaneously
through phone (talk).
Video Conferencing: Participant can see as well as talk to another.

27 APPLICATION OF COMPUTER
 9. Cellular Telephone: Wireless phone communication even while travelling through
long distance.

TYPES OF NETWORK:

Local-area networks (LANs) :

The computers are geographically close together (that is, in the same building). It consists
of a computer network at a single site, typically an individual office building. A LAN is very
useful for sharing resources, such as data storage and printers. LANs can be built with relatively
inexpensive hardware, such as hubs, network adapters and Ethernet cables.

Wide-area networks (WANs) :

A wide area network, or WAN, occupies a very large area, such as an entire country or
the entire world. A WAN can contain multiple smaller networks, such as LANs or MANs. The
Internet is the best-known example of a public WAN.

Metropolitan-area networks (MANs):

A metropolitan area network or MAN consists of a computer network across an entire
city, college campus or small region. A MAN is larger than a LAN, which is typically limited to
a single building or site. Depending on the configuration, this type of network can cover an area
from several miles to tens of miles. A MAN is often used to connect several LANs together to
form a bigger network. When this type of network is specifically designed for a college campus.

28 APPLICATION OF COMPUTER
 UNIT-5 NETWORKING CONFIGURATION HARDWARE

What is Networking Hardware?

Networking hardware includes all computers, peripherals, interface cards and other equipment
needed to perform data-processing and communications within the network.

NODE:
A node is any device connected to a computer network. Nodes can be computers, personal
digital assistants (PDAs), cell phones, or various other network appliances. On an IP network, a
node is any device with an IP address.

Once a connection between two or more nodes has been defined, all searches produce listings of
configured users and resources from both local and remote nodes. This basic information is
maintained on each computer in the node network. All calendaring data for each user and
resource, however, resides only on that item's local node, eliminating space and consistency
problems created by replicated databases. All exchanges of this information between nodes is
done in real time, making local or remote location on a network completely transparent to the
user.

SERVER:
A network server is a computer designed to process requests and deliver data to other (client)
computers over a local network or the Internet.

Network servers typically are configured with additional processing, memory and storage
capacity to handle the load of servicing clients. Common types of network servers include:

29 APPLICATION OF COMPUTER
 Web servers
 proxy servers
 FTP servers
 online game servers

Numerous systems use this client / server networking model including Web sites and email
services. An alternative model, peer-to-peer networking enables all computers to act as either a
server or client as needed.
CHANNELS

A communication channel or channel, refers either to a physical transmission medium

such as a cable, broadcasts etc…

Communicating data from one location to another requires some form of pathway or
medium. These pathways, called communication channels, use two types of media: cable
(twisted-pair wire, cable, and fiber-optic cable) and broadcast (microwave, satellite, radio, and
infrared). Cable or wire line media use physical wires of cables to transmit data and information.
Twisted-pair wire and coaxial cables are made of copper, and fiber-optic cable is made of glass.

FIBRE OPTIC

A technology that uses glass (or plastic) threads (fibers) to transmit data. A fiber optic cable
consists of a bundle of glass threads, each of which is capable of transmitting
messages modulated onto light waves.

Fiber optics has several advantages over traditional metal communications lines:

 It have a much greater bandwidth than metal cables. This means that they can carry more
data.

 Less susceptible than metal cables to interference.

 Fiber optic cables are much thinner and lighter than metal wires.

 Data can be transmitted digitally (the natural form for computer data) rather than
analogically.

Disadvantage

The main disadvantage of fiber optics is that the cables are expensive to install. In addition, they
are more fragile than wire and are difficult to splice.

Fiber optics is a particularly popular technology for local-area networks. In addition, telephone
companies are steadily replacing traditional telephone lines with fiber optic cables. In the future,
almost all communications will employ fiber optics.

30 APPLICATION OF COMPUTER
TWISTED PAIR CABLE

A type of cable that consists of two independently insulated wires twisted around one another.
The use of two wires twisted together helps to reduce crosstalk and electromagnetic induction.
While twisted-pair cable is used by older telephone networks and is the least expensive type
of local-area network (LAN) cable, most networks contain some twisted-pair cabling at some
point along the network. Other types of cables used for LANs include coaxial cables and fiber
optic cables.

Advantages

1. It can be used to carry both analog and digital data.

2. It is relatively easy to implement and terminate.

3. It is the least expensive media of transmission for short distances.

4. If portion of a twisted pair cable is damaged it does not affect the entire network.

Disadvantages

1. It offers poor noise immunity as a result signal distortion is more?

2. Attenuation is very high.

3. It supports lower bandwidth as compared to other Medias. It supports 10 mbps upto a distance
of 100 meters on a 10BASE-T.

4. It offers very poor security and is relatively easy to tap.

5. Being thin in size, they are likely to break easily.

31 APPLICATION OF COMPUTER
COAXIAL PAIR CABLE

A type of wire that consists of a center wire surrounded by insulation and then a
grounded shield of braided wire. The shield minimizes electrical and radio frequency
interference.

Coaxial cabling is the primary type of cabling used by the cable television industry and is also
widely used for computer networks, such as Ethernet. Although more expensive than standard
telephone wire, it is much less susceptible to interference and can carry much more data.

Advantages:

1. Coaxial cable can support greater cable lengths between network devices than twisted pair
cable.
2. Thick coaxial cable has an extra protective plastic cover that helps keep moisture away.

Disadvantages:

1. Thick coaxial is that it does not bend easily and is difficult to install.

32 APPLICATION OF COMPUTER
 HUBS

Hubs are multiport repeater, providing central connectivity for network device and extensions of
the physical media.
A hub is a generic connection device used to tie several networking cables together to create a
link between different stations on a network.
Hubs that are plugged into electric power are called active hubs. They usually amplify or repeat
signals that pass through them. Because they have multiple inbound and outbound connections,
these hubs are also known as multiport repeaters.
A hub that merely connects different cables on the network and provides no signal regeneration
is called a passive hub and is not a repeater.
INTERNET
The Internet is a global system of interconnected computer networks that use the
standard Internet protocol suite (TCP/IP) to link several billion devices worldwide. It is
a network of networks[1] that consists of millions of private, public, academic, business, and
government networks of local to global scope, linked by a broad array of electronic, wireless,
and optical networking technologies. The Internet carries an extensive range of information
resources and services, such as the inter-linked hypertext documents and applications of
the World Wide Web (WWW), the infrastructure to support email, and peer-to-peer networks
for file sharing.
EMAIL

Electronic mail or Email is a message that may contain text, files, images, or
other attachments sent through a network to a specified individual or group of individuals.

It allows you to send and receive messages to and from anyone with an email address, anywhere
in the world.

Advantages of emails

 Emails are easy to use. You can organize your daily correspondence, send and receive
electronic messages and save them on computers.

33 APPLICATION OF COMPUTER
  Emails are fast. They are delivered at once around the world. No other form of written
communication is as fast as an email.

 The language used in emails is simple and informal.

 When you reply to an email you can attach the original message so that when you answer
the recipient knows what you are talking about. This is important if you get hundreds of
emails a day.

 It is possible to send automated emails with a certain text. In such a way it is possible to
tell the sender that you are on vacation. These emails are called auto responders.

 Emails do not use paper. They are environment friendly and save a lot of trees from being
cut down.

 Emails can also have pictures in them. You can send birthday cards or newsletters as
emails.

 Products can be advertised with emails. Companies can reach a lot of people and inform
them in a short time.

Disadvantages of emails

 Emails may carry viruses. These are small programs that harm your computer system.
They can read out your email address book and send themselves to a number of people
around the world.

 Many people send unwanted emails to others. These are called spam mails. It takes a lot
of time to filter out the unwanted emails from those that are really important.

 Emails cannot really be used for official business documents. They may be lost and you
cannot sign them.

 Your mailbox may get flooded with emails after a certain time so you have to empty it
from time to time

WEB
The World Wide Web is a system of Internet servers that supportspecially formatted documents.
The documents are formatted in a markup language called HTML (Hyper Text Markup
Language) that supports links to other documents, as well as graphics, audio, and video files.
This means you can jump from one document to another simply by clicking on hot spots. Not all
Internet servers are part of the World Wide Web.

34 APPLICATION OF COMPUTER
There are several applications called Web browsers that make it easy to access the World Wide
Web; Two of the most popular being Firefox and Microsoft's Internet Explorer.

HOSPITALITY PORTALS
Hospitality is the relationship between the guest and the host, or the act or practice of being
hospitable. This includes the reception and entertainment of guests, visitors, or strangers.
NETWORK INTERFACE CARDS

The network interface card (NIC) provides the physical connection between the network and the
computer workstation. Most NICs are internal, and they are included in the purchase of most
computers. Network interface cards are a major factor in determining the speed and performance
of a network. It is a good idea to use the fastest network card available for the type of
workstation you are using.

The most common network interface connections are Arcnet, Ethernet cards and wireless
adapters.

ARC NET:

Short for Attached Resource Computer network, ARC net is one of the oldest, simplest, and least
expensive types of local-area network. ARC net was introduced by Data point Corporation in
1977. It uses a token-ring architecture, supports data rates of 2.5 Mbps, and connects up to
255 computers. A special advantage of ARC net is that it permits various types of
transmission media -- twisted-pair wire, coaxial cable, and fiber optic cable -- to be mixed on the
same network.

A new specification, called ARC net plus, will support data rates of 20 Mbps.

ETHERNET CARDS

A local-area network (LAN) architecture developed by Xerox Corporation in cooperation

with DEC and Intel in 1976. Ethernet uses a bus or star topology and supports data transfer
rates of 10Mbps. The Ethernet specification served as the basis for the IEEE 802.3 standard,
which specifies the physical and lower software layers. Ethernet uses the CSMA/CD access
method to handle simultaneous demands. It is one of the most widely implemented LAN
standards.

A newer version of Ethernet, called 100Base-T (or Fast Ethernet), supports data transfer rates of
100 Mbps. And the newest version, Gigabit supports data rates of 1 gigabit (1,000 megabits) per
second.

35 APPLICATION OF COMPUTER
Ethernet cards are usually included with a computer, although additional Ethernet cards can be
purchased and installed on most computers,. Ethernet cards can contain connections for either
coaxial or twisted pair cables .If it is designed for coaxial cable, the connection will be BNC. If it
is designed for twisted pair, it will have a RJ-45 connection. Some Ethernet cards also contain an
AUI connector. This can be used to attach coaxial, twisted pair, or fiber optics cable to an
Ethernet card. When this method is used there is always an external transceiver attached to the
workstation. Only the RJ-45 connector is found on most modern Ethernet cards.

Ethernet card

NETWORK SOFTWARE

Networking software applications are available to manage and monitor networks of all sizes,
from the smallest home networks to the largest enterprise networks.

Networks consist of hardware, such as servers, Ethernet cables and wireless routers, and
networking software. Networking software differs from software applications in that the software
does not perform tasks that end-users can see in the way word processors and spreadsheets do.
Instead, networking software operates invisibly in the background, allowing the user to access
network resources without the user even knowing the software is operating.

NOVEL

Novell technology contributed to the emergence of local area networks, which displaced the
dominant mainframe computing model and changed computing worldwide.

WINDOWS NT

Windows NT (New Technology) is a 32-bit operating system that supports preemptive

multitasking.

36 APPLICATION OF COMPUTER
There are actually two versions of Windows NT: Windows NT Server, designed to act as a
server in networks, and Windows NT Workstation for stand-alone or client workstations.

37 APPLICATION OF COMPUTER