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 Introduction to the Theory
of Complex Systems
Stefan Thurner, Rudolf Hanel, and Peter Klimek
Medical University of Vienna, Austria

1
 3
Great Clarendon Street, Oxford, OX2 6DP,
United Kingdom
Oxford University Press is a department of the University of Oxford.
It furthers the University’s objective of excellence in research, scholarship,
and education by publishing worldwide. Oxford is a registered trade mark of
Oxford University Press in the UK and in certain other countries
© Stefan Thurner, Rudolf Hanel, and Peter Klimek 2018
The moral rights of the authors have been asserted
First Edition published in 2018
Impression: 1
All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in
a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, without the
prior permission in writing of Oxford University Press, or as expressly permitted
by law, by licence or under terms agreed with the appropriate reprographics
rights organization. Enquiries concerning reproduction outside the scope of the
above should be sent to the Rights Department, Oxford University Press, at the
address above
You must not circulate this work in any other form
and you must impose this same condition on any acquirer
Published in the United States of America by Oxford University Press
198 Madison Avenue, New York, NY 10016, United States of America
British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data
Data available
Library of Congress Control Number: 2018947065
Data available
ISBN 978–0–19–882193–9
DOI: 10.1093/oso/9780198821939.001.0001
Printed and bound by
CPI Group (UK) Ltd, Croydon, CR0 4YY
Links to third party websites are provided by Oxford in good faith and
for information only. Oxford disclaims any responsibility for the materials
contained in any third party website referenced in this work.
Preface

This book is for people who are interested in the science of complex adaptive systems
and wish to have more than just a casual understanding of it. As with all the sciences,
understanding of complex adaptive systems is reached solely in a quantitative, predictive,
and ultimately experimentally testable manner. Complex adaptive systems are dynamical
systems that are able to change their structure, their interactions, and, consequently,
their dynamics as they evolve in time. This is not a book about complicated systems,
even though most complex systems are complicated. Indeed, over the last 300 years,
scientists have usually dealt with complicated systems that are neither complex nor
adaptive.
The theory of complex systems is the theory of generalized time-varying interactions
between elements that are characterized by states. Interactions typically take place on
networks that connect those elements. The interactions involved may cause the states
of the elements themselves to alter over time. The essence of a complex system is that
the interaction networks may change and rearrange as a consequence of changes in
the states of the elements. Thus, complex systems are systems whose states change
as a result of interactions and whose interactions change concurrently as a result of
states. Due to this chicken–egg-type problem, complex systems show an extremely
rich spectrum of behaviour: they are adaptive and co-evolutionary; they show path-
dependence, emergence, power laws; they have rich phase diagrams; they produce
and destroy diversity; they are inherently prone to collapse; they are resilient, and so
on. The theory of complex systems tries to understand these properties based on its
building blocks and on the interactions between those building blocks that take place
on networks. It combines mathematical and physical principles with concepts borrowed
from biology and the social sciences; it uses new computational techniques and, with
the advent of comprehensive large-scale data sets, is becoming experimentally testable.
The goal of the theory of complex systems is to understand the dynamical systemic
outcomes of interconnected systems, and its ultimate goal is to eventually control and
design systemic properties of systems such as the economy, the financial system, social
processes, cities, the climate, and ecology. The theory of complex systems builds partly
on previous attempts to understand systems that interact in non-trivial ways, such as
game theory, cybernetics, or systems theory. However, in its current state, the science
of complex systems goes well beyond these earlier developments, in so many ways,
in fact, that it can be regarded as an independent scientific branch, which—due to its
quantitative, predictive, and testable nature—is a natural science.
Even though it is fair to say that the theory of complex systems is not yet complete,
in recent years, it has become quite clear just what the theory is going to look like.
Its elements and structure are emerging. The current state of the theory of complex
vi Preface

systems is comparable perhaps to the state of quantum mechanics in the 1920s, before
the famous Copenhagen meetings and Werner Heisenberg’s book. At that time, quantum
mechanics was a collection of experimental and theoretical bits and pieces, which
had not yet been seen within a fully comprehensive framework. Nevertheless, it was
clear that, one day soon, such a framework would exist. The present situation can
be compared to an archaeological project, where a mosaic floor has been discovered
and is being excavated. While the mosaic is only partly visible and the full picture is
still missing, several facts are becoming clear: the mosaic exists; it shows identifiable
elements (for instance, people and animals engaged in recognizable activities); there
are large patches missing or still invisible, but experts can already tell that the mosaic
represents a scene from, say, Homer’s Odyssey. Similarly, for dynamical complex adaptive
systems, it is clear that a theory exists that, eventually, can be fully developed. There
are those who say that complex systems will never be understood or that, by their very
nature, they are incomprehensible. This book will demonstrate that such statements are
incorrect. The elements of a theory of complex systems are becoming clear: dynamical
multilayer networks, scaling, statistical mechanics of algorithmic dynamics, evolution
and co-evolution, and information theory. The essence of this book is to focus on these
components, clarify their meaning in the context of complex systems, and enable the
reader with a mathematical skill set to apply them to concrete problems in the world of
complex systems.
The book is written in mathematical language because this is the only way to
express facts in a quantitative and predictive manner and to make statements that are
unambiguous. We aim for consistency. The book should be comprehensible so that no-
one with an understanding of basic calculus, linear algebra, and statistics need refer
to other works. The book is particularly designed for graduate students in physics or
mathematics. We try to avoid ambiguous statements while, at the same time, being as
general as possible. The hope is that this work will serve as a textbook and as a starting
point for journeys into new and unexplored territory.
Many complex systems are often sensitive to details in their internal setup, to initial
and to boundary conditions. Concepts that proved to be extremely robust and effective in
non-complex systems, such as the central limit theorem, classical statistical mechanics, or
information theory, lose their predictive power when confronted with complex systems.
Extreme care is thus needed in any attempt to apply these otherwise distinguished
concepts to complex systems: doing so could end in confusion and nonsensical results.
In several concrete examples, we will demonstrate the importance of understanding what
these methods mean in the context of complex systems and whether they can or cannot
be applied. We will discuss how some of these classical concepts can be generalized to
become useful for understanding complex systems.
The book is also a statement about our belief that the exact sciences may be entering
a phase of transition from a traditional analytical description of nature, as used with
tremendous success since Galileo and Newton, towards an algorithmic description.
Whereas the analytical description of nature is, conceptually, based largely on differential
equations and analytical equations of motion, the algorithmic view takes into account
evolutionary and co-evolutionary aspects of dynamics. It provides a framework for
 Preface vii

systems that can endogenously change their internal interaction networks, rules of
functioning, dynamics, and even environment, as they evolve in time. Algorithmic
dynamics, which is characteristic of complex dynamical systems, may be a key to the
quantitative and predictive understanding of many natural and man-made systems. In
contrast to physical systems, which typically evolve analytically, algorithmic dynamics
describe certainly how living, social, environmental, and economic systems unfold.
This algorithmic view is not new but has been advocated by authors like Joseph A.
Schumpeter, Stuart Kauffman, and Brian Arthur. However, it has not, to date, been
picked up by mainstream science, and it has never been presented in the context of the
theory of complex systems.
This book is based on a two-semester course, that has been held at the Medical
University of Vienna since 2011. We are grateful to our students and to Kathryn Platzer
and Anita Wanjek for helping us with the manuscript.
ST Vienna January 2018
Contents

1 Introduction to Complex Systems 1

1.1 Physics, biology, or social science? 1
1.2 Components from physics 1
1.2.1 The nature of the fundamental forces 2
1.2.2 What does predictive mean? 3
1.2.3 Statistical mechanics—predictability on stochastic grounds 5
1.2.4 The evolution of the concept of predictability in physics 5
1.2.5 Physics is analytic, complex systems are algorithmic 6
1.2.6 What are complex systems from a physics point of view? 7
1.2.7 A note on chemistry—the science of equilibria 9
1.3 Components from the life sciences 10
1.3.1 Chemistry of small systems 10
1.3.2 Biological interactions happen on
networks—almost exclusively 12
1.3.3 Evolution 13
1.3.4 Adaptive and robust—the concept of the edge of chaos 16
1.3.5 Components taken from the life sciences 19
1.4 Components from the social sciences 19
1.4.1 Social systems continuously restructuring networks 20
1.5 What are Complex Systems? 21
1.5.1 What is co-evolution? 24
1.5.2 The role of the computer 25
1.6 The structure of the book 26
1.6.1 What has complexity science contributed to the history of science? 27
2 Probability and Random Processes 29
2.1 Overview 29
2.1.1 Basic concepts and notions 31
2.1.2 Probability and information 36
2.2 Probability 39
2.2.1 Basic probability measures and the Kolmogorov axioms 39
2.2.2 Histograms and relative frequencies 41
2.2.3 Mean, variance and higher moments 41
2.2.4 More than one random variable 44
2.2.5 A note on Bayesian reasoning 47
2.2.6 Bayesian and frequentist thinking 52
x Contents

2.3 The law of large numbers—adding random numbers 53

2.3.1 The central limit theorem 55
2.3.2 Generalized limit theorems and α-stable processes 59
2.4 Fat-tailed distribution functions 65
2.4.1 Distribution functions that show power law tails 66
2.4.2 Other distribution functions 69
2.5 Stochastic processes 75
2.5.1 Simple stochastic processes 76
2.5.2 History- or path-dependent processes 84
2.5.3 Reinforcement processes 85
2.5.4 Driven dissipative systems 86
2.6 Summary 89
2.7 Problems 90
3 Scaling 93
3.1 Overview 93
3.1.1 Definition of scaling 95
3.2 Examples of scaling laws in statistical systems 96
3.2.1 A note on notation for distribution functions 98
3.3 Origins of scaling 100
3.3.1 Criticality 101
3.3.2 Self-organized criticality 105
3.3.3 Multiplicative processes 106
3.3.4 Preferential processes 108
3.3.5 Sample space reducing processes 110
3.3.6 Other mechanisms 119
3.4 Power laws and how to measure them 120
3.4.1 Maximum likelihood estimator for power law exponents λ < −1 120
3.4.2 Maximum likelihood estimator for power laws for all exponents 122
3.5 Scaling in space—symmetry of non-symmetric objects, fractals 124
3.5.1 Self-similarity and scale-invariance 125
3.5.2 Scaling in space: fractals 125
3.5.3 Scaling in time—fractal time series 129
3.6 Example—understanding allometric scaling in biology 131
3.6.1 Understanding the 3/4 power law 133
3.6.2 Consequences and extensions 136
3.7 Summary 137
3.8 Problems 139
4 Networks 141
4.1 Overview 141
4.1.1 Historical origin of network science 143
4.1.2 From random matrix theory to random networks 143
4.1.3 Small worlds and power laws 144
4.1.4 Networks in the big data era 145
 Contents xi

4.2 Network basics 145

4.2.1 Networks or graphs? 146
4.2.2 Nodes and links 146
4.2.3 Adjacency matrix of undirected networks 146
4.3 Measures on networks 151
4.3.1 Degree of a node 151
4.3.2 Walking on networks 153
4.3.3 Connectedness and components 154
4.3.4 From distances on networks to centrality 155
4.3.5 Clustering coefficient 156
4.4 Random networks 159
4.4.1 Three sources of randomness 160
4.4.2 Erdős–Rényi networks 161
4.4.3 Phase transitions in Erdős–Rényi networks 163
4.4.4 Eigenvalue spectra of random networks 165
4.5 Beyond Erdős–Rényi—complex networks 167
4.5.1 Generalized Erdős–Rényi networks 168
4.5.2 Network superposition model 170
4.5.3 Small worlds 171
4.5.4 Hubs 173
4.6 Communities 178
4.6.1 Graph partitioning and minimum cuts 179
4.6.2 Hierarchical clustering 180
4.6.3 Divisive clustering in the Girvan–Newman algorithm 181
4.6.4 Modularity optimization 182
4.7 Functional networks—correlation network analysis 184
4.7.1 Construction of correlation networks 186
4.7.2 Filtering the correlation network 190
4.8 Dynamics on and of networks 194
4.8.1 Diffusion on networks 195
4.8.2 Laplacian diffusion on networks 196
4.8.3 Eigenvector centrality 199
4.8.4 Katz prestige 200
4.8.5 PageRank 200
4.8.6 Contagion dynamics and epidemic spreading 201
4.8.7 Co-evolving spreading models—adaptive networks 205
4.8.8 Simple models for social dynamics 206
4.9 Generalized networks 208
4.9.1 Hypergraphs 209
4.9.2 Power graphs 209
4.9.3 Multiplex networks 210
4.9.4 Multilayer networks 211
4.10 Example—systemic risk in financial networks 212
4.10.1 Quantification of systemic risk 213
4.10.2 Management of systemic risk 218
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xii Contents

4.11 Summary 219

4.12 Problems 222
5 Evolutionary Processes 224
5.1 Overview 224
5.1.1 Science of evolution 225
5.1.2 Evolution as an algorithmic three-step process 227
5.1.3 What can be expected from a science of evolution? 230
5.2 Evidence for complex dynamics in
evolutionary processes 232
5.2.1 Criticality, punctuated equilibria, and the abundance of
fat-tailed statistics 232
5.2.2 Evidence for combinatorial co-evolution 234
5.3 From simple evolution models to a general
evolution algorithm 236
5.3.1 Traditional approaches to evolution—the
replicator equation 237
5.3.2 Limits to the traditional approach 241
5.3.3 Towards a general evolution algorithm 242
5.3.4 General evolution algorithm 244
5.4 What is fitness? 246
5.4.1 Fitness landscapes? 247
5.4.2 Simple fitness landscape models 247
5.4.3 Evolutionary dynamics on fitness landscapes 249
5.4.4 Co-evolving fitness landscapes—The Bak–Sneppen model 261
5.4.5 The adjacent possible in fitness landscape models 263
5.5 Linear evolution models 264
5.5.1 Emergence of auto-catalytic sets—the
Jain–Krishna model 265
5.5.2 Sequentially linear models and the edge of chaos 271
5.5.3 Systemic risk in evolutionary
systems—modelling collapse 277
5.6 Non-linear evolution models—combinatorial evolution 281
5.6.1 Schumpeter got it right 282
5.6.2 Generic creative phase transition 282
5.6.3 Arthur–Polak model of technological evolution 286
5.6.4 The open-ended co-evolving combinatorial critical
model—CCC model 288
5.6.5 CCC model in relation to other evolutionary models 298
5.7 Examples—evolutionary models for economic predictions 299
5.7.1 Estimation of fitness of countries from economic data 300
5.7.2 Predicting product diversity from data 304
 Contents xiii

5.8 Summary 308

5.9 Problems 311
6 Statistical Mechanics and Information Theory for Complex Systems 313
6.1 Overview 313
6.1.1 The three faces of entropy 314
6.2 Classical notions of entropy for simple systems 318
6.2.1 Entropy and physics 321
6.2.2 Entropy and information 328
6.2.3 Entropy and statistical inference 343
6.2.4 Limits of the classical entropy concept 348
6.3 Entropy for complex systems 349
6.3.1 Complex systems violate ergodicity 350
6.3.2 Shannon–Khinchin axioms for complex systems 352
6.3.3 Entropy for complex systems 352
6.3.4 Special cases 356
6.3.5 Classification of complex systems based on their entropy 358
6.3.6 Distribution functions from the complex systems entropy 361
6.3.7 Consequences for entropy when giving up ergodicity 363
6.3.8 Systems that violate more than the composition axiom 365
6.4 Entropy and phasespace for physical complex systems 365
6.4.1 Requirement of extensivity 365
6.4.2 Phasespace volume and entropy 366
6.4.3 Some examples 369
6.4.4 What does non-exponential phasespace growth imply? 373
6.5 Maximum entropy principle for complex systems 374
6.5.1 Path-dependent processes and multivariate distributions 374
6.5.2 When does a maximum entropy principle exist for
path-dependent processes? 375
6.5.3 Example—maximum entropy principle for path-dependent
random walks 380
6.6 The three faces of entropy revisited 382
6.6.1 The three entropies of the Pólya process 383
6.6.2 The three entropies of sample space reducing processes 387
6.7 Summary 393
6.8 Problems 395
7 The Future of the Science of Complex Systems? 397

8 Special Functions and Approximations 399

8.1 Special functions 399
8.1.1 Heaviside step function 399
8.1.2 Dirac delta function 399
xiv Contents

8.1.3 Kronecker delta 400

8.1.4 The Lambert-W function 400
8.1.5 Gamma function 401
8.1.6 Incomplete Gamma function 402
8.1.7 Deformed factorial 402
8.1.8 Deformed multinomial 402
8.1.9 Generalized logarithm 402
8.1.10 Pearson correlation coefficient 403
8.1.11 Chi-squared distribution 403
8.2 Approximations 404
8.2.1 Stirling’s formula 404
8.2.2 Expressing the exponential function as a power 404
8.3 Problems 405

References 407
Index 425
1
Introduction to Complex Systems

1.1 Physics, biology, or social science?

The science of complex systems is not an offspring of physics, biology, or the social
sciences, but a unique mix of all three. Before we discuss what the science of complex
systems is or is not, we focus on the sciences from which it has emerged. By recalling
what physics, biology, and the social sciences are, we will develop an intuitive feel for
complex systems and how this science differs from other disciplines. This chapter thus
aims to show that the science of complex systems combines physics, biology, and the
social sciences in a unique blend that is a new discipline in its own right. The chapter
will also clarify the structure of the book.

1.2 Components from physics

Physics makes quantitative statements about natural phenomena. Quantitative state-
ments can be formulated less ambiguously than qualitative descriptions, which are
based on words. Statements can be expressed in the form of predictions in the sense
that the trajectory of a particle or the outcome of a process can be anticipated. If
an experiment can be designed to test this prediction unambiguously, we say that the
statement is experimentally testable. Quantitative statements are validated or falsified
using quantitative measurements and experiments.

Physics is the experimental, quantitative, and predictive science of matter and its
interactions.

Pictorially, physics progresses by putting specific questions to nature in the form of

experiments; surprisingly, if the questions are well posed, they result in concrete answers
that are robust and repeatable for an arbitrary number of times by anyone who can
do the same experiment. This method of generating knowledge about nature, by using
experiments to ask questions of it, is unique in the history of humankind and is called the
scientific method. The scientific method has been at the core of all technological progress
since the time of the Enlightenment.

Introduction to the Theory of Complex Systems. Stefan Thurner, Rudolf Hanel, and Peter Klimek,
Oxford University Press (2018). © Stefan Thurner, Rudolf Hanel, and Peter Klimek.
DOI: 10.1093/oso/9780198821939.001.0001
2 Introduction to Complex Systems

Physics deals with matter at various scales and levels of granularity, ranging from
macroscopic matter like galaxies, stars, planets, stones, and projectiles, to the scale of
molecules, atoms, hadrons, quarks, and gauge bosons. There are four fundamental forces
at the core of all interactions between all forms of matter: gravity, electromagnetism and
two types of nuclear force: the weak and the strong. According to quantum field theory,
all interactions in the physical world are mediated by the exchange of gauge bosons. The
graviton, the boson for gravity, has not yet been confirmed experimentally.

1.2.1 The nature of the fundamental forces

The four fundamental forces are very different in nature and strength. They are
characterized by a number of properties that are crucial for understanding how and why
it was possible to develop physics without computers. These properties are set out here.
Usually, the four fundamental forces are homogeneous and isotropic in space (and
time). Forces that are homogeneous act in the same way everywhere in space; forces
that are isotropic are the same, regardless of the direction in which they act. These two
properties drastically simplify the mathematical treatment of interactions in physics. In
particular, forces can be written as derivatives of potentials, two-body problems can
effectively be treated as one-body problems, and the so-called mean field approach
can be used for many-body systems. The mean field approach is the assumption that
a particle reacts to the single field generated by the many particles around it. Often,
such systems can be fully understood and solved even without computers. There are
important exceptions, however; one being that the strong force acts as if interactions were
limited to a ‘string’, where flux-tubes are formed between interacting quarks, similar to
type II superconductivity.
The physical forces differ greatly in strength. Compared to the strong force, the
electromagnetic force is about a thousand times weaker, the weak force is about 1016
times weaker, and the gravitational force is only 10−41 of the strength of the strong force
[405]. When any physical phenomenon is being dealt with, usually only a single force
has to be considered. All the others are small enough to be safely neglected. Effectively,
the superposition of four forces does not matter; for any phenomenon, only one force

Characteristic
Matter Interaction types length scale

macroscopic matter gravity, electromagnetism all ranges

molecules electromagnetism all ranges
atoms electromagnetism, weak force ∼ 10−18 m
hadrons and leptons electromagnetism, weak and strong force 10−18 − 10−15 m
quarks and gauge bosons electromagnetism, weak and strong force 10−18 − 10−15 m
 Components from physics 3

is relevant. We will see that this is drastically different in complex systems, where a
multitude of different interaction types of similar strength often have to be taken into
account simultaneously.
Typically, physics does not specify which particles interact with each other, as
they interact in identical ways. The interaction strength depends only on the relevant
interaction type, the form of the potential, and the relative distance between particles.
In complex systems, interactions are often specific. Not all elements, only certain pairs or
groups of elements, interact with each other. Networks are used to keep track of which
elements interact with others in a complex system.

1.2.2 What does predictive mean?

Physics is an experimental and a predictive science. Let us assume that you perform an
experiment repeatedly; for example, you drop a stone and record its trajectory over time.
The predictive or theoretical task is to predict this trajectory based on an understanding
of the phenomenon. Since Newton’s time, understanding a phenomenon in physics
has often meant being able to describe it with differential equations. A phenomenon
is understood dynamically if its essence can be captured in a differential equation.
Typically, the following three-step process is then followed:

1. Find the differential equations to encode your understanding of a dynamical

system. In the example of our stone-dropping experiment, we would perhaps apply
Newton’s equation,
d2x
m = F(x),
dt 2

where t is time, x(t) is the trajectory, m is mass of the stone, and F is force on the
stone. In our case, we would hope to identify the force with gravity, meaning that
F = gm.
2. Once the equation is specified, try to solve it. The equation can be solved
using elementary calculus, and we get, x(t) = x0 + v0 t + 12 gt 2 . To make a testable
prediction we have to fix the boundary or initial conditions; in our case we have
to specify what the initial position x0 and initial velocity v0 are in our experiment.
Once this is done, we have a prediction for the trajectory of the stone, x(t).
3. Compare the result with your experiments. Does the stone really follow this
predicted path x(t)? If it does, you might claim that you have understood
something on a quantitative, predictive, and experimental basis. If the stone
(repeatedly) follows another trajectory, you have to try harder to find a better
prediction.

Fixing initial or boundary conditions means simply taking the system out of its
context, separating it from the rest of the universe. There are no factors, other than
the boundary conditions, that influence the motion of the system from the outside. That
4 Introduction to Complex Systems

such a separation of systems from their context is indeed possible is one reason why
physics has been so successful, even before computing devices became available. For
many complex systems, it is impossible to separate the dynamics from the context in
a clear way. This means that many outside influences that are not under experimental
control will simultaneously determine their dynamics.
In principle, the same thinking used to describe physical phenomena holds for
arbitrarily complicated systems. Assume that a vector X (t) represents the state of a
system at a given time (e.g. all positions and momenta of its elements), we then get a
set of equations of motion in the form,

d 2 X (t)
= G(X (t)),
dt 2

where G is a high-dimensional function. Predictive means that, in principle, these

equations can be solved. Pierre-Simon Laplace was following this principle when he
introduced a hypothetical daemon familiar with the Newtonian equations of motion and
all the initial conditions of all the elements of a large system (the universe) and thus able to
solve all equations. This daemon could then predict everything. The problem, however,
is that such a daemon is hard to find. In fact, these equations can be difficult, even
impossible, to solve. Already for three bodies that exert a gravitational force on each other,
the famous three-body problem (e.g. Sun, Earth, Moon), there is no general analytical
solution provided by algebraic and transcendental functions. This was first demonstrated
by Henri Poincaré and paved the way for what is today called chaos theory. In fact,
the strict Newton–Laplace program of a predictable world in terms of unambiguously
computable trajectories is completely useless for most systems composed of many
particles. Are these large systems not then predictable? What about systems with an
extremely large number of elements, such as gases, which contain of the order of O(1023 )
molecules?
Imagine that we perform the following experiment over and over again: we heat and
cool water. We gain the insight that if we cool water to 0o C and below, it will freeze,
that if we heat it to 100o C it will start to boil and, under standard conditions, ultimately
evaporate. These phase transitions will happen with certainty. In that sense, they are
predictable. We cannot predict from the equations of motion which molecule will be the
first to leave the liquid. Given appropriate instrumentation, we can perhaps measure the
velocity of a few single gas molecules at a point in time, but certainly not all 1023 . What
can be measured is the probability distribution that a gas molecule is observed with a
specific velocity v,

mv2
 
p(v) ∼ v2 exp − ,
2kT

where T is temperature, and k is Boltzmann’s constant. Given this probability distribu-

tion, it is possible to derive a number of properties of gases that perfectly describe their
macroscopic behaviour and make them predictable on a macroscopic (or systemic) level.
 Components from physics 5

For non-interacting particles, these predictions can be extremely precise. The predictions
immediately start to degenerate as soon as there are strong interactions between the
particles or if the number of particles is not large enough. Note that the term prediction
now has a much weaker meaning than in the Newton–Laplace program. The meaning
has shifted from being a description based on the exact knowledge of each component
of a system to one based on a probabilistic knowledge of the system. Even though one
can still make extremely precise predictions about multiparticle systems in a probabilistic
framework, the concept of determinism is now diluted. The framework for predictions
on a macroscopic level about systems composed of many particles on a probabilistic
basis is called statistical mechanics.

1.2.3 Statistical mechanics—predictability

on stochastic grounds
The aim of statistical mechanics is to understand the macroscopic properties of a system
on the basis of a statistical description of its microscopic components. The idea behind
it is to link the microscopic world of components with the macroscopic properties of the
aggregate system. An essential concept that makes this link possible is Boltzmann–Gibbs
entropy.
A system is often prepared in a macrostate, which means that aggregate properties
like the temperature or pressure of a gas are known. There are typically many pos-
sible microstates that are associated with that macrostate. A microstate is a possible
microscopic configuration of a system. For example, a particular microstate is one for
which all positions and velocities of gas molecules in a container are known. There are
usually many microstates that can lead to one and the same macrostate; for example, the
temperature and pressure in the container. In statistical mechanics, the main task is to
compute the probabilities for the many microstates that lead to that single macrostate. In
physics, the macroscopic description is often relatively simple. Macroscopic properties
are often strongly determined by the phase in which the system is. Physical systems often
have very few phases—typically solid, gaseous, or liquid.
Within the Newton–Laplace framework, traditional physics works with extreme
precision for very few particles or for extremely many non-interacting particles, where
the statistical mechanics of Boltzmann–Gibbs applies. In other words, the class of
systems that can be understood with traditional physics is not that big. Most systems are
composed of many strongly interacting particles. Often, the interactions are of multiple
types, are non-linear, and vary over time. Very often, such systems are complex systems.

1.2.4 The evolution of the concept of predictability in physics

The concept of prediction and predictability has changed in significant ways over the
past three centuries. Prediction in the eighteenth century was quite different from the
concept of prediction in the twenty-first. The concept of determinism has undergone at
least three transitions [300].
6 Introduction to Complex Systems

In the classical mechanics of the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries, prediction meant
the exact prediction of trajectories. Equations of motion would make exact statements
about the future evolution of simple dynamical systems. The extension to more than
two bodies has been causing problems since the very beginning of Newtonian physics;
see, for example, the famous conflict between Isaac Newton and John Flamsteed on the
predictability of the orbit of the Moon. By about 1900, when interest in understanding
many-body systems arose, the problem became apparent. The theory of Ludwig Boltz-
mann, referred to nowadays as statistical mechanics, was effectively based on the then
speculative existence of atoms and molecules, and it drastically changed the classical
concept of predictability.
In statistical mechanics, based on the assumption that atoms and molecules follow
Newtonian trajectories, the law of large numbers allows stochastic predictions to be
made about the macroscopic behaviour of gases. Statistical mechanics is a theory of
the macroscopic or collective behaviour of non-interacting particles. The concepts of
predictability and determinism were subject to further change in the 1920s with the
emergence of quantum mechanics and non-linear dynamics.
In quantum mechanics, the concept of determinism disappears altogether due to
the fundamental simultaneous unpredictability of the position and momentum of the
(sub-)atomic components of a system. However, quantum mechanics still allows us to
make extremely high-quality predictions on a collective basis. Collective phenomena
remain predictable to a large extent on a macro- or systemic level.
In non-linear systems, it became clear that even in systems for which the equations of
motion can be solved in principle, the sensitivity to initial conditions can be so enormous
that the concept of predictability must, for all practical purposes, be abandoned. A further
crisis in terms of predictability arose in the 1990s, when interest in more general forms
of interactions began to appear.
In complex systems, the situation is even more difficult than in quantum mechanics,
where there is uncertainty about the components, but not about its interactions. For
many complex systems, not only can components be unpredictable, but the interactions
between components can also become specific, time-dependent, non-linear, and unpre-
dictable. However, there is still hope that probabilistic predictions about the dynamics
and the collective properties of complex systems are possible. Progress in the science of
complex systems will, however, be impossible without a detailed understanding of the
dynamics of how elements specifically interact with each other. This is, of course, only
possible with massive computational effort and comprehensive data.

1.2.5 Physics is analytic, complex systems are algorithmic

Physics largely follows an analytical paradigm. Knowledge of phenomena is expressed
in analytical equations that allow us to make predictions. This is possible because
interactions are homogeneous, isotropic, and of a single type. Interactions in physics
typically do not change over time. They are usually given and fixed. The task is to work
out specific solutions regarding the evolution of the system for a given set of initial and
boundary conditions.
 Components from physics 7

This is radically different for complex systems, where interactions themselves can
change over time as a consequence of the dynamics of the system. In that sense, complex
systems change their internal interaction structure as they evolve. Systems that change
their internal structure dynamically can be viewed as machines that change their internal
structure as they operate. However, a description of the operation of a machine using
analytical equations would not be efficient. Indeed, to describe a steam engine by seeking
the corresponding equations of motion for all its parts would be highly inefficient.
Machines are best described as algorithms—a list of rules regarding how the dynamics of
the system updates its states and future interactions, which then lead to new constraints
on the dynamics at the next time step. First, pressure builds up here, then a valve opens
there, vapour pushes this piston, then this valve closes and opens another one, driving
the piston back, and so on.
Algorithmic descriptions describe not only the evolution of the states of the com-
ponents of a system, but also the evolution of its internal states (interactions) that will
determine the next update of the states at the next time step. Many complex systems work
in this way: states of components and the interactions between them are simultaneously
updated, which can lead to the tremendous mathematical difficulties that make complex
systems so hard to understand. These difficulties in their various forms will be addressed
time and again in this book. Whenever it is possible to ignore the changes in the
interactions in a dynamical system, analytic descriptions become meaningful.

Physics is generally analytic, complex systems are algorithmic. Quantitative pre-

dictions that can be tested experimentally can be made within the analytic or the
algorithmic paradigm.

1.2.6 What are complex systems from a physics point of view?

From a physics point of view, one could try to characterize complex systems by the
following extensions to physics.

• Complex systems are composed of many elements, components, or particles.

These elements are typically described by their state, such as velocity, position,
age, spin, colour, wealth, mass, shape, and so on. Elements may have stochastic
components.
• Elements are not limited to physical forms of matter; anything that can interact
and be described by states can be seen as generalized matter.
• Interactions between elements may be specific. Who interacts with whom, when,
in what form, and how strong is described by interaction networks.
• Interactions are not limited to the four fundamental forces, but can be of a more
complicated type. Generalized interactions are not limited to the exchange of
gauge bosons, but can be mediated through exchange of messages, objects, gifts,
information, even bullets, and so on.
continued
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8 Introduction to Complex Systems

• Complex systems may involve superpositions of interactions of similar strengths.

• Complex systems are often chaotic in the sense that they depend strongly on the
initial conditions and details of the system. Update equations that algorithmically
describe the dynamics are often non-linear.
• Complex systems are often driven systems. Some obey conservation laws, some
do not.
• Complex systems can exhibit a rich phase structure and have a huge variety of
macrostates that often cannot be inferred from the properties of the elements. This
is sometimes referred to as emergence. Simple forms of emergence are, of course,
already present in physics. The spectrum of the hydrogen atom or the liquid phase
of water are emergent properties of the involved particles and their interactions.

With these extensions, we can derive a physics-based definition for what the theory
of complex systems is.

The theory of complex systems is the quantitative, predictive and experimentally

testable science of generalized matter interacting through generalized interactions.

Generalized interactions are described by the interaction type and who interacts with
whom at what time and at what strength. If there are more than two interacting elements
involved, interactions can be conveniently described by time-dependent networks,

Mijα (t),

where i and j label the elements in the system, and α denotes the interaction type.
Mijα (t) are matrix elements of a structure with three indices. The value Mijα (t) indicates
the strength of the interaction of type α between element i and j at time t. Mijα (t) = 0
means no interaction of that type. Interactions in complex systems remain based on the
concept of exchange; however, they are not limited to the exchange of gauge bosons. In
complex systems, interactions can happen through communication, where messages are
exchanged, through trade where goods and services are exchanged, through friendships,
where bottles of wine are exchanged, and through hostility, where insults and bullets are
exchanged.
Because of more specific and time-varying interactions and the increased variety of
types of interaction, the variety of macroscopic states and systemic properties increases
drastically in complex systems. This diversity increase of macrostates and phenomena
emerges from the properties both of the system’s components and its interactions.
The phenomenon of collective properties arising that are, a priori, unexpected from
the elements alone is sometimes called emergence. This is mainly a consequence of the
presence of generalized interactions. Systems with time-varying generalized interactions
can exhibit an extremely rich phase structure and may be adaptive. Phases may co-exist
in particular complex systems. The plurality of macrostates in a system leads to new types
 Components from physics 9

of questions that can be addressed, such as: what is the number of macrostates? What are
their co-occurrence rates? What are the typical sequences of occurrence? What are the
life-times of macrostates? What are the probabilities of transition between macrostates?
As yet, there are no general answers to these questions, and they remain a challenge for
the theory of complex systems. For many complex systems, the framework of physics is
incomplete. Some of the missing concepts are those of non-equilibrium, evolution, and
co-evolution. These concepts will be illustrated in the sections that follow.

1.2.7 A note on chemistry—the science of equilibria

In chemistry, interactions between atoms and molecules are specific in the sense that
not every molecule binds to (interacts with) any other molecule. So why is chemistry
usually not considered to be a candidate for a theory of complex systems? To a large
extent, chemistry is based on the law of mass action. Many particles interact in ways that
lead to equilibrium states. For example, consider two substances A and B that undergo
a reaction to form substances S and T ,

αA + βB ⇋ σ S + τ T ,

where α, β, σ , τ are the stoichiometric constants, and k+ and k− are the forward and
backward reaction rates, respectively. The forward reaction happens at a rate that is
proportional to k+ {A}α {B}β , the backward reaction is proportional to k− {S}σ {T }τ . The
brackets indicate the active (reacting) masses of the substances. Equilibrium is attained
if the ratio of the reaction rates equals a constant K,

k+ {S}σ {T }τ
K= = .
k− {A}α {B}β

Note that the solution to this equation gives the stationary concentrations of the
various substances. Technically, these equations are fixed point equations. In contrast to
chemical reactions and statistical mechanics, many complex systems are characterized
by being out-of-equilibrium. Complex systems are often so-called driven systems, where
the system is (exogenously) driven away from its equilibrium states. If there is no
equilibrium, there is no way of using fixed-point-type equations to solve the problems.
The mathematical difficulties in dealing with out-of-equilibrium or non-equilibrium
systems are tremendous and generally beyond analytical reach. One way that offers
a handle on understanding driven out-of-equilibrium systems is the concept of self-
organized criticality, which allows essential elements of the statistics of complex systems
to be understood; in particular, the omnipresence of power laws.

Many complex systems are driven systems and are out-of-equilibrium.

10 Introduction to Complex Systems

By comparing the nature of complex systems and basic equilibrium chemistry, we

learn that the mere presence of specific interactions does not automatically lead us
to complex systems. However, cyclical catalytic chemical reactions [22, 113, 205], are
classic prototypes of complex systems.

1.3 Components from the life sciences

We now present several key features of complex systems that have been adopted from
biology. In particular, we discuss the concepts of evolution, adaptation, self-organization,
and, again, networks.

The life sciences describe the experimental science of living matter. What is living
matter? A reasonable minimal answer has been attempted by the following three
statements [223]:

• Living matter must be self-replicating.

• It must run through at least one Carnot cycle.
• It must be localized.

Life without self-replication is not sustainable. It is, of course, conceivable that non-
self-replicating organisms can be created that live for a time and then vanish and have to
be recreated. However, this is not how we experience life on the planet, which is basically
a single, continuous, living germ line that originated about 3.5 billion years ago, and has
existed ever since. A Carnot cycle is a thermodynamic cyclical process that converts
thermal energy into work, or vice versa. Starting from an initial state, after the cycle is
completed, the system returns to the same initial state. The notion that living matter must
perform at least one Carnot cycle is motivated by the fact that all living organisms use
energy gradients (usually thermal) to perform work of some kind. For example, this work
could be used for moving or copying DNA molecules. This view also pays tribute to the
fact that all living objects are out-of-equilibrium and constantly driven by energy gradi-
ents. If, after performing work, a system were not able to reach its previous states, it would
be hard to call it a living system. Both self-replication and Carnot cycles require some
sort of localization. On this planet, this localization typically happens at the level of cells.

Living matter uses energy and performs work on short timescales without signifi-
cantly transforming itself. It is constantly driven by energy gradients and is out-of-
equilibrium. Self-replication and Carnot cycles require localization.

1.3.1 Chemistry of small systems

Living matter, as we know it on this planet, is a self-sustained sequence of genetic activity
over time. By genetic activity we mean that genes (locations on the DNA) can be turned
 Components from the life sciences 11

Figure 1.1 Schematic view of genetic activity and what a link Mki means in a genetic regulatory
network. (a) Gene i activates gene k if something like the following process takes place: the activity of
gene i means that a specific sub-sequence of the deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) (gene) is copied into a
complementary structure, an mRNA molecule. This mRNA molecule from gene i, might get ‘translated’
(copied again) into a protein of type i.This protein can bind with other proteins to form a cluster of proteins,
a ‘complex’. Such complexes can bind to other regions of the DNA, say, the region that is associated with
gene k, and thereby cause the activation of gene k. (b) Gene i causes gene j to become active, which activates
genes m and n. (c) The process, where the activity of gene i triggers the activity of other genes, can be
represented as a directed genetic regulatory network. Complexes can also deactivate genes. If gene j is
active, a complex might deactivate it.

‘on’ and ‘off’. If a gene is on, it triggers the production of molecular material, such as
ribonucleic acid (RNA) that can later be translated into proteins. A gene is typically
turned on by a cluster of proteins that bind to each other to form a so-called ‘complex’.
If such a cluster binds to a specific location on the DNA, this could cause a copying
process to be activated at this position; the gene is then active or ‘on’; see Figure 1.1.
Genetic activity is based on chemical reactions that take place locally, usually within
cells or their nuclei. However, these chemical reactions are special in the sense that only
a few molecules are involved [341]. In traditional chemistry, reactions usually involve
billions of atoms or molecules. What happens within a cell is chemistry with a few
molecules. This immediately leads to a number of problems:

• It can no longer be assumed that molecules meet by chance to react.

• With only a few molecules present that might never meet to react, the concept of
equilibrium becomes useless.
• Without equilibrium, there is no law of mass action.
12 Introduction to Complex Systems

If there is no law of mass action, how can chemistry be done? Classical equilibrium
chemistry is inadequate for dealing with molecular mechanisms in living matter. In
cells, molecules are often actively transported from the site of production (typically, the
nucleus, for organisms that have one) to where they are needed in the cell. This means
that diffusion of molecules no longer follows the classical diffusion equation. Instead,
molecular transport is often describable by an anomalous diffusion equation of the form,

d d 2+ν
p(x, t) = D 2+ν p(x, t)µ ,
dt dx

where p(x, t) is the probability of finding a molecule at position x at time t, D is the

diffusion constant, and µ and ν are exponents that make the diffusion equation non-
linear.
Chemical binding often depends on the three-dimensional structure of the molecules
involved. This structure can depend on the ‘state’ of the molecules. For example, a
molecule can be in a normal or a phosphorylated state. Phosphorylation happens through
the addition of a phosphoryl group (PO2− 3 ) to a molecule, which may change its entire
structure. This means that for a particular state of a molecule it binds to others, but
does not bind if it is in the other state. A further complication in the chemistry of a
few particles arises with the reaction rates. By definition, the term reaction rate only
makes sense for sufficiently large systems. The speed of reactions depends crucially on
the statistical mechanics of the underlying small system and fluctuation theorems may
now become important [122].

1.3.2 Biological interactions happen on

networks—almost exclusively
Genetic regulation governs the temporal sequence of the abundance of proteins, nucleic
material, and metabolites within any living organism. To a large extent, genetic regulation
can be viewed as a discrete interaction: a gene is active or inactive; a protein binds to
another or it does not; a molecule is phosphorylated or not. Discrete interactions are
well-described by networks. In the context of the life sciences, three well-known networks
are the metabolic network, the protein–protein binding network, and the Boolean gene-
regulatory network. The metabolic network1 is the set of linked chemical reactions
occurring within a cell that determine the cell’s physiological and biochemical properties.
The metabolic network is often represented in networks of chemical reactions, where
nodes represent substances and directed links (arrows) correspond to reactions or
catalytic influences. The protein–protein networks represent empirical findings about
protein–protein interactions (binding) in network representations [102]. Nodes are
proteins, and links specify the interaction type between them. Different interaction types
include stable, transient, and homo- or hetero-oligomer interactions.

1 For an example of what metabolic networks look like, see http://biochemical-pathways.com/#/map/1

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 CHAPTER VI
THE LAND OF THE FIRE

“Tierra del Fuego,” meaning the land of the fire, exclaimed the
followers of Magellan, as they saw the wreaths of smoke ascending
through the frosty air. It was merely the signal fires of the Indians
dwelling on one of the islands of that remote southern archipelago,
when they beheld the strange white-winged vessels of Magellan sailing
through the Straits, since named after him. The name has clung to the
group of islands during the succeeding centuries, although thousands of
white people have since placed foot on them and the name is known to
be a misnomer, for no volcanic fires exist there.
Beginning in Alaska, a chain of gigantic granite vertebrae extends
clear to Cape Horn. It clings close to the Pacific coast throughout the
entire distance, and ends in grandeur near the Antarctic Circle. Some
say that the lower end of this backbone of the American continents was
shattered by a convulsion, in which mighty masses of rock were thrown
off into the ocean, thus forming the numberless islands which lie at the
southern extremity of South America. The better theory, however, is that
they were formed by the submerging of the lower end of the Andes
Mountains. When the land sank the stormy water beat through the
valleys and chiselled the shores into incongruous shapes and labyrinths.
Between the islands and the mainland are the Straits of Magellan.
Some of the finest scenery in the world is found in this intricate
waterway, especially in what is known as Smyth’s Channel, which
separates Southern Chile from the group of islands. Smyth’s Channel is
very narrow, so that most vessels take the broader Straits. The depth
has never been fathomed. There is a grandeur in the serrated peaks,
and cliffs, snowy crests, cascades and the glaciers under a brilliant sun
and deep blue sky that is simply overwhelming. Numerous mountain
peaks reveal themselves, of which Mt. Sarmiento is the noblest, and lifts
its snowy head to a height of over seven thousand feet. Its beauty is
enhanced by numerous blue-tinted glaciers, which descend to the
waters of the sea like a multitude of frozen Niagaras. Floating glaciers
are common in the Straits, and vessels, unequipped with ice-making
machinery, often tie up to one while the crew chop enough ice to fill the
refrigerators.
Few places on the earth’s surface within easy reach can compare with
the Straits of Magellan. This channel has become the great trade route
between the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans. Few boats, except sailing
vessels, now take the longer route around Cape Horn, because of the
storms that lash the Antarctic seas into fury. For several hundred miles
the Straits furnish a succession of beautiful scenes; green shores
alternating with the eternal glaciers of the mountain peaks, blue waters
contrasting with the shimmering crystal of the floating icebergs. These
masses of ice are as imperishable as the glaciers of Greenland, and they
add a feature to the scenery that is not to be found elsewhere within the
ordinary course of steamers. It is a region of marvellous sunsets as well
as rugged scenery, when the weather is clear, but mist, snow or rain
often dim the view.
 IN THE STRAITS OF MAGELLAN.

The eastern entrance to the Straits lies between Cape Virgenes, on

the mainland, and Cape Espiritu, on the island, a distance of about
fourteen miles. For some distance the channel is wide, with the
mainland gently undulating and covered with grass. Then come the first
narrows, and afterwards the second narrows. These narrows are about
two miles in width, and there is generally a strong current through
them. In the spring the tides are thrown up to a height of fifty feet, and
this is the reason sailing vessels prefer the open waters around Cape
Horn, even though the seas are more tempestuous. When nearing Punta
Arenas the mountains become higher, and at times the way seems
blocked by them. Stunted bush and underbrush appear. After leaving
Punta Arenas the shores grow bolder and more picturesque. The snow-
covered mountains and glaciers resemble the Alaska coast or that of
Northern Norway. The islands are as numerous as in the St. Lawrence or
Georgian Bay.
Nodales Peak and Mt. Victoria lift their hoary heads on the mainland,
while Mt. Buckland and Mt. Sarmiento rise to a still greater height on the
islands. The latter beautiful and majestic peak is the noblest of them all.
Its snowy head rises to a height of seven thousand three hundred feet,
with a broad base and two distinct peaks. It is generally more or less
hidden by vapour. The three Evangelistas keep their lonely vigil where
straits and ocean join on the north. Cape Pillar, the western end of the
Straits, is two hundred and forty-five miles from Cape Virgenes, but the
steamer route is almost half as long again. Old voyagers were wont to
take eighty days in this passage when the weather was a little
unfavourable. The western end is the stormiest, and the pilot books give
it a very bad reputation. South of them the Antarctic seas are seldom
free from the storm king. The weather is nearly always bad, and
oftentimes worse. In one recent year it is said that eighty-two sailing
vessels and thirty-nine steamers were lost—a fearful toll claimed by old
Neptune.
Fernando de Magelhaens, although of Portuguese birth, had entered
the Spanish service. In charge of a fleet of five small ships, the largest
of only one hundred and thirty tons, boarded and manned by a crew of
sixty-two men, he sailed from Seville on the 10th of August, 1519. The
voyage was an arduous one, and was beset not only with terrific storms
at sea but mutinies among the sailors that were scarcely less terrifying.
Only two of his vessels remained faithful, but he conquered the mutiny
with the loss of only one vessel. On the 21st of October, 1520, he
entered the eastern entrance of the channel, and it was a month later,
after almost unheard-of difficulties, that he emerged into the broad
Pacific. Of the subsequent expeditions that attempted this route the
experiences were most unfortunate. In nearly every instance almost one
out of every three vessels was wrecked, some in one channel and some
in another, for there is a perfect labyrinth of channels around and
between the many islands. Some of the names indicate the experiences
or impressions of these early navigators. Fatal Bay, Port Famine, Famine
Reach, Escape Beach, Last Wreck Point, Dislocation Harbour, Thieves
Island, Useless Bay, Fury Islands, Breakneck Peninsula, Desolation
Harbour, Preservation Cove, and last, Hope Inlet, are a few of the names
that may be located on the map. In 1578, Sir Francis Drake, an English
explorer as well as freebooter, by accident found the route by the way of
Cape Horn. This great discovery stimulated navigation around South
America, for the Spaniards guarded the Straits route to the best of their
ability. The Spaniards described Drake as “a man of low condition, but a
skilful seaman and a valiant pirate.”
The Fuegian Archipelago covers a goodly territory. The islands contain
as much land as Nebraska, and are several hundred miles long from east
to west. A perfect labyrinth of tortuous, wind-swept waterways separate
the hundreds of islands which form this group. They are not all a
desolate mass of ice and snow, however, but contain plains which are
covered with succulent grasses, and slopes which are thickly wooded.
The Chilean portion of these islands, and the mainland along the coast
beyond the fiftieth parallel of latitude, is included in the territory of
Magellanes, the largest territorial division in the republic. The largest
island, called Tierra del Fuego, land of the fire, is half as large as Illinois.
It is divided longitudinally between Chile and Argentina, by far the
largest portion belonging to the former nation, and the best part of it
too.
Thirty years ago this entire island was roamed and hunted over by the
aborigines. The fact that the northern part consisted of open country,
with few ranges of hills, caused the white man to look upon it with
envious eyes, as it promised good pasturage for sheep. Then began a
warfare against the Indians which almost resulted in their extermination.
Thousands of sheep now quietly graze in the rich valleys and on the
verdant plains, and thrive very well indeed. Very little of the land is
cultivated, although probably susceptible of cultivation, but the
marketing of the products would be a difficult feature at the present
time, and the season is short. Its latitude is about that of Southern
Greenland, but the climate is probably milder, and its longitude is
approximately that of Eastern Massachusetts. In the summer the grass
is green, but in the winter the chilly winds change it to a rich brown.
The ground rats are a terrible nuisance to the farmer, as they burrow in
the fields so much that they destroy half the usefulness of a good
meadow. The mountain slopes are covered with a thick growth of trees,
ferns and mosses up to a height of a thousand feet or more, due to the
great amount of rainfall, but above that distance the growth is very
stunted. It seems strange to see green trees and green grasses amid
snows and glaciers, but such is the contrast offered by this “land of the
fire.” The trees are mostly evergreen, not very high, but very close
together. A deep bed of moss, into which a man may sink knee-deep,
generally surrounds them, and large ferns with leaves a yard long grow
in places otherwise bare. Even bright flowers make the sombre
landscape seem almost gay when the sun shines on a summer day.
Desolation Island, on the Chilean side, is a bleak and barren island
well indicated by its name, while other names are Clarence, St. Inas,
and Navarin. There are many others, from islands twenty miles in length
to some so small that a good baseball pitcher could toss a stone clear
over them. Cape Horn is a monster rock which thrusts its jagged outline
into the Antarctic seas. It is a couple of hundred miles south of the
Straits of Magellan, and more than a thousand miles nearer the
undiscovered South Pole than the Cape of Good Hope. It is surrounded
by waters that are tossed by terrific storms which mariners fear. The
hulks of wrecked vessels can be seen on every hand as reminders of the
terrible tribute which has been here levied. Glaciers are always in sight,
and masses of ice hundreds of feet high are frequently seen, seeming to
threaten the venturesome mariner for invading those beautiful waters.
 A WRECK ON THE COAST OF CHILE.

A number of years ago a steamer was wrecked on these shores, but

the crew managed to save sufficient provisions to sustain all those
rescued for some time. While sinking shallow wells they discovered a
strata of black sand that sparkled with particles of gold. Their reports led
to great excitement over the discovery of gold on Tierra del Fuego.
Although adventurers had sailed through the Straits for centuries,
looking for the wealth that they might obtain either honestly or
dishonestly, yet the gold deposits remained undiscovered until 1867.
Their covetous eyes had gazed upon the gold-bearing shores, and they
had even filled their water-casks in the gold-bearing rivulets without
seeing the wealth. In the few years following a number of Argentine
explorers visited that region, and found the source of some of the gold.
The gold was almost exclusively found in free particles in a layer of black
sand, which was found under the surface sand. As soon as the report of
their find reached the settlements, a number of expeditions were fitted
out and sent to that region. The best payings were found right on the
beach, which was washed by the waves of the sea at a high tide and
during storms. It was also found that the tides brought in fresh gold-
bearing sands from the seas. The miners used to sit down and smoke
their pipes until the storms passed, and then dig up the black sand with
the gold in it after the surf had gone down.
It all seemed to be pockets, so that where the gold would be found in
considerable quantities for a while, it would soon become so scarce that
mining it under the crude conditions prevailing became unprofitable. The
prospectors sailed in and out of the stormy and dangerous bays, and
many of them lost their lives. The hidden reefs and whirling tornadoes
form combinations that made navigation in the small catboats that were
used extremely perilous. Many, who were wrecked, were obliged to live
upon whatever wild food they could find for weeks, and others were
killed by the hostile Indians. The original stories said that nuggets as big
as kernels of corn were plentiful, but they were not true to fact. No gold
quartz veins were ever discovered, but in all the finds it was simply
particles mixed up with the black sand. Gold mining to-day is not
prosecuted in that region as much as it was a couple of decades ago,
although some gold is washed each year. If the whole story was known,
it would probably be found that there were more skeletons of dead
miners left on those inhospitable shores than records of wealth acquired
in Tierra del Fuego. Most of those who did find wealth got no farther
than Punta Arenas with it, for that city was to that region what San
Francisco was in the early days of California, and mining prospectors are
the same the world over.
The first attempt to establish a settlement on the Straits of Magellan
was in the latter part of the sixteenth century. Pedro Sarmiento de
Gamboa was placed in command of this expedition. His instructions
were as follows: “For the honour and glory of God and of the Virgin
Mary, His Mother and Our Lady, whom you, Captain Pedro Sarmiento,
are to take for Advocate and Patron of the ships and crews under your
orders for this discovery and enterprise in the Straits of Magellan.” After
several narrow escapes from shipwreck the expedition landed, and
established a settlement not far from the present city of Punta Arenas.
From the very first misfortune seemed to follow the colonists, and the
Indians soon became hostile. At the end of the second winter the three
hundred or more colonists had dwindled to eighteen, who were finally
rescued. They had been obliged to live on berries, shell-fish, oysters,
and such other ocean life that they were able to catch. The Indians had
driven the guanaco and other wild game into the interior where the
colonists could not reach them.

GENERAL VIEW OF PUNTA ARENAS.

The continent of South America extends much farther south than

Africa. The southernmost point is Cape Frowards, which is a dark mass
of rock five hundred feet high joined by a low neck of land to snow-clad
mountains. At almost the southernmost point of the mainland lies the
little city of Punta Arenas (Sandy Point). It is situated on the Straits of
Magellan, which is sheltered from the worst storms by the many islands
that lie between it and the Antarctic seas. Punta Arenas is the
southernmost city in the world, eight hundred miles farther south than
Cape Town. There is plenty of building space left in this city still, but a
few years ago, when the boom was on, the people had visions of a
southern Chicago. Fabulous prices were asked for building lots, and real
estate agents were almost as plentiful as the Indians. That time has
passed, and the town has dwindled in population. Its latitude is about
that of Labrador, but it is much more equable than that country and the
weather is not so severe as many imagine. It is so named because built
on a sandy beach that runs out into the Straits. It is now a city of twelve
thousand people, and they seem to be contented. It is a very mixed
population. You can hear Spanish, English, German, Italian, Russian and
even the Chinese mingled with the guttural tongues of the Indians. The
Scotch are probably the most thrifty of the inhabitants, and many of
them have lived there two or three generations.
There are many rough characters in Punta Arenas, some even who
have drifted from the mining camps of our western states. It is said to
be bad policy to ask a man where he came from, or what his name was
before his arrival, as it might be an embarrassing subject. The loafing
places are the bars, where many brawls occur during the long winters.
There are probably as many saloons to the number of inhabitants as in
any other place on the globe, for nearly every other door seems to bear
such a sign. Much gambling is also done at these and in the clubs. There
are clubs, where the well-to-do gather and have their games just as
they do the world over. The principal club is the Cuerpo de Bomberos,
which means the Society of Firemen, and was organized as a volunteer
fire department. Most of the buildings are cheap one-story affairs,
frequently being built of the corrugated iron so common in this land.
Punta Arenas is a free port, and this fact has aided in its prosperity. All
the vessels passing through the Straits call there for supplies and coal,
and this business, together with the trade in whaling products, wool and
furs, furnish the inhabitants with employment. It is one of the great
wool-exporting ports of the world, having shipped more than sixteen
million pounds of that commodity in a single season, and four hundred
thousand pelts. The trade in furs is very large. One of the prettiest
things sold here is an ostrich robe made of the breasts of the young
birds.
 PORT FAMINE, IN THE STRAITS OF MAGELLAN.

Punta Arenas is the business centre of the region extending from Port
Desire, on the Patagonian coast to Cape Horn, and from the Falkland
Islands on the east to the westernmost limits of Chile. The little
settlement that originally was established there was called La Colonia de
Magellanes. On the 21st of April, 1843, Chile first planted her tri-
coloured banner at a place near here, which was called Port Famine,
because of the disastrous end of the Sarmiento settlement, which had
been located there a couple of centuries previously.
Chile had a double purpose in establishing this post. One was its
desire to hold the territory as a national possession, and the other was
to establish a penal colony which would be so far away from the capital
that the prisoners, even if they escaped, could not return. Several
hundred prisoners were generally confined there, who were kept in
subjection by a small company of soldiers. On two occasions the
convicts rebelled and took possession of this settlement. On one of
these the governor and many of the guards were killed and the
mutineers boarded a ship that chanced to be in the harbour, but they
were overtaken by a Chilean man-of-war and overcome. The men were
hung, and it is said that a man was seen hanging from every yard-arm
of the war-ship. After the first revolt a new settlement was established
on the present site of Punta Arenas, which was given the old name. The
tongue of sand there, however, the English-speaking people called
Sandy Point, and thereafter the name Punta Arenas, which means the
same in Spanish, was given it; at least it is entirely known by that name
now.
In 1877 the last revolt occurred, when the convicts revenged the
cruelties to which they had been subjected upon the commander of the
garrison and many of the soldiers. When a man-of-war appeared they
fled into the interior, where most of them died from starvation and
hardships. The establishment of the Pacific Steam Navigation Company
was the cause of the abandonment of this place as a penal colony. It
proved to be a convenient stopping place for the steamers to take on
coal and supplies, and this gave it a new life. Later came the discovery
of gold, which brought many to the settlement. Still later a Scotchman
brought some sheep from the Falkland Islands, and found that the
region around Punta Arenas and on the island opposite was well
adapted for sheep raising. Others took advantage of this experience,
until the neighbourhood around became noted for its sheep culture.
Some day, if a freezing establishment should be established here, Punta
Arenas will become a still more important place, and it is undoubtedly
only a question of time until such will be done. The town itself makes a
poor foreground for the magnificent setting of nature. It is laid out on
the usual checkerboard plan, with several streets running from the
shores back up the hills. It has a plaza and the streets are unpaved. The
beach is sandy and the streets are either filled with loose sand or mud.
Across the Straits the green hills of Tierra del Fuego may be seen
rising, and over to the south the snow-capped peaks of Mt. Sarmiento
and its neighbours appear above the horizon. To the west are mountains
which are ever green and rise boldly up to the western edge, while to
the north the hills are generally bare. At one time it was thought that
coal had been discovered and the mine was opened up; some track was
built and an old locomotive brought down. It proved, however, to be
only lignite, and so the mine has been practically abandoned.
 A considerable trade has been developed in Indian curios and goods.
The Indians from the pampas and islands come here to sell their furs,
feathers, bows, hides, etc. Passengers passing through the Straits on
the various steamers usually lay in a supply of these goods, some of
which are genuine and others are prepared especially for such
passengers. One wonders at the number of palms and plants which are
seen in this town so far beyond all other settlements, for even wild
flowers of certain kinds seem to grow in great profusion, while ferns and
lichens everywhere delight the eye.
South of Punta Arenas there is only one settlement of any importance,
and that is Ushuaia. This town is situated on the Argentine side of Tierra
del Fuego, and, small as it is, it is the capital of that territory. It stands
nearer to the South Pole than any other civilized village in the world.
The barriers created by nature are almost insurmountable. To the south
is the unknown Antarctic, to the north the impassable barrier of snow-
clad peaks, and in all other directions are the fathomless channels
separating it from the other islands. Established first as a mission
settlement, its site was selected as the capital of the territory. The
Argentine flag was first unfolded over the first building erected for the
use of officials in 1884. Shortly after that work upon prisons was begun,
and it became a still more important settlement. Here, in this isolated
quarter of the globe, guarded by a few score of armed men, are
confined several hundred men, many of whom are the very dregs of
humanity sent from Buenos Aires. These unfortunates work on the
roads, dress stone for new and stronger walls, or make the garments
worn by themselves and their fellow prisoners. Few attempt to escape
and fewer still succeed, for the loneliness and desolation alone would
keep a prisoner where human companionship may be found.
Small and unimportant as this town is to-day, and wretched as it
would seem to many people, yet it has a full complement of officials
with their secretaries and servants. There is a complete list of judicial
officers and police officials, even though the police have no patrol to
beat and the court has no docket. About the only part of the official
equipment that has any work to do is the culinary department, for it
takes a great deal of cooking and preparation to provide food for every
one there. Out of a population of several hundred to-day, made up
principally of prisoners and officials, there are only a very few plain
common citizens who dwell there.
Most of the buildings in Ushuaia are frame structures, which have
been erected near the bay that bears the same name as the town. It is
situated on Beagle Channel. The houses consist of plain unpainted
wooden walls, with a roof of corrugated iron. The governor’s palace
itself is not much better than the other buildings. A few of the buildings
have little green patches, enclosed with picket fences, in which they are
able to grow a few vegetables. For a location so far south the climate is
not so bad as one would expect, as the snowfall is not as great as in the
same latitude in northern regions. In the winter time the nights are very
long and the days short. The mountains just at the back of the town cut
off the sunlight when the sun is low, so that the town only receives
about four hours of daylight. It is certainly a cheerless sort of existence
that the people lead in this southern capital. There are still one or two
missions that are conducted by English missionaries on this coastland,
but they have had very little influence upon the natives. One of the
missions consists of quite a large ranch, where the minister in charge of
the mission lives and employs the natives to do his work.
For several hundred miles north of Punta Arenas lies the formerly
unknown land of Patagonia—the land of the Pata-goas, the “big feet,” as
they were named by Magellan. One can see in that city almost any day
descendants of that race in the Tehuelche tribe of Indians who come
there to sell their furs and skins. Out upon the broad pampas away from
the town, the traveller will occasionally stumble upon the toldos (huts)
of the Tehuelches. These are simply made huts of the skins of the
guanaco sewn loosely together at the edges, and supported squarely
upon awkward-looking props, or posts, forked at the top to admit the
ridge-poles. The skins are fastened to the earth by wooden pegs. The
Tehuelches are the native Indians of Patagonia—the so-called giants—
and are well built specimens of manhood. These Indians live almost as
their ancestors did hundreds of years ago. They are still nomads, and
exist entirely by the chase. They do not cultivate anything whatever, but
sometimes own a few cattle. In general they still dress in skins, although
some of them have purchased store clothes at the settlements. As a rule
they are mild mannered, when sober, and do not deserve the name of
being bloodthirsty savages. Their numbers have greatly decreased, since
the first discovery of Patagonia, through dissipation and disease, and
some have estimated that the total number yet remaining will not
exceed a few hundred.
Only a few years ago the geographers labelled Patagonia “no man’s
land.” To-day millions of sheep graze over its fertile plains. It is as large
as several of our western states. It is a land of big distances and
enormous holdings. In the pasture section it is often a ride of three or
four days from one ranch to another. Most of these ranches are near the
coast or along the few rivers. As one travels into the interior a white
face becomes more and more rare; empty leagues surround you on
every hand. One accustomed to cities only would find it very lonely
indeed on these plains. One seems to stand alone with only the wind,
the mirages and the limitless distances, and the blue sky above for a
canopy. The last land to have been the habitation of the greater beasts
of preceding ages, according to geologists, Patagonia is one of the last
to receive its proper share of the human population.
There are three races of Indians who inhabit these Fuegian islands,
the Yahgans, Alacaloofs and the Onas, all of whom are very low in
intelligence. They are commonly known under the general
characterization of the Firelanders. None of them are as far advanced as
the Esquimaux, who build warm igloos for their habitation. Even though
the climate is very cold the greater part of the year these aborigines
formerly wore very little clothing, but greased their bodies with fish oil
that keeps out the cold. In recent years, however, they have begun to
wear warmer garments, when such can be obtained. The Yahgans are
very treacherous, and many murders have been traced to them. They
will mingle very little with white people, but always hold themselves
aloof. Their houses are of the most primitive character, and are
frequently little more than a rude construction of thatch on a skeleton of
sticks stuck in the ground.
These Yahgans live almost entirely on sea food. They divide their time
between these rude huts and canoes, or dugouts made from the trunks
of trees, in which they paddle through the tortuous channels from one
island to another. Should a storm overtake the boat and it becomes
necessary to lighten it, the men show their instinct for self-preservation
by throwing the women and children overboard. They are not particular
about food, as to whether it is very fresh or not. There is frequently a
dearth of food, and then it is that they are driven to eat the flesh of a
stranded whale or of an animal found dead. Ground rats and the fishy-
flavoured penguin are included on their regular bill-of-fare. Their
camping-places can generally be located by the mounds of shells that
accumulate. They are as near to primitive savages as it would be
possible to find on the Americas. As usual among savage tribes, the
women do the most of the work, and assist in the hunting and fishing as
well as prepare the meat after it has once been caught. The Yahgans
are short and muscular and below medium height. Their lower limbs
seem rather stunted, but above the waist they are heavily built.
Marriage is a matter of purchase and sale, and wives are sometimes
exchanged. The marriage ceremony consists in painting the girl in a
peculiar way, and then the husband takes her to his hut or that of his
parents.
The Alacaloofs, or Alakalufs, occupy the western islands and are
similar in their habits to the Yahgans. Their canoes are made of strips of
bark or planks fastened together with vines and caulked with moss.
Their huts look like New England haycocks made of boughs and covered
with skins or bark strips. They frequently row out to meet passing
steamers and beg for food. They are not an attractive people. In colour
they strongly resemble the North American red men, but they are not
much over five feet in height. The only domesticated animal owned by
them is the dog. With this tribe, as well as the Yahgans, everything is
held in common and it is no crime to take of your neighbour’s fuel or
food.
The Onas are a hunting tribe and they are larger than either of the
other tribes. They occupy the prairie lands and open bush of Tierra del
Fuego. The men are active and athletic, and they are especially skilful in
stalking the guanaco of that island. They are expert in the use of the
rude bows and arrows which they make for themselves. The bows are
fashioned out of a native wood cut with shell knives, and the arrows are
made out of reeds armed with a flint or glass point. Horse meat is a
great delicacy with them. The struggle for existence has made these
people inexpressive in features and stoical in actions. A good fortune or
an ill fortune is met in much the same way. Their homes are generally
saucer-shaped hollows that have been scraped out, over which poles
and brush are piled and guanaco skins are used as doors. All the family
lie down together, and the dogs are included for warmth. They are
nomads and wander from one place to another in search of food. Fire is
made with bits of iron ore or flints and dry fungus. Some of this tribe are
now employed as servants by the white people, but most of them prefer
the wild life in the open.
With all the hardships that seem to fall to the lot of these Indians who
live so far to the south, they seem to be fairly happy and are contented
with their surroundings. This is truly fortunate. People who live in the
temperate zones are inclined to think that they are the only truly happy
ones. By travel one’s view is broadened, and at last he realizes the truth
expressed by Oliver Goldsmith in the following lines:—

“If countries we compare,

And estimate the blessings which they share,
Though patriots flatter, still shall wisdom find
An equal portion dealt to all mankind.
The shuddering tenant of the frigid zone
Boldly proclaims that happiest spot his own;
Extols the treasures of the stormy seas,
And his long nights of revelry and ease;
The naked negro, panting at the Line,
Boasts of his golden sands and palmy wine,
Basks in the glare, or strives the tepid wave.
And thanks his gods for all the good they gave.”
 CHAPTER VII
THE BACKBONE OF THE CONTINENT

The trip across the continent of South America is now made very
comfortably by train. The start is from the very pleasant station of the
State Railway of Valparaiso. For a number of miles the tracks run almost
along the water’s edge, and thus afford many beautiful views of the blue
bay of Valparaiso. The trains on this road are very comfortable, for the
Chilean State Railway is one of the very few railroads in South America
that provide Pullman cars for their patrons. After leaving Viña del Mar
the line soon abandons the bay, and threads its way through the coast
range of mountains. One gets many glimpses of the higher Andes
through the passes, and there are also green glens where advantage
has been taken of the running water for irrigation. Cacti become very
abundant, and one is reminded of the plateaus of Mexico, for these
silent sentinels seem to keep watch over the herds of sheep and goats
that feed on the slopes. Any one who has seen Southern Chile first will
notice the difference as soon as the train leaves Santiago. The
progressive dryness of the climate has a pronounced effect on the
vegetation. The cacti are frequently from twelve to fifteen feet in height,
and their entire surface is covered with stout, curved spines.
 THE ACONCAGUA RIVER.

After creeping along the shore and then through a valley, the railroad
soon joins the Aconcagua River, which leaps and foams along, thus
forming a series of diminutive cascades. In the winter time the change
in temperature is very marked as the upward climb continues. In places
the valley spreads out to quite generous proportions, and one will see
haciendas that are well kept up and which show evidence of careful
cultivation. Contrast is afforded by the sight of oxen drawing one-
handled, wooden ploughs. How powerful must have been the Moorish
influence in Spain, for these ploughs are exact duplicates of the plough
of ancient Chaldea and Egypt, which was carried along the coast of
Barbary into Spain, and left there as a heritage to the Spaniards, who
introduced it into the New World. The general impression left with the
traveller over this route, between Valparaiso and Santiago, is one of
comparative barrenness and desolation.
Viña del Mar, Limache and Quillota are three quite important towns
that are passed en route, the latter two of which have some important
manufacturing establishments. Llai Llai (pronounced Yi-yi) is about half
way, and this is the diverging point for the two routes. One leads to the
capital, and the other is the continuation of the transcontinental railroad.
Llai Llai is a pleasant little town of five or six thousand inhabitants, and
is situated about twenty-six hundred and twenty-five feet above sea
level. A number of fruit sellers are sure to be at the station, and one
who does not purchase a few of the delicious pears or peaches, that are
sold so reasonably, misses a great treat. They are grown in a rich valley
below which is a sort of agricultural Arcadia.
The through cars are switched to another track, a different engine is
attached to them and the traveller is soon bound for Los Andes. The
journey does not differ greatly from that already described. The city of
San Felipe is the largest town passed and it is situated amidst well
cultivated fields. It is a city of about twelve thousand. Soon afterwards
the train reaches Santa Rosa de Los Andes, which marks a break in the
journey. Here it is necessary to change trains, and frequently to stay
over night. It is at the foothills of the Andes, and one can find many
pleasant little excursions into the foothills here, if he has the inclination
to tarry for a few days. The climate is good, and the physical wants of
the traveller are very well looked after at the hotel. A few Americans will
be found there, for the railroad is operated by that nationality.
 LOOKING TOWARDS ACONCAGUA.

If it is the summer time one will find Los Andes a very pleasant little
place, with quite an abundance of vegetation around it. The altitude is
about twenty-six hundred feet, which gives it a delightful climate. Fruits
grow abundantly, and the fruit-canning industry has been considerably
developed. This is in the province of Aconcagua, which contains some of
the most notable elevations in the entire republic, and, in fact, in the
entire world. This province is about as large as Connecticut and Rhode
Island combined. In addition to the eastern boundary of lofty peaks
there are numerous low hills, between which lie fertile valleys. Through
the use of irrigation agriculture flourishes in these valleys, and there is a
considerable production of grains and wine. There are also a number of
silver and copper mines in the province. San Felipe is the capital, and is
distant about seventy-eight miles from both Santiago and Valparaiso.
“Vamonos,” says the conductor of the narrow gauge train, as it pulls
out of the station on its way to the limits of Chilean territory. One will
begin to take notice of his fellow-travellers. The passengers will be
found to be of many nationalities, and of many shades of colour, for,
since the railway journey is continuous, fewer people take the much
longer route via the Straits of Magellan. There will be Chilenos, with big
hats and ponchos, and Chilenas, whose faces are coated with powder or
paste. There will be priests in beaver hats and black gowns, which reach
to their feet. Soldiers in uniforms modelled after the German army are
quite likely to be companions as far as the border. Americans, British,
French, Germans, Italians and Argentinians—all of these nationalities go
to make up a potpourri of nations and national characteristics. As the
start is generally made in the morning, one sees the stars disappear and
the dawn break over the mountains. The gray skies turn to a steel-blue,
then to a rosy pink, until, at last, the highest peaks are illuminated by
the rays of the sun. One may leave Los Andes clad in its summer
plumage, with myriads of butterflies and moths flitting about, but these
characteristics soon disappear, for the upward climb begins almost
immediately. In the next thirty-five miles this rack and pinion road climbs
upward more than seven thousand feet. It is a much steeper ascent
than on the Argentine side, for it requires three times the distance to
reach the same level on that slope.
The track follows the course of the Aconcagua River. This river is at no
time a great stream, yet the total volume of water carried down in its
swift-flowing current must be considerable. Many glimpses of the simple
natives, and their primitive means of conveyance, are afforded on the
ancient highway that threads the same valley. On the mountainside an
occasional mud hut may be seen around and over which climb creepers
and flowering vines. The scenery is beautiful and full of variations. Every
turn of the tortuous track reveals a new scene of beauty, and there are
few railway journeys in the world that will afford a greater variety of
views than this overland route to Buenos Aires. The mountains grow
from grand to grander, as if Ossa had been piled upon Pelion. When
sunlight and shadow play upon the rock the contrasts are dazzling and
the senses gladdened. There is a prodigality of colours such as even the
Yosemite, the Grand Cañon or the Dolomites do not surpass. Guardia
Viega, the “old guard,” is one of the stations, and is so named because it
was for two centuries a guard station on the Antiguo Camino, or ancient
road between the two republics. The vegetation becomes scanter as the
altitude increases, but, scant as it is, it is a pleasing change to the
traveller coming from the other direction. Juncal, which for several years
was the terminus, is passed. One of the most beautiful views afforded is
that of the narrow gorge, known as the Salto del Soldado, the Soldier’s
Leap, through which the tempestuous waters of the river foam and toss.
There is a tradition connected with this strange freak of nature of which
the Chileans are proud. During the war of independence it is said that a
Chilean pursued by the enemy, leaped across this chasm and saved his
life. Owing to the width it is an almost impossible tale to believe.

THE SALTO DEL SOLDADO.

 Just beyond Juncal is a beautiful little lake, which is as opalescent and
translucent as any of the lakes of Switzerland, and several thousand feet
higher. It is the Lago del Inca, the Lake of the Incas. Pure as crystal,
and clear as an unclouded sky, this little body of water rests tranquilly
amidst as harsh and severe a setting as one could well find. Masses of
rock seem poised on ledges ready to project themselves down into
valleys with destruction in their path. The mad gods who formed these
eternal peaks must have paused for a moment in their work in order to
add this one touch of real beauty to the landscape.
Here one may also see the huge condors, flying at such heights that
they look no larger than a swallow. The glass will sometimes reveal
others that can scarcely be distinguished with the naked eye. They sail
and circle around in the rarefied air with scarcely a flap of the wing. In
the winter time the condor may be found near the coast, but in summer
they always return to the highest Andean peaks, where they rear their
young. The eggs are deposited in lofty clefts or caverns, where no form
of animal life exists that might destroy the young birds. A young condor
during the first year clings to the parent bird, for its body is too big for
its wings. This royal bird figures on the national escutcheon of Chile as
an emblem of strength and independence. The Indians surround it with
many legends, and some of them believe that the souls of the lost enter
the bodies of the condor and are thus poised between heaven and
earth, so as to see the glories of both and be able to enjoy neither, like
the doom of Tantalus.
At last Caracoles, the name given to the little station at the Chilean
end of the international railroad, is reached, at an elevation of a little
more than ten thousand feet above sea level. The tunnel is just about
the same length as the altitude, for it is ten thousand three hundred and
eighty-five feet from entrance to exit. Near the centre of this hole bored
through the Andean rock the international boundary is passed, and,
when the train emerges at Las Cuevas, the other terminus, the traveller
catches his first glimpse of Argentina. It is a scene of vast desolation
that meets his gaze. It is a picture of solitude, with nothing to relieve it
in the way of vegetation. The vivid colourings of the stratas of rock and
the white summits of the many peaks in sight, however, make it a scene
of wild glory that uplifts the soul at the majesty of nature. One stands
aghast at the marvellous richness of colouring that is revealed on every
hand.

REFUGE HOUSE ALONG THE OLD INCA TRAIL.

The traveller may be thankful that he has not been obliged to traverse
this pass in the winter time. Nothing can surpass these vast ridges clad
in their winter dress. White and cold, they form a veritable valley of
desolation. It is the cold of death, the white mantle of annihilation—
something that the brain can scarcely compass. The feeling of solitude
in the midst of the whiteness everywhere almost overwhelms the
traveller with despair. In places the snow is frequently as much as
fifteen feet in depth, deep enough to bury a horse and rider. Sudden
storms are likely to overtake the traveller, and he would be snowed in in
one of the casuchas. These are shelters that were built at intervals along
the pass for the protection of travellers. They are dome-shaped
structures which remind one of lime-kilns. They have a small door, but
no windows, and will accommodate as many as twenty people at a time.
The interior has a brick floor and is absolutely bare. Although protected
from the weather, woe be to the traveller obliged to spend a day or two
there with a group of arrieros, for filth is everywhere and the stench is
almost overpowering.
Although fewer travellers ventured over this pass in the midst of
winter, the mail service continued uninterruptedly, and there was seldom
a day that some one did not attempt the crossing. A capitas, who was
generally a man with a little capital, would undertake to carry the mails
or other freight over the pass at a fixed price. He would then engage his
force of porters as cheaply as possible, agreeing to furnish them with
board and lodging so long as they remained with him. As time was not
specified in the mail contract, if a traveller came along the capitas would
dump the mails and carry his baggage at an exorbitant price. Everything
was done up in packages weighing about sixty pounds. Some of the
porters would even undertake to carry two of these—a terrible strain on
a rough road. It is little wonder that this and unrestrained dissipation
usually gave these men a short life. Sometimes they slid over a
precipice, or were hurled to their doom by a falling stone. There are
many graves of those who met an untimely end along this route, and it
seems almost marvellous that they are not more numerous. After the
highest point was passed the porters would toboggan down the slopes,
seated on a sheepskin and guiding themselves with pointed staffs. In
this way the descent was quickly accomplished. The packages were
simply tumbled down, and oftentimes reached the bottom in a very
dilapidated condition.
The Trasandino Argentino Railway threads its way out through the
valley of the Uspallata, and follows a small stream which gradually
becomes larger as little rivulets of melted snow join it. It soon becomes
more of a stream, and is given the name of Rio (river) Mendoza. At a
distance of less than a dozen miles the station called Puente del Inca is
reached, which is so named because of a natural bridge of stratified rock
at that place, which is very similar to the Natural Bridge of Virginia.
Underneath it bubble up boiling waters which are claimed to have great
medicinal value. It is said that the Incas in pre-Spanish times knew of
the value of these waters, and their chiefs came here to receive the
benefits of its curative waters. Near here one catches a glimpse of a
marvellous freak of nature, called the Cerro de los Penitentes, the Ridge
of the Penitents. The scattered rocky peaks and points standing up
through the sloping debris of the ascent, with their remarkable
imitations of toiling wayfarers, must have greatly impressed the Spanish
pioneers when they first came upon this scene.
The route continues a picture of desolation, caused by volcanic
upheavals and the erosion of countless ages. The Mendoza River,
coloured by the various metals of the rocks over which it pours, tumbles
along near the railway as both follow one pass after another. Las Vacas,
Uspallata, La Invernada and other small stations are passed. About
thirty miles before Mendoza is reached a change begins, and poplar and
larch trees, alfalfa fields and the grape enliven the scene. Irrigation is
utilized and the melted snows cause the land to bloom with remarkable
fertility. At last the train runs into the creditable station of Mendoza, and
the second stage in the transcontinental journey is ended.
 THE CHRIST OF THE ANDES.

At Mendoza a change is made to the broad gauge trains of the

Buenos Aires and Pacific Railway, which will carry the traveller over the
remaining leagues of the journey. After leaving the irrigated lands of this
neighbourhood, another stretch of miserable scrub land is crossed
before the level pampas are entered. From there to Buenos Aires the
route is over as level land as is to be found on the earth’s surface. Hour
after hour the train rolls over these pampas, past small towns and
through great stretches of grain and alfalfa. At last, after about a day
and a half’s journey, the train enters the suburbs of Buenos Aires, and
finally, with a shrill shriek, rolls into the Retiro Station, which is the end
of the trip.
Grand and wonderful as is the ride through and across the Andes by
railroad, the traveller has missed one of the most striking features of
these solitudes. Almost immediately over the tunnel, and nearly three
thousand feet higher, stands the famous statue, known as the Christ of
the Andes. This statue was erected in 1904 as a symbol of perpetual
peace between the two neighbouring nations. It was cast in bronze from
the cannon of the two nations, which had been purchased through fear
of impending war. Its location is on the new international boundary line
that had just been established by arbitration. Near it is a sign with the
words “CHILE” on one side, and “ARGENTINA” on the other side.
The figure of Christ is twenty-six feet in height. In one hand it holds
the emblem of the cross, while the other is extended in a blessing, and
as if uttering the one magic word “Peace.” On one side is a tablet with
the inscription: “Sooner shall these mountains crumble into dust than
the people of Argentina and Chile break the peace to which they have
pledged themselves at the feet of Christ the Redeemer.” On another side
is the inscription:

“He is our Peace

Who hath made both One.”

The Cumbre, as this ridge is called, is the highest point on the old
trail. Travellers and baggage were transported over it by mule-back or in
carriages, if the almost springless vehicles could be called by such a
name, during the summer. It is a very zigzag trail up which the carriages
wound, where as many as twenty twists and turns can be counted. On
the downward trip the horses ran and jumped, until the timorous
traveller began to have visions of disaster. Accidents were rare, however,
and seldom was a vehicle overturned. Corners were turned on two
wheels, with only a few inches between the outside wheels and the
edge of the precipice.
 “The clouds have voices, and the rivers pour
Their floods in thunder down to ocean’s floor;—
The hills alone mysterious silence keep.”

One of the most striking aspects which impress the traveller crossing
the Andes is the terribly bleak and desolate outlook that they present.
Blades of grass here and there, or perhaps a few stunted shrubs, are
the only signs of vegetation, for of trees there are none. There seems to
be no tree line, as in most mountains. A huge expanse of yellow sand
and stone spreads out everywhere with peaks rising up on every side in
clearly defined and rugged stratification, whose many-coloured hues are
almost bewildering to the eye. Great torrents flow down the middle of
the valleys, the water being of a dull brackish hue. The fording of these
streams is a very dangerous task for the explorer, as the torrents are
exceedingly rapid and full of deep, treacherous holes.

THE SOLITUDE OF THE ANDES.

On either side rise high peaks, and the traveller is always interested in
knowing the names of these peaks. If he asks the average native which
is Aconcagua, or which Tupungato, he is likely to be misinformed. There