Relativity

 Classical or Newtonian mechanics deals with the motions of bodies

travelling at velocities that are very much less than the velocity of light.
According to it, the three fundamental concepts of Physics, viz., space, time
and mass are all absolute and invariant.

 Concept of space: Newton assumed that space is absolute and “exists in

itself, without relation to anything external and remains unaffected under all
circumstances”. This means to say that the length of an object is
independent of the conditions under which it is measured, such as the
motion of the object or the observer.

 Concept of time: According to Newton, time is absolute ‘by its very nature
flowing uniformly without reference to anything external’. Hence there is a
universal time flowing at a constant rate, unaffected by the motion or
position of objects and observers. This implies two things:
(1) The interval of time between two events has the same value for all
observers, irrespective of their state of motion.

(2) If two events are simultaneous for an observer, they are simultaneous for
all observers, irrespective of their state of motion, i.e., simultaneity is absolute.

 Concept of mass: In Newtonian mechanics,

(1) The mass of a body does not depend on the velocity of its motion.

(2) The mass of an isolated system of bodies does not change with any
processes occurring within the system (law of conservation of mass).
 When such quantities as length, time interval and mass are considered in elementary
physics, no special point is made about how they are measured. Every body ought to
get the same result who will make the determination.

For instance, every passenger will find the same length of an airplane when they are
on board.
But what if the airplane is in flight and the observer is on the ground?

The reality is the observer from the ground will find it to be shorter than it is to
somebody in the airplane itself.

 In 1905 a young physicist of twenty six showed how measurements of time

and space are affected by motion between an observer and what is being
observed.

 Relativity connects space and time, matter and energy, electricity and magnetism that
are crucial to understand the physical universe. From relativity have come a host of
remarkable predictions, all of which have been confirmed by experiment.
All motion and rest are relative not absolute

When something is moving, what we mean that its position is changing relative to
something else.

A passenger moves relative to an airplane; the airplane moves relative to the earth; the
earth moves relative to the sun; the sun moves relative to the galaxy of stars of which
it is a member; and so on.

In each case a frame of reference is part of the description of the motion. So

something is moving always implies a specific frame of reference.

Therefore, all motion and rest are relative not absolute.

Frame of Reference
A system of co-ordinate axes which defines the position of a particle in two or
three dimensional space is called a frame of reference.

The simplest frame of reference is the familiar Cartesian system of co-ordinates,

in which the position of the particle is specified by its three co-ordinates x,y,z,
along the three perpendicular axes.

In Fig. we have indicated two observers O and O’ and a particle P. These

observers use frames of reference XYZ and X’ Y’ Z’, respectively. If O and O’ are
at rest, they will observe the same motion of P. But if O and O’ are in relative
motion, their observation of the motion of P will be different.
For example, consider that a train is moving with uniform velocity. A person sitting
in the train drops a stone from the window. To the person the stone will appear to be
falling vertically downwards. But, to a person standing near the track, the stone will
appear to move along a parabolic path.

Inertial frame of reference

An inertial frame of reference (or Galilean frame of reference) is one in which
Newton’s first law of motion holds. In such a frame, an object at rest remains rest
and an object in motion continues to move at constant velocity if no force acts on it.

Any frame of reference that moves at constant velocity relative to an inertial frame
is itself an inertial frame.

On the other hand accelerated frames of reference are called non-inertial frames.
 Consider a person sitting in a train. All the windows of the train are closed and the
person can not see anything outside. If the train is moving with uniform velocity, a
stone thrown upward will return to the thrower. It means that the person cannot find the
velocity of the train i.e., the frame in which he is located. On the other hand, if the train
is accelerated the stone thrown upward will not return to the thrower. This is the case of
a non-inertial frame of reference.

There is no universal frame of reference that can be used everywhere, no such thing as
“absolute motion”. The theory of relativity deals with the consequences of the lack of
universal frame of reference.

 The Ether Hypothesis

A material medium is a necessity for the propagation of waves. It was considered that
light propagates through ether as the sound waves propagate through air. Ether
pervades all space. An interesting question is whether relative motion between the earth
and ether can be detected. If such a motion can be detected, we can choose a fixed
frame of reference in a stationary ether. Then we can express all motion relative to this
frame.
 The Michelson-Morley Experiment (search for a universal
frame of reference)
In 1887, Michelson and Morley, set out to measure the relative velocity of earth with
respect to the ether. The principle of the experiment lies in noting the shift in fringes in
the Michelson interferometer due to the difference in time taken by light to travel along
and opposite the direction of motion of the earth.

A beam of light from a monochromatic source S falls on a half-silvered glass plate P,

placed at an angle of 45° to the beam. The incident beam is split up into two parts by P.
The reflected portion travels in a direction at right angles to the incident beam, falls
normally at B on the plane mirror M1 and is reflected back to P. It gets refracted through P
and enters the telescope T. The transmitted portion travels along the direction of the initial
beam, falls normally on mirror M2 at A and is reflected back to P. After reflection from the
back surface of P, it enters the telescope T.

The two reflected beams interfere and the interference fringes are viewed with the help of
the telescope T. The beam reflected upwards to M1 traverses the thickness of plate P
thrice whereas the beam refracted on to mirror M2 traverses P only once. The effective
distance of the mirrors M1 and M2 from the plate P is made to be the same by the use of a
compensating plate not shown in figure.
Fig.: Michelson-Morley Experiment
The whole apparatus was floating on mercury. One arm (PA) was pointed in the direction
of earth’s motion round the sun and the other (PB) was pointed perpendicular to this
motion. The paths of the two beams and the positions of their reflections from M1 and M2
will be as shown by the dotted lines.

Assume that the velocity of the apparatus (or earth) relative to fixed ether is v in the
direction PA. The relative velocity of a light ray travelling along PA is (c – v) while its
value would be (c + v) for the returning ray.

Let PA = PB = d.

Time taken by light to travel from P to A = d/ (c – v).

Time taken by light to travel from A to P = d/ (c + v).

∴ Total time taken by light to travel from P to A and back

Now, consider the ray moving upwards from P to B. It will strike the mirror M1 not at B
but at B′ due to the motion of the earth. If t1 is the time taken by the ray starting from P to
reach M1, then
PB′ = ct1 and BB′ = vt1.
The total path of the ray until it returns to P = PB′ P′.
Now PB′ P′ = PB′ + B′ P′ = 2PB′, since PB′ = B′ P′.
(PB′)2 = PC2 + (CB′)2 = (BB′)2 + PB2
This is the path difference between the two parts of the incident beam.

If the apparatus is turned through 90°, the path difference between the two
beams becomes 2dv2/c2. Michelson and Morley expected a fringe shift of
about 0.4 in their apparatus when it was rotated through 90° and they
believed that they could detect a shift as small as 0.01 of a fringe.

But, in the experiment no displacement of the fringes was observed. They

repeated the experiment at different points on the earth’s surface and at
different seasons of the year without detecting any measurable shift in
fringes.

This negative result suggests that it is impossible to measure the speed of

the earth relative to the ether i.e., the velocity of light is invariable and
remains constant in all directions. Therefore, the effects of ether are
undetectable. Thus, all attempts to make ether as a fixed frame of reference
failed.
Postulates of Special Theory of Relativity
 Einstein proposed the special theory of relativity in 1905. The special theory deals with the
problems in which one frame of reference moves with a constant velocity relative to
another frame of reference.

1) First postulate states that-

‘’The laws of physics are the same in all inertial frames of reference’’.

The first postulate follows from the absence of a universal frame of reference. If the laws of
physics were different for different observers in relative motion, the observers could find
these differences which of them were stationary in space and which were moving. However,
such a distinction does not exist , and the principle of relativity expresses this fact.

2) The second postulate sates that-

‘’The speed of light in free space has the same value in all inertial frames of reference’’.
The 2nd postulate is based on the results of many experiments. The velocity of light is
2.998×108 m/s. Einstein assumed that all the observers should notice the same velocity of
light while the observers are in different spacecrafts that are in different velocities with
respect to them.

 Galilean Transformation Equations

Let S and S′ be two inertial frames. Let S be at rest and S′ move with uniform velocity
v along the positive X direction. We assume that v < < c. Let the origins of the two
frames coincide at t = 0. Suppose some event occurs at the point P. The observer O in
frame S determines the position of the event by the coordinates x, y, z. The observer O′
in frame S′ determines the position of the event by the coordinates x′, y′, z′.

There is no relative motion between S and S′ along the axes of Y and Z. Hence we have
y = y’ and z = z’.

Let the time proceed at the same rate in both frames.

The distance moved by S′ in the positive X-direction in time t = vt.

So the X coordinates of the two frames differ by vt. Hence, x′ = x – vt.

Then the transformation equations from S to S′ are given by,

x′ = x – vt ... …………(1)
y′ = y ... ………………(2)
z′ = z ........................... (3)
t′ = t ... ……………….(4)

The set of equations (1) to (4) is known as Galilean transformation.

To convert velocity components measured in the S frame to their equivalents in the S’
frame according to the Galilean transformation, need to simply differentiate 𝑥 ′ , 𝑦 ′ and 𝑧 ′
with respect to time:
𝑑𝑥 ′
𝑣 ′𝑥 = ′ = 𝑣𝑥 − 𝑣 … … … … … … … … . 5
𝑑𝑡

𝑑𝑦 ′
𝑣′ 𝑦 = ′ = 𝑣𝑦 … … … … … … … … . . (6)
𝑑𝑡

𝑑𝑧 ′
𝑣′ 𝑧 = ′ = 𝑣𝑧 … … … … … … … … … … (7)
𝑑𝑡
Same value of the speed of light c whether determined in S or S’. If we measure the
speed of light in the 𝑥 direction in the S system to be c, however, in the S’ system
will be according to Eq. (5):

𝑐′ = 𝑐 − 𝑣

Clearly a different transformation is required if the postulates of special theory of

relativity are to be satisfied. We would expect both length contraction and time
dilation can be explained naturally from this new transformation.
Lorentz transformation
All attempts to show the velocity of light changes with the motion of the observer have
failed. The velocity of light remains constant in free space, according to the postulates
of the special theory of relativity.

The equation 𝑥 ′ = 𝑥 − 𝑣𝑡 is in accordance with the ordinary laws of mechanics. The

new transformation must be similar to this equation when the velocity 𝑣 is extremely
small as compared to the velocity of light, c.

The simplest possible form of this equation can be

𝑥 ′ = 𝑘 𝑥 − 𝑣𝑡 … … … … … … … … … . . (1)

Here 𝑘 depends only on the value of 𝑣 and does not depend upon the values of 𝑥 and 𝑡.
Equation (1) is linear and 𝑥 ′ has only one value of 𝑥.
Because the equations of physics must have the same form in both S and S’, only the
sign of 𝑣 need to change depending on the direction of relative motion to write the
corresponding equation for 𝑥 in terms of 𝑥 ′ and 𝑡 ′ :

x= 𝑘 𝑥 ′ + 𝑣𝑡 ′ … … … … … … … (2)

The factor 𝑘 must be the same in both frames of reference since there is no difference
between S and S’ other than in the sign of 𝑣.

As in the case of Galilean transformation, 𝑦, 𝑦 ′ and 𝑧, 𝑧 ′ which are perpendicular to the

direction of 𝑣 will be

𝑦′ = 𝑦 … … … … … … … … . . 3
𝑧 ′ = 𝑧 … … … … … … … … . (4)

The time coordinates 𝑡 and 𝑡 ′ , however, are not equal. We can see by substituting the
value of 𝑥 ′ from (1) into (2). This gives

𝑥 = 𝑘 2 𝑥 − 𝑣𝑡 + 𝑘𝑣𝑡 ′
From which we can find

1 − 𝑘 2
𝑡 ′ = 𝑘𝑡 + 𝑥……………………………………. 5
𝑘𝑣

Equations (1) and (3) to (5) constitute a coordinate transformation that satisfies the
first postulate of special relativity.

At the instant 𝑡 = 0, the origins of the two frames of reference S and S’ are in the same
place, according to our initial conditions, and 𝑡 ′ = 0 then also. Suppose that a flare is
set off at the common origin of S and S’ at 𝑡 = 𝑡 ′ = 0, and the observers in each
system measure the speed with which the flare’s light spreads out. Both observers must
find the same speed c, which means that in the S frame

𝑥 = 𝑐𝑡 … … … … … … … … … . . 6
And in the 𝑆 ′ frame
𝑥 ′ = 𝑐𝑡 ′ … … … … … … … … … . (7)
Substituting for 𝑥 ′ and 𝑡 ′ in Equation (7) gives

1 − 𝑘2
𝑘 𝑥 − 𝑣𝑡 = 𝑐𝑘𝑡 + 𝑐𝑥
𝑘𝑣
And solving for 𝑥,
𝑣 𝑣
𝑐𝑘𝑡 + 𝑣𝑘𝑡 𝑘+ 𝑘 1+
𝑥= = 𝑐𝑡 𝑐 = 𝑐𝑡 𝑐
1−𝑘 2 1−𝑘 2 1 𝑐
𝑘− 𝑐 𝑘− 𝑐 1− 2−1 𝑣
𝑘𝑣 𝑘𝑣 𝑘

This expression for 𝑥 will be the same as Equation (6), namely, 𝑥 = 𝑐𝑡, provided
that the quantity in the brackets equals 1. Therefore

𝑣
1+𝑐
=1
1 𝑐
1− 2−1 𝑣
𝑘

Which gives
1
𝑘=
𝑣2
1− 2
𝑐
The value of 𝑘 is in accordance with the experiment result. When the value of 𝑣 is
extremely small in comparison to c, the value of 𝑘 is practically equal to 1.

When the value of 𝑘 is substituted in equations (1) and (5), we get

𝑥 − 𝑣𝑡
𝑥′ = ……………………………. 8
𝑣2
1−
𝑐2
𝑦′ = 𝑦 … … … … … … … … . . 9
𝑧 ′ = 𝑧 … … … … … … … … . 10
′
1 − 𝑘2 𝑥 𝑥
𝑡 = 𝑘𝑡 + 𝑥 = 𝑘𝑡 + −𝑘
𝑘𝑣 𝑘𝑣 𝑣

𝑥 𝑣2
𝑡+𝑣 1− 2 −1
𝑐
𝑡′ =
𝑣2
1− 2
𝑐
𝑣𝑥
1−
𝑡′ = 𝑐 2 … … … … … … … … … … … (11)
𝑣2
1− 2
𝑐
The equations (8) to (11) comprise the Lorentz transformation.

They were first obtained by the Dutch physicist H. A. Lorentz, who showed the basic
formulas of electromagnetism are the same in all inertial frames only when equations
(8) to (11) are used. It is obvious that the Lorentz transformation reduces to the
Galilean transformation when the relative velocity 𝑣 is small compared with the
velocity of light c.
Inverse Lorentz transformation
In certain situation it is important to know the inverse of Lorentz transformation. To
obtain the inverse transformation, primed and unprimed quantities in Equations (8) to (11)
are exchanged, and 𝑣 is replaced by −𝑣: