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Testing and alignment of Receivers

• Testing and alignment of RF and IF stages
Testing, Alignment and Servicing • Recording performance across the channel bandwidth

of Television Receivers • Can be done using TV sweep generator

• RF generator
• Delivers RF output voltage at a constant amplitude which sweeps across a
range of frequencies
• Continuously repeats at a predetermined rate
• Designed to cover the entire VHF and UHF range (30 to 300 MHz, 300 MHz to
3 GHz)

Testing and alignment of Receivers Testing and alignment of Receivers

• TV sweep generator • Alignment Procedure
• Frequency sweep is obtained by connecting a • The output of the sweep generator is
varactor diode across the HF oscillator connected to the input terminals of
circuits. the tuned circuit under test.
• A modified triangular voltage at 50 Hz is used • The frequency and sweep width dials
to drive the varactor diode. are adjusted to a sweep range which
• Thus the frequency sweeps on either side of lies in the pass-band of the circuit
the oscillator centre frequency, at the rate of • With an input signal of constant
driving voltage frequency amplitude, the output voltage varies
• Sweep width up to a maximum of about ± 15 in accordance with the frequency gain
MHz. characteristics of the circuit.
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Testing and alignment of Receivers Testing and alignment of Receivers

• Alignment Procedure • Alignment Procedure
• The magnitude of the output voltage • In order to obtain a linear display of
varies with time as the oscillator the detected signal on the CRO, the
frequency sweeps back and forth scope sweep voltage must vary
through the centre frequency.
accordingly and have a frequency of
• The RF output is detected either by a 50 Hz.
video detector in the receiver or by a
demodulator probe. • The time base switch of the CRO is set
• The detected output varies at the on External and its horizontal input
sweep rate of 50 Hz and its terminals are connected to the sweep
instantaneous amplitude changes in output on the sweep generator.
accordance with the circuit
characteristics

Testing and alignment of Receivers WOBBLUSCOPE

• Alignment Procedure • This instrument combines a Sweep generator, a Marker generator,
• The sweep generator provides a visual and an oscilloscope
display of the characteristics of the • It is an economical and compact piece of equipment specially designed for TV
circuit or amplifier, servicing.
• but this is inadequate because it does • An RF output, down to 1 MHz, is available for video amplifier testing.
not give any precise information of
the frequency on the traced curve.
• Marker-Sweep Generator
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VIDEO PATTERN GENERATOR VIDEO PATTERN GENERATOR

• A pattern generator provides video signals directly, and with RF • These patterns are used for linearity and video amplifier adjustment.
modulation, on standard TV channels for alignment, testing and • In addition to this, an FM sound signal is also provided in pattern
servicing of TV receivers generators for aligning sound sections of the receiver.
• The output signal is designed to produce
• simple geometric patterns like vertical and horizontal bars,
• checkerboard,
• cross-hatch,
• dots, etc.

VIDEO PATTERN GENERATOR VIDEO PATTERN GENERATOR

• The generator employs two stable chains • Multivibrators produce a square wave
of multivibrators, dividers and pulse video signal at ‘m’ times the
shaping circuits,
• one below the line frequency to produce a
horizontal frequency to provide ‘m’
series of horizontal bars, vertical black and white bars.
• another above 15625 Hz to produce vertical
bars.
• The signals are modified into short • After every ‘m’ cycles, the horizontal
duration pulses, which when fed to the blanking pulse triggers the
video section of the receiver along with multivibrators for synchronising the
the sync pulse train, produce fine lines bar signal on every line.
on the screen
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VIDEO PATTERN GENERATOR VIDEO PATTERN GENERATOR

• Similarly, square wave pulses derived • The provision of switches in the signal
either from 50 Hz mains or from the path of the two multivibrators enables
the generation of various patterns.
master oscillator are used to trigger
another set of multivibrator to • If both mH and nV switches are off, a
blank white raster is produced.
generate square wave video signals
that are ‘n’ times the vertical • With only the mH switch on, vertical bars
are produced,
frequency.
• with only the nV switch on,horizontal
• On feeding the video amplifier these bars are generated.
produce horizontal black and white • With both switches on, a cross-hatch
bars. pattern will be produced

VIDEO PATTERN GENERATOR VIDEO PATTERN GENERATOR

• The horizontal bar pattern is used for • Picture centering and aspect ratio can
checking vertical linearity. also be checked with the cross-hatch
pattern by counting the number of
• These bars should be equally spaced squares on the vertical and horizontal
throughout the screen for linearity sides of the screen.
• The vertical bar pattern can be used • The pattern generator can also be used
for checking and setting horizontal for detecting
linearity. • any spurious oscillations in the sweep
generation circuits,
• interaction between the two oscillators,
• Poor interlacing, and
• barrel and pin cushion effects.
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COLOUR BAR GENERATOR The Gated Rainbow Colour Bar Generator

• The composite video signal at the output of a video detector consists of • Produces a rainbow colour bar pattern on
luminance Y signals, the chrominance signal, the colour burst, sync pulses the receiver screen
and blanking pulses.
• The pattern consists of 10 colour bars
ranging in colour shades from red on the
• The amplitude of the video signal varies continuously due to the changing
picture content, such a waveform is not useful for adjustment and left side through blue in the centre, to
troubleshooting purposes. green on the far right.
• Any two signals at different frequencies
• The colour bar generator acts as a substitute transmitter and supplies to have a phase difference that changes
the receiver, a known constant amplitude colour pattern signal for continuously.
alignment and servicing purposes

The Gated Rainbow Colour Bar Generator The Gated Rainbow Colour Bar Generator
• a crystal oscillator is provided to generate • The effective carrier signal at 4.41799375
a frequency of 4.41799375 MHz. This is MHz will appear as a signal that is
15625 Hz lower than the colour sub- continuously changing in phase.
carrier frequency (4.43361875 – • The phase of the chrominance signal
4.41799375 MHz = 15625 Hz). determines the colour seen, and
• The difference is equal to the horizontal therefore has a frequency relationship
scanning rate, with the subcarrier frequency that
• then relative phase between the two carrier provides the colour bar signal.
frequencies changes by 360° per horizontal
line
• Each line displays all the colours
simultaneously
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The Gated Rainbow Colour Bar Generator The Gated Rainbow Colour Bar Generator
• The colour bar pattern is produced by • The main technical specifications of a colour bar pattern generator are
gating On and Off the 4.41799375 MHz as follows
oscillator at a rate 12 times higher than • Test signals
the H-sweep frequency • 1. 8 bars, linearised, grey scale
• 2. Cross-hatch pattern
• The gating at a frequency of 187.5 kHz • 3. 100% white pattern (with burst)
produces colour bars with blanks • 4. Red pattern (50% saturated)
between them. • 5. Standard colour bar with white reference. 75% contrast (internally changeable to full
bars).
• Video carrier
• 1. VHF B-III (170 MHz - 230 MHz)
• 2. UHF B-IV (470 MHz - 600 MHz)

The Gated Rainbow Colour Bar Generator VECTROSCOPE

• The main technical specifications of a colour bar pattern generator are • combines a keyed colour bar generator with an oscilloscope
as follows
• RF output
• amplitude and phase of the chrominance signal represents the colour
• >> 100 mV peak to peak (75 W impedance) saturation and hue of the scene
• Video modulation • This information can also be displayed on the oscilloscope screen in
• Amplitude modulation (negative)
the form of Lissajous patterns.
• Sound carrier
• Frequency – 5.5 MHz (or 6 MHz by internal adjustment)
• The resultant display is called a vectrogram.
• Modulation – Frequency modulation
• Internal signal – 1 kHz sine wave.
• FM Sweep 40 kHz on 5.5 MHz
• Chroma-PAL-G and I standards
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VECTROSCOPE VECTROSCOPE
• Since both (R – Y) and (B – Y) inputs are interrupted sine waves and
have a phase difference of 90° with each other, the resultant Lissajous
pattern is in the basic form of a circle.
• Since there are 10 colour bursts, the pattern displays ten petals.
• The horizontal sync and colour burst do not appear in the display because
these are blanked out during retrace intervals.
• The position of each petal represents the phase angle of each colour
in the colour bar pattern.

VECTROSCOPE
• Vectroscopes usually have an overlay sheet on the scope screen,
marked with segment numbers and corresponding phase angles.
• This enables the user to identify different colours and interpret the
size and shape of each petal.
• Rounding of corners and feathering occurs due to limited HF response
and non-zero rise-time of the amplifier in a colour bar generator and
oscilloscope.
• With a vectogram display, chroma troubles can be ascertained and
servicing expedited.
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VECTROSCOPE VECTROSCOPE
• For example the loss of an (R – Y) signal causes the vectrogram to be H-line • It is also possible to check for defective colour stages, mistuned band-
only. pass amplifier, misadjusted circuitry in the sub-carrier oscillator
• Similarly, the absence of (B – Y) results in a single vertical line on the section and inoperative colour stages.
screen. • Vectroscopes are also used in TV recording studios to adjust the white
• Any change of the receiver colour control will alter the amplitude of both balance of various cameras and to monitor colour signals during
(R – Y) and (B – Y) signals and cause the diameter of the pattern to change. recording.
• If some of the petals are longer than others, non-linear distortion is
indicated.
• If the petal tops are flattened, some circuit overloading is occurring in the
receiver.

• Is a system of delivering TV signals to home receivers over a coaxial

cable

Cable TV (CATV) • A CATV company collects all available programs and frequency
multiplexes them over a single coaxial cable
• A special cable decoder box is used to receive the signals and feed
them to the TV
• The main CATV company building is called ‘headend’
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• CATV company receives local and satellite stations via antennas and
parabolic dishes
• The main output cable is called ‘trunk cable’
• Earlier low loss coaxial cables were used
• Nowadays fiber optic cable is used
• A junction box containing amplifiers takes the signal and redistributes
it to smaller cables called ‘feeders’
• Feeders go to specific neighborhoods

CATV Signal Processing

• The signals are again amplified and sent to individual homes by • This includes amplification and impedance matching
coaxial cables called ‘drops’ • At headend special processing is done
• Cable TV system eliminates the need for antennas • Straight-through processors
• No poor, weak, noisy or snowy signals • Done in early cable systems
• TV signals from local stations were picked up by antenna and amplified before being
• However it is more expensive multiplexed
• Amplifiers called ‘Strip amplifiers’ that are tuned to received channel pass the signal to
the combiner
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CATV Signal Processing Cable TV Converter

• At headend special processing is • Box of electronics that selects desired
done channel signal from cable and
• Heterodyne processors translate it to channel 3 or 4 for TV
• Translates incoming signals to different
frequency
• Cable TV box is thus a tuner that
• This is necessary when satellite signals are selects cable channel and converts
involved them to a frequency that any TV can
• Microwave signals need to be down pick up
converted t 6MHz signals
• Any signal can be put on any channel

Cable TV Converter Cable TV Converter

• Freq. synth. Enables any freq. to be • The incoming control signals on
selected special channels are processed by
• It also has advanced features such as separate modulator and demodulator
automatic identification and remote
access • These are then sent to the
• Each processor contains a unique ID microprocessor
• This ID is sent back to the cable company • Can be used to lock out access to
by using ‘reverse channel’ specific channels
• These channels are used by cable • The reverse channels can also be used
company to turn on or disable converter for troubleshooting
box
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Cable TV Converter
• CATV converter can also be extended
to be cable modem.
• Digital data is sent over one of the
6MHz channels
Satellite TV
• High data rates of 10 to 30Mbps are
possible

Satellite TV Satellite TV
• Uses communication satellites • Consumer satellite TV system is the ‘Direct Broadcast System’ or DBS
• Orbits at 22300 miles around the equator • Digitally encoded video and audio
• Geostationary • Higher reliability and better quality
• Direct reception by individual customer
• Satellite is used as radio relay
• By using high frequency microwaves in downlink, higher power transponders
• TV signal is modulated to microwave freq. and sent to the satellite and low noise GaAsFETs, the receiver dish is made to be small (18 inch)
• Uplink
• Satellite translates the signal to another freq. and sends it back
• Downlink
• A receiver (cable company or individual) receives the signal
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Satellite TV Satellite TV
• Satellite Transmission • Satellite Transmission
• The TV signal in uplink is modulated commonly on C band freq. (3.7 to 4.2 • The signal received by the satellite is filtered and passed through selected
GHz) transponder
• 24 channels • In the transponder the signal is down converted to lower frequency amplified
• Audio modulates the subcarrier in 5-8 MHz range and retransmitted.
• 6.2 – 6.8 MHz are most common
• Satellite receiver
• Stereo on 5.58 and 5.76 MHz
• Consist of parabolic dish, low noise amp. and a down converter, IF section,
• Video uses 0-5 MHz BW demodulators for video and sound and interconnection to TV
• May contain circuitry to control the positioning of the dish antenna

Satellite Receiver Satellite Receiver

• Antenna • Receiver
• A high gain, highly directional antenna is used • Superheterodyne type
• Parabolic shape • Single conversion : 70 or 140 MHz IF stage
• Selects the signal from desired satellite only • Dual conversion: 600-(typ 770)1500 MHz IF1 with 70 or 140 MHz IF2
• Larger the dish better the gain and performance • In some receivers, RF amp., mixer and local osc. Are located directly in horn
• Range from 15ft to 18inch antenna.
• Can receive both vertically and horizontally polarized signals • Done to avoid attenuation in the coax cable
• Signal is downconverted to frequency that has low loss in the coax cable (900 –
1400MHz)
• Typically broadband converter is used and does away with LO
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Direct Broadcast Satellite System (DBS)

(*DTH)
• All digital
• Uses data compression to reduce data rate for high quality signals
DSB TV • Uses high power transponders on the satellite
• Home receivers works in the Ku band (11-14 GHz)
• Small 18 inch antennas

Direct Broadcast Satellite System (DBS) Direct Broadcast Satellite System (DBS)
(*DTH) (*DTH)
• Satellite transmission • Satellite transmission
• Video should be converted to digital format • Digital signal is transmitted from satellite to receiver using circular
• A/D converter at min. Nyquist rate with 8 bit depth polarization
• The video signal has a bit rate of 67.2 Mbps (4.2 MHz *2 * 8 bits/sample) • DBS satellites have RHCP and LHCP antennas
• For RGB signal, BW is 202Mbps per channel • Biggest issue with Ku band is attenuation due to rain
• Need compression! • Water vapour absorbs Ku band signals causing attenuation
• Digital signal passed to DSP circuits
• Reduces BW to 20-30Mbps
• Compressed digital signal modulates uplink carrier using BPSK
• 14-14.5 GHz uplink, 10.95-12.75 GHz downlink
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Direct Broadcast Satellite System (DBS) Direct Broadcast Satellite System (DBS)
(*DTH) (*DTH)
• DBS receiver • DBS receiver
• DBS downlink 12.2 – 12.7 • SCID –Service channel ID
GHz number
• Bandwidth of 24 MHz • 12 bit
• 27 Mbps signal rate • 4 bit to indicate encryption
and decoding key
• Each packet 147 bytes
• Data block
• SCID –Service channel ID • 8 bit video or 16 bit audio
number • May contain control data

Direct Broadcast Satellite System (DBS)

(*DTH)
• DBS receiver
• Uses MPEG2 codec

Digital TV
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Digital Television Digital Television

• A Digital TV (DTV) system consists of two main components : digital • More the pixels finer are the details
tv transmitter and receiver. • Format of DTV screen is described in terms of number of pixels on
• These components work together to deliver digital tv signals. horizontal line by the number of pixels on vertical line
• This system offers high quality and more efficient broadcasting in • Uses progressive scanning v/s interlacing
comparison to traditional analog TV system.
• DTV screen is made of thousands of tiny dots called ‘pixels’ unlike
scan lines
• Each pixel can have 256 colors

Digital Television Digital Television

• DTV Transmission Reed-Solomon • DTV Transmission
Error Checking • RGB is converted to luminance and chrominance signals
• Luminance sampling rate is 14.3 MHz
• Chroma Sampling is 7.15 MHz
• These data is serialised and sent to compressor
• Randomiser ensures random data is sent even when no video is present
Sync Header • Required for clock recovery at the receiver
• RS encoder adds 20 parity bytes per data block which enables error correction
of 10 bytes per block
• Audio is sampled at 48kbps
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Digital Television Digital Television

• DTV Transmission • DTV Receiver
• Video and audio data is packetized and combined with synchronizing signals • NTSC filter
• Header identifies number of packet, sequence and video format • Filter out any one channel
• Packets are arranged into frames representing one frame of video or adjacent channel
• 626 packets interference
• Modulation is 8-VSB • Equalizer
• Carrier is suppressed and only upper sideband is sent
• Adjusts for any amplitude
• DAC converts each 3 bit group to discrete voltage level and phase variations.
• 3 bits per symbol
• Symbol rate is 10800 symb/s
• Data rate of 32.4 Mbps (19.3 Mbps w/o error correction)
• For DTV on cable, trellis coding is not used and 16-VSB is used. (4 bits/symb)
• Double data rate

• Traditional TVs used CRT’s.

• Their size was limited < 100 cm diagonal
Projection TV • Typical was 60 cm
• Did not scale to larger sizes
• LCD and Plasma could be scaled were too costly at that time
• This resulted in development of projection TVs
• Uses projection technique on a screen like in case of theatres
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Front Projection
• Uses a Projector and a Screen • Same technique as theatre
• Projector is used to create small images out of the input video signal • Projector is opposite to the screen
and magnify the same with the help of a bright beam of light and a • The magnified version of the small image is formed on the screen
magnifying lens system
• Even a well painted wall can be used as a screen
• There are two types:
1. Front Projection
2. Rear Projection

Rear Projection
• Similar to the presentation on the screen of the picture tube in • Rear projection occupies more space
normal TV systems • Viewers cannot sit between the projector and screen
• Projector is behind the screen • But is popular as it cheaper and similar to normal TV
• In rear projection TV, the projector is generally kept inside the TV • Also the front type projection requires a dark room and so is not
itself (although not mandatory) convenient for homely atmosphere.
• The small image formed by the video signal is magnified and
projected on the screen.
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Techniques used to generate image Techniques used to generate image

• Transmission Technique • Reflective Technique
• Uses small CRT or LCD’s • Uses DLP (digital light processing)
• 3 small CRTs are used for the 3 device
colors to create 3 small pictures • Consist of millions of tiny mirrors on a
• When electron beam strikes the chip
phosphor glows • One mirror for each pixel
• Beam from a source of light is • The chip is call digital micromirror
focused on small image using device (DMD)
lenses • Mirrors reflect light onto the screen
• The rays hitting the image diverge or away
and reach the screen • Controlled by the video signal
• In case of LCD individual pixel will
allow variable light to pass

LCD Projectors LCD Projectors

• Contain 3 different LCD screens for • Working
the 3 colors • The lamp provides white light that
passes through polarizing filter
• As light passes through LCD panels,
individual pixel can be opened or • Light matching the polarization as
allowed to pass
closed to allow or block light.
• From PF, the light passes through a
set of dichroic mirrors
• Allows only certain color to be reflected
and others passed
• Separate light into 3 different colors
(RGB)
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LCD Projectors LCD Projectors

• Working • Light source can be bulb, LED or
• These separated light beams are sent Laser (blue laser with phosphor
to 3 different LCDs wheel)
• From the LCDs the beams are • LCD
combined in a Dichroic prism and • liquid crystals are excited by an
sent to the screen through focusing electrical charge sent through to each
lenses of the panel’s pixels via the wire grid
located throughout the panel, around
each pixel.
• The number of these pixels that the
LCD panel has is what determines the
resolution of the display

LCD Projectors Laser TV Projectors

• LCD • Light beam scans on a screen
• By polarizing the light longitudinally similar to TV
you increase the efficiency of the • Laser beam modulators modulates
light passing through the liquid the laser output using video signals
crystals, which increases brightness. (500-700V)
• Combined using dichroic mirrors in
mixer (7)
• Composite beam is scanned by two
rotating drums (12,13)
• Laser beam is very small 1.5-3mm
and high brightness
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Laser TV Projectors Laser TV Projectors

• 2 gas lasers use argon and 1 uses • Light intensity of laser beam is
crypton modulated by using Pockels effect
• Blue 488nm, green 515 nm and red • If voltage is applied between two
(crypton) 515nm electrodes to a cubic crystal then the
plane-polarized rays passing through
it will rotate their plane of
polarization
• Cubic crystal – Potassium dihydrogen
phosphate (KDP)

Laser TV Projectors
• When no voltage on electrodes, no
light passes
• Amount of light passes depends on
the electrode voltage
HDTV
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Formats Standards
• 720p (1280*720p): 921600 pixels • DVB (Digital Video Broadcasting)
• 1080i (1920*1080i): 1036800 pixels • ATSC (Advanced Television Systems Committee)
• 1080p (1920*1080p): 2073600 pixels • DTMB (Digital Terrestrial Multimedia Broadcast)
• (ISDB) Integrated Services Digital Broadcasting)

Digital HDTV Digital HDTV

• Uncompressed video exceeded 1Gbps BW Standard frame or field rates
• Compression made possible using DCT (Discrete Cosine Transform) • 23.976 Hz (film-looking frame rate compatible with NTSC clock speed
standards)
• Proposed by Nasir Ahmed in 1972
• 24 Hz (international film and ATSC high-definition material)
• BW reduced to 70-140Mbps
• 25 Hz (PAL film, DVB standard-definition and high-definition material)
• Broadcast system consist of • 29.97 Hz (NTSC film and standard-definition material)
• Frame Size: in pixels is defined as number of horizontal pixels × number of • 30 Hz (NTSC film, ATSC high-definition material)
vertical pixels
• 50 Hz (DVB high-definition material)
• Scanning system: P or I
• 59.94 Hz (ATSC high-definition material)
• Frame rate: is identified as number of video frames per second
• 60 Hz (ATSC high-definition material)
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Digital HDTV DVB (Digital Video Broadcasting)

Compression Codecs • DVB systems distribute data using a variety of approaches, including:
• MPEG4/H.264 • Satellite: DVB-S, DVB-S2, and DVB-SH
• Cable: DVB-C, DVB-C2
• VP6 • Terrestrial television: DVB-T, DVB-T2
• VC-1 • Microwave: using DTT (DVB-MT), the MMDS (DVB-MC), and/or MVDS
• MPEG-2 Part 2 standards (DVB-MS)

• H.265/MPEG-H HEVC

DVB (Digital Video Broadcasting) DVB (Digital Video Broadcasting)

Parameter DVB-S2 DVB-T2 DVB-C2
Multiple transport stream Multiple transport stream Multiple transport stream
• DVB-S (SHF) uses QPSK, 8-PSK or 16-QAM. Input interface and generic stream and generic stream and generic stream
encapsulation (GSE) encapsulation (GSE) encapsulation (GSE)
• DVB-S2 uses QPSK, 8-PSK, 16-APSK or 32-APSK, at the broadcasters Modes
Variable coding &
modulation and adaptive
Variable coding &
Variable coding &
modulation and adaptive
decision. QPSK and 8-PSK are the only versions regularly used. coding & modulation
modulation[4]
coding & modulation
LDPC + BCH 1/4, 1/3, 2/5,
LDPC + BCH 1/2, 3/5, 2/3, LDPC + BCH 1/2, 2/3, 3/4,
• DVB-C (VHF/UHF) uses QAM: 16-QAM, 32-QAM, 64-QAM, 128-QAM FEC 1/2, 3/5, 2/3, 3/4, 4/5,
5/6, 8/9, 9/10
3/4, 4/5, 5/6 4/5, 5/6, 8/9, 9/10

or 256-QAM. Modulation
Single carrier, PSK or APSK,
multiple streams
OFDM absolute OFDM

• DVB-T (VHF/UHF) uses 16-QAM or 64-QAM (or QPSK) in combination Modulation

schemes
QPSK, 8-PSK, 16-APSK, 32- QPSK, 16-QAM, 64-QAM,
APSK 256-QAM
16- to 4096-QAM

with (C)OFDM and can support hierarchical modulation. Guard interval Not applicable
1/4, 19/256, 1/8, 19/128,
1/16, 1/32, 1/128
1/64 or 1/128
Fourier transform 1k, 2k, 4k, 8k, 16k, 32k
Not applicable 4k Inverse FFT
size DFT
Bit- time- and frequency- Bit- time- and frequency-
Interleaving Bit-Interleaving
interleaving interleaving
Scattered and continual Scattered and continual
Pilots Pilot symbols
pilots pilots
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DVB (Digital Video Broadcasting)

• Digital video content is encoded using discrete cosine transform (DCT)
based video coding standards, such as the H.26x and MPEG formats.
• Digital audio content is encoded using modified discrete cosine
transform (MDCT) based audio coding standards, such as Advanced
Audio Coding (AAC), Dolby Digital (AC-3) and MP3.