Math 1031: Applied Mathematics I

Chapter 1: Vectors and Vector Spaces

Tilahun Abebaw (PhD)

Email: [email protected]

School of Aerospace Engineering

Ethiopian Aviation University

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Chapter 1: Vectors and Vector Spaces

In this chapter the following topics will be studied:

1.1. Scalars and Vectors; Located and position vectors in R2 and R3

1.2. Addition and Scalar Multiplication of vectors
1.3. A dot (Scalar) Product: Magnitude of a vector, Angle between two
vectors, Orthogonal projection, Direction Cosines.
1.4. Cross (Vector) product; Triple products of vectors with applications
1.5. Lines and Planes in R3
1.6. Vector Spaces; Subspaces
1.7. Linear Dependence and Independence of vectors
1.8. Basis and Dimension of a Vector Space

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Chapter Objectives

The main aim of the chapter is to equip the students with basic concepts
and techniques involving vectors and vector spaces.
After completing the chapter students will be able to:
understand the basic ideas of vector algebra;
apply scalar and vector products of vectors to solve problems;
write equations of lines and planes;
determine direction angles and direction cosines of a vector; and
determine linear independence of vectors;
After studying the Chapter, make sure that you have achieved the stated
objectives.

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Introduction

The number of liters of gasoline in the fuel tank of a car is an example

of a quantity that can be specified by a single number.
Such quantities, which can be specified by giving a single number (in
appropriate units), are called scalars.
Other examples of scalar quantities include the temperature, your weight,
or the population of a country; these are scalars because they are de-
fined by a single number (with appropriate units).
In many applications we deal with measurable physical quantities such
as mass, area, time, which can be described by only their magnitude.
These quantities are called scalars.

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Introduction...

Vectors are quantities that require not only a magnitude (numbers with
appropriate units), but a direction to specify them completely.
consider a velocity. If we say that a car is travelling 80 kilometers per
hour, we have not completely specified its motion, because we have
not specified the direction that the car is going. Thus, velocity is an
example of a vector quantity.
A vector generally requires more than one number to specify it; in this
example we could give the magnitude of the velocity (70km/hour),
a compass heading to specify the direction (say 30 degrees East of
North).
Measurable physical quantities such as force, displacement, accelera-
tion, which require not only their magnitudes but also their directions
to describe them. These quantities
Tilahun Abebaw(PhD) (EAU) are1)called vectors.
Math 1031 (Chapter December 30, 2023 5 / 116
Vectors in the Plane

Consider an ordered pair of numbers u = (x, y ), where x and y are real numbers.
With u we can associate a directed line segment with initial point at the origin
A(0, 0) and terminal point B(x, y ) in the coordinate plane.
−→
The directed line segment from A to A is denoted by AB.
−→ −→
The initial and terminal points of AB are also called the tail and head of AB respec-
tively and we place an overhead arrow to the head to show this direction.

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Vectors in the Plane...

A directed line segment has both magnitude and direction.

−→
The magnitude of the directed line segment OP is the length of the
line segment OP and its direction is described by the angle it makes
with positive x−axis and it is indicated by the arrow on its head.
Definition
A vector in the plane is an ordered pair of points v = (x, y ), where x and
y are real numbers and they are called the components of v, viewed as a
−→
directed line segment OP, where O(0, 0) and P(x, y ).

Given a vector v = (x, y ) in the plane, the magnitude of v, denoted by

kvk, which is also called length of v, is the distance form the origin to
p
the point (x, y ) in the plane. That is, kvk = x 2 + y 2 .
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Vectors in the Plane...

In many physical applications it is necessary to deal with directed line

−→
segment of the type AB, where the initial point A(a1 , a2 ) is not the
origin and B(b1 , b2 ), as shown in Figure 2.
−→
The directed line segment AB can be represented by the directed line
−→
segment OP, where O(0, 0) is the origin and P(b1 − a1 , b2 − a2 ).

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Vectors in the Plane...

Example
If A(1, −2) and B(−3, 5) are the initial and terminal points of the directed line segment
−→ −→ −→
AB, then AB = OP, where O(0, 0) and P(−3 − 1, 5 − (−2)) = P(−4, 7).

Every vector in R2 can be considered equivalently as a vector with initial point at

the origin and it is denoted by the coordinates of its terminal point.

If v is a vector with initial point (0, 0) and terminal point P(x, y ), then v is denoted by
v = (x, y ), as the initial point is considered to be the origin unless stated otherwise.
−→
If A(x1 , y1 ) and B(x2 , y2 ) are the initial and terminal points of vector AB, then the
−→
magnitude of the vector AB is the distance between A and B which is given by
−→ p
kABk = (x2 − x1 )2 + (y2 − y1 )2 .

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Operations on Vectors

Most of the operations on vectors involve equality of vectors.

Definition
Let v = (x1 , y1 ) and w = (x2 , y2 ) be vectors in the plane. Then,
v and w are said to be equal, written as v = w, if x1 = x2 and y1 = y2 .
the sum of v and w, denoted by v + w, is a vector in R2 defined by

v + w = (x1 + x2 , y1 + y2 ).

Example
Let v = (2, −3) and w = (−1, 5) be two vectors in R2 . Then,

v + w = (2 + (−1), −3 + 5) = (1, 2).

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Addition of Vectors...

We can interpret vector addition geometrically as follows.

Let v = (x1 , y1 ) and w = (x2 , y2 ) be two vectors in R2 .
−→
Represent these vectors in the coordinate plane with v = OA and
−→
w = OB, where O is the origin with coordinates (0, 0)
Let C be a point in the plane so that the quadrilateral OACB is a
parallelogram.

−→
We want to show that theMath
Tilahun Abebaw(PhD) (EAU) vector OC 1)
1031 (Chapter is the sum of December
v and30,w2023
. That11 is,
/ 116
Addition of Vectors...

The vector 0 = (0, 0) is called zero vector. The zero vector has zero
norm and its direction is taken to be arbitrary.
If v = (x, y ) is a vector in R2 and 0 = (0, 0), then

v+0 = (x+0, y +0) = (x, y ) = v and 0+v = (0+x, 0+y ) = (x, y ) = v.

Thus, the zero vector is an identity element for addition of vectors in

R2 .
Definition
If v = (x, y ) is a vector in R2 and α ∈ R, the vector w = (αx, αy ) is called
a scalar multiple of v by α and denoted by αv. That is, αv = (αx, αy ).
That is, αv is a vector obtained by multiplying each component of v by the
scalar α.
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Addition of Vectors...

Observe that, the vectors αv and v lie on the same line. If α > 0, the
vectors αv and v are in the same direction.
However, if α < 0, the vectors αv and v are in opposite direction.
For vector v = (x, y ) and α ∈ R, we have kαvk = |α|kvk.
A vector of norm 1 unit is called a unit vector. For example, the vectors
i = (1, 0) and j = (0, 1) are unit vectors.
These two vectors are called standard unit vectors in R2 and if v =
(x, y ) is a vector in R2 , then

v = (x, y ) = (x, 0) + (0, y ) = x(1, 0) + y (0, 1) = xi + y j.

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Addition of Vectors...

If v is a nonzero vector in R2 , then

1
the vector u = kvk v is a unit vector in the direction of v and
1
the vector u = − kvk v is a unit vector in the direction opposite to the
direction of v.

Example
If v = (2, −3), then −5v = ((−5) × 2, (−5) × (−3)) = (−10, 15) and the
vector
 
1 1 1 2 3
u= v= p (2, −3) = √ (2, −3) = √ , −√
kvk 2
2 + (−3)2 13 13 13

is a unit vector in the direction of v.

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Addition of Vectors...

Given a vector v = (x, y ) in R2 , −1v = (−x, −y ) and (−1v)+v = (0, 0) = v+(−1v).

Thus, the vector −1v is the additive inverse of v and denoted by −v.
The vectors v and −v have the same length, however, they are in opposite direction.
If v and w are two vectors, then the vector v + (−1)w is denoted by v − w and it is
called the difference between v and w. The vector v − w is geometrically shown as
follows.

If either v = (0, 0), the zero vector, or α = 0, then αv is the zero vector αv = (0, 0).

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Properties of Vectors Addition and Scalar Multiplication

Theorem
Let u, v and w be vectors in R2 and α and β be real numbers.

(a) v + w = w + v. (Addition of vectors is commutative)

(b) u + (v + w) = (u + v) + w. (Addition of vectors is associative)

(c) u + 0 = u = 0 + u. (the zero vector is additive identity in the set of vectors)

(d) u + (−u) = 0 = (−u + u). (−u is the additive inverse for u.)

(e) α(v + w) = αv + αw. (Scalar multiplication is distributive over addition )

(f) (α + β)v = αv + βv. (Scalar multiplication is distributive over addition of

numbers)

(g) (αβ)v = α(βv). (scalar multiplication is associative)

(h) 1u = u.
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Scalar Product of Vectors in the Plane

Definition
If v = (x1 , y1 ) and w = (x2 , y2 ) are vectors in R2 , the scalar product of v
and w (sometimes it is also called dot product), denoted by hv, wi or v · w,
is defined by hv, wi = x1 x2 + y1 y2 = v · w.

Given two vectors v = (x1 , y1 ) and w = (x2 , y2 ) in R2 , the angle between

these two vectors is the angle θ such that 0 ≤ θ ≤ π as shown in the
figure below.

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Scalar Product of Vectors in the Plane...

If we apply the law of cosine on the triangle with sides on the vectors
v and w in the above figure, then kvkkwk cos θ = x1 x2 + y1 y2 .
If both v and w are nonzero vectors, then solving for cos θ gives us:
x1 x2 + y1 y2
cos θ = .
kvkkwk

Two vectors v = (x1 , y1 ) and w = (x2 , y2 ) are said to be parallel,

(written as v||w) if both lie on the same line.
That is, v||w, if the angle between the two vectors is either 0 or π.

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Scalar Product of Vectors in the Plane...

If v = (x1 , y1 ) and w = (x2 , y2 ) are two nonzero vectors in R2 and θ is the

angle between them, then we have seen that
x1 x2 + y1 y2 v·w
cos θ = =
kukkwk kvkkwk
and hence we have an alternative formula for scalar product of two vectors:

v · w = kvkkwk cos θ. (1)

Example
If v = (1, −3) and w = (3, 0), then v · w = 1(3) + (−3)0 = 3 + 0 = 3.
p √ √ p
We also have kvk = 12 + (−3)2 + = 1 + 9 = 10 and kwk = 32 + (0)2 =
√ √
9 + 0 = 9 = 3. If θ is the angle between v and w, then
√
v·w 3 1 10
cos θ = = √ =√ = .
kvkkwk 3 10 10 10
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Scalar Product of Vectors in the Plane...

If the angle between two nonzero vectors v and w is a right angle, then the vectors
are said to be perpendicular or orthogonal to each other and the cosine of the
π
angle between them is zero, as cos 2
= 0.

Hence, we have v · w = 0.

Conversely, if the scalar product of two nonzero vectors v and w is zero, i.e., v·w = 0,
then the cosine of the angle, θ, between them is zero. That is, cos θ = 0.

However, by definition, 0 ≤ θ ≤ π.

Then, the value of such angle must be θ = 90o ( or θ = π

2
) in radian measure.
Hence the vectors are mutually orthogonal.

Remark
Two nonzero vectors are orthogonal if and only if the scalar product of the two vectors is
zero.

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Scalar Product of Vectors in the Plane...

Example
The vectors v = (1, 2) and w = (−2, 1) are orthogonal, because the two vectors
are nonzero a v · w = 1(−2) + 2(1) = −2 + 2 = 0.

Theorem (Properties of Scalar Product)

Let v = (x1 , y1 ) and w = (x2 , y2 ) be two vectors in R2 and α ∈ R.
(a) v · w = w · v ( scalar product is commutative.)
(b) (αv) · w = v · (αw) = α(v · w).
√ q
(c) kvk = v · v = x12 + y12 and v · v = 0 if and only if v = 0.
(d) u · (v + w) = u · v + u · w and (u + v) · w = u · w + v · w. Thus, scalar
product of vectors in R2 is distributive over addition of vectors.

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Vectors in Space

Given a directed line segment with initial point A(x1 , y1 , z1 ) and terminal point
B(x2 , y2 , z2 ), the vector represented by this directed line segment can be
identified by the ordered triple (x2 − x1 , y2 − y1 , z2 − z1 ).

Definition
A vector in space is an ordered triple of numbers v = (x, y , z), where x, y and z
are real numbers, called components of the vector. The vector associated with the
directed line segment with initial point A(x1 , y1 , z1 ) and terminal point B(x2 , y2 , z2 ),
−→
denoted by AB, is the vector defined by
−→
AB = (x2 − x1 , y2 − y1 , z2 − z1 ).

Geometrically, vector v = (x, y , z) can be represented by a directed line segment

with the origin as its initial point and the point P(x, y , z) as its terminal point.

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Vectors in Space...

The set of all vectors in space (which is also called Euclidean 3−space)
is denoted by R3 .
Consider two vectors v = (x1 , y1 , z1 ) and w = (x2 , y2 , z2 ) in space.
Then, v and w are said to be equal, written as v = w, if x1 = x2 , y1 = y2
and z1 = z2 .
Let A(a1 , b1 , c1 ) and B(a2 , b2 , c2 ) be initial and terminal points of vec-
−→
tor AB respectively and the points P(x1 , y1 , z1 ) and Q(x2 , y2 , z2 ) be the
−→
initial and terminal points of vector PQ respectively.
−→ −→
Then, AB = PQ, if (a2 −a1 , b2 −b1 , c2 −c1 ) = (x2 −x1 , y2 −y1 , z2 −z1 ).
−→ −→
i.e, AB = PQ if a2 −a1 = x2 −x1 , b2 −b1 = y2 −y1 and c2 −c1 = z2 −z1 .

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Vectors in Space...

Example
Let A(1, 0, 1), B(0, 1, 0), P(2, −2, 1) and Q(1, −1, 0) be points in Space. Then,
(0 − 1, 1 − 0, 0 − 1) = (−1, 1, −1) and (1 − 2, −1 − (−2), 0 − 1) = (−1, 1, −1) and
−→ −→
this implies AB = PQ.

If v = (x, y , z) is a vector in R3 , then the magnitude of v, which is also called

the norm of v, is the length of the line segment from the initial (0, 0, 0) to
the terminal point (x, y , z), denoted by kvk. That is,
p p
kvk = (x − 0)2 + (y − 0)2 + (z − 0)2 = x 2 + y 2 + z 2 . (2)

If v is a vector with initial point A(a1 , b1 , c1 ) and terminal point B(a2 , b2 , c2 ),

−→
then the magnitude (or norm) of the vector AB is the distance between the
−→ p
points A and B. i.e. kABk = (a2 − a1 )2 + (b2 − b1 )2 + (c2 − c1 )2 .

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Addition of vectors in Space

Definition
Let v = (x1 , y1 , z1 ) and w = (x2 , y2 , z2 ) be vectors in space. The sum of v
and w, denoted by v + w, is a vector in R3 defined by

v + w = (x1 + x2 , y1 + y2 , z1 + z2 ).

Example
Let v = (1, 1, 1) and w = (0, 2, −1) be two vectors in R3 . Then

(a) v + w = (1 + 0, 1 + 2, 1 + (−1)) = (1, 3, 0).

(b) v + v = (1 + 1, 1 + 1, 1 + 1) = (2, 2, 2) and

(c) w + w = (0 + 0, 2 + 2, (−1) + (−1)) = (0, 4, −2).

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Addition of vectors in Space

A vector of magnitude (or norm) one unit is called a unit vector.

For example, the vectors (1, 0, 0), (0, 1, 0) and (0, 0, 1) are unit vectors,
because the norms of these vectors are:
√
(a) k(1, 0, 0)k = 12 + 02 + 02 = 1,
√
(b) k(0, 1, 0)k = 02 + 12 + 02 = 1 and
√
(c) k(0, 0, 1)k = 02 + 02 + 12 = 1.

The three unit vectors (1, 0, 0), (0, 1, 0) and (0, 0, 1) are called the stan-
dard unit vectors in space and they are denoted by i, j and k respectively.
Given a vector v = (x, y , z) in R3 , where x, y and z are real numbers,
then we can write v = (x, y , z) in terms of the standard unit vectors i, j
and k as: v = (x, y , z) = x(1, 0, 0)+y (0, 1, 0)+z(0, 0, 1) = xi+y j+zk.

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Addition of vectors in Space...

Figure : The standard unit vectors in space

The vector 0 = (0, 0, 0) is called the zero vector in R3 .

The zero vector has zero magnitude (or norm) as zero as
√
k0k = 02 + 02 + 02 = 0 and its direction is taken to be arbitrary.
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Scalar multiplication of Vectors in Space

If v = (x, y , z) is a vector in R3 and 0 = (0, 0, 0), then

v + 0 = (x + 0, y + 0, z + 0) = (x, y , z) = v

and
0 + v = (0 + x, 0 + y , 0 + z) = (x, y , z) = v.

Thus, the zero vector is an identity element for addition of vectors in R3 .

Definition
If v = (x, y , z) is a vector in R3 and α ∈ R, the vector w = (αx, αy , αz) is
called a scalar multiple of v by α and is denoted by αv. That is,

αv = (αx, αy , αz).

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Scalar multiplication of Vectors in Space...

Observe that, the vectors αv and v lie on the same line.

If α > 0, then the vectors αv and v are in the same direction and if
α < 0, the vectors αv and v are in opposite directions.
For vector v = (x, y , z) and α ∈ R, the norm of the vector αv,

kαvk = |α|kvk.

If v is a nonzero vector in R3 , then the vector

1
u= v
kvk
is a unit vector in the direction of v and the vector
1
u0 = − v
kvk
is a unit vector in the direction opposite to the direction of v.
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Scalar multiplication of Vectors in Space...

Example
Let v = (1, 2, −2). Then,
the vectors 2v is the vector 2v = (2 × 1, 2 × 2, 2 × (−2)) = (2, 4, −4).
The norm of the vector v is given by:
q √ √
kvk = 12 + 22 + (−2)2 = 1 + 4 + 4 = 9 = 3.
 
1 1 1 2 2
Therefore, the vector u = kvk v = 3 (1, 2, −2) = 3, 3, −3 is a unit
vector in the direction of v and;  
the vector u0 = 1
− kvk v = − 13 (1, 2, −2) = − 31 , − 23 , 23 is a unit vector
in the direction opposite to the direction of v.

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Scalar multiplication of Vectors in Space...

Given a nonzero vector v = (x, y , z) in R3 , −1v = (−x, −y , −z) and

(−1v) + v = (0, 0, 0) = v + (−1v).

Thus, the vector −1v is the additive inverse of v and denoted by −v.
The vectors v and −v have the same length, but they are in opposite
direction.
If v and w are two vectors, then the vector v + (−1)w is denoted by
v − w and it is called the difference between v and w.

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Scalar multiplication of Vectors in Space...

Theorem (Properties of Vector Addition and Scalar Multiplication)

Let u, v and w be vectors in R3 and α and β be real numbers.
(a) v + w = w + v. (Addition of vectors is commutative)
(b) u + (v + w) = (u + v) + w. (Addition of vectors is associative)
(c) u + 0 = u = 0 + u. (the zero vector is additive identity in the set of
vectors )
(d) u + (−u) = 0 = (−u + u). (−u is the additive inverse for u.)
(e) α(v+w) = αv+αw. (Scalar multiplication is distributive over addition)
(f) (α+β)v = αv+βv. (Scalar multiplication is distributive over addition)
(g) (αβ)v = α(βv). (scalar multiplication is associative)
(h) 1u = u.
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Scalar Product of vectors in Space

Definition
If v = (x1 , y1 , z1 ) and w = (x2 , y2 , z2 ) are vectors in R3 , the scalar product
of v and w (sometimes it is also called dot product), denoted by hv, wi or
v · w, is defined by

hv, wi = x1 x2 + y1 y2 + z1 z2 = v · w.

If v = (x1 , y1 , z1 ) and w = (x2 , y2 , z2 ) are two nonzero vectors in R3 and θ

x1 x2 +y1 y2 +z1 z2
is the angle between them, then we have cos θ = kukkwk . Thus,
x1 x2 + y1 y2 + z1 z2 v·w
cos θ = =
kukkwk kvkkwk
and hence we have an alternative formula for scalar product of two vectors:

v · w = kvkkwk cos θ. (3)

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Scalar Product of vectors in Space...

Example
If v = (1, 1, 1) and w = (0, 3, 0), then v · w = 1(0) + 1(3) + 1(0) =
√ √ √
0 + 3 + 0 = 3. We also have kvk = 12 + 12 + 12 + = 1 + 1 + 1 = 3
p √ √
and kwk = 02 + 32 + (0)2 + = 0 + 9 + 0 = 9 = 3. If θ is the angle
between v and w, then the cosine of the angle between these two vectors is:
√
v·w 3 3
cos θ = = √ = .
kvkkwk 3 3 3

If the angle between two nonzero vectors v and w is a right angle, then the
vectors are said to be perpendicular or orthogonal to each other and the
cosine of the angle between them is zero, as cos π2 = 0. Hence, we have
v · w = 0.
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Scalar Product of vectors in Space...

Conversely, if the scalar product of the two vectors is zero (v · w = 0),

then the cosine of the angle, θ, between them (cos θ) is zero.
But, since 0 ≤ θ ≤ π, the value of such an angle must be θ = 90o or
π
θ= 2 in radian measure.
Hence the two vectors are mutually orthogonal.

Remark
Two nonzero vectors are orthogonal if and only if the scalar product of the
two vectors is zero.

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Scalar Product of vectors in Space...

Example
The vectors v = (1, 2, 1) and w = (−2, 1, 0) are orthogonal, because the
two vectors are nonzero and the scalar product of the two vectors is zero.
That is, v · w = 1(−2) + 2(1) + 1(0) = −2 + 2 + 0 = 0.

If v = (x, y , z) is a vector in R3 , then the scalar product of v with itself

is given by: v · v = x 2 + y 2 + z 2 = kvk2 .
Thus, the magnitude of the vector is given by
√ p
kvk = v·v= x2 + y2 + z2

and v · v ≥ 0, since x 2 + y 2 + z 2 ≥ 0.

Tilahun Abebaw(PhD) (EAU) Math 1031 (Chapter 1) December 30, 2023 36 / 116
Scalar Product of vectors in Space...

On the other hand, if v = (0, 0, 0) is the zero vector, then v · v = 0.

However, v · v = 0 implies x 2 + y 2 + z 2 = 0. This implies x = y = z = 0.
Thus we can conclude that, v · v = 0 if and only if v = 0.
Theorem
Let u, v and w be two vectors in R3 and α be a scalar in R.
(a) v · w = w · v. That is, scalar product is commutative.
(b) (αv) · w = v · (αw) = α(v · w).
(c) u · (v + w) = u · v + u · w and (u + v) · w = u · w + v · w. That is, scalar
product is distributive over addition of vectors.
(d) kvk ≥ 0 and kvk = 0 if and only if v = 0.

Tilahun Abebaw(PhD) (EAU) Math 1031 (Chapter 1) December 30, 2023 37 / 116
Orthogonal Projection of a Vector Along Another Vector
−→ −
→
Let v = AB and w = AC be two nonzero vectors in space and θ be the
angle between them, as shown in the following Figure.

Figure : Projection of a vector onto another vector.

From the terminal point B of v, drop a perpendicular BD to the line

−→
containing AC = w.
−→
The projected vector AD from v onto w is a vector parallel to w.
−→
That is, there exists a scalar α such that AD = αw.
Tilahun Abebaw(PhD) (EAU) Math 1031 (Chapter 1) December 30, 2023 38 / 116
Orthogonal Projection of a Vector Along Another Vector...
−→ −→
On the other hand, the two vectors AD and DB are orthogonal.
−→ −→
That is, AD · DB = 0.
−→ −→ −→ −→
By vector addition, v = AD+DB, which implies DB = v−AD = v−αw.
−→ −→
Thus, AD · DB = 0 implies αw · (v − αw) = 0.
Using the distributive property of scalar product over addition of vec-
tors, we get
(αw) · v − (αw) · (αw) = 0.

This implies, α(v · w) = α2 (w · w).

Then, solving for α gives us
v·w
α= .
w·w
Tilahun Abebaw(PhD) (EAU) Math 1031 (Chapter 1) December 30, 2023 39 / 116
Orthogonal Projection of a Vector Along Another Vector...

Definition
−→
The vector AD, which is called the orthogonal projection of vector v along
vector w and it is denoted by:
 
−→ −→ v·w v·w
AD = Projw v is given by Projw v = AD = αw = w= w.
w·w kwk2

Since the number w · w is always positive for a nonzero vector w, the

algebraic sign of α depends on the value of v · w.
If v · w is positive, Projw v and w are in the same direction (as in (a) of
the above figure).
If v · w is negative, then Projw v and w are opposite in directions (as in
(b) of the above figure).
Tilahun Abebaw(PhD) (EAU) Math 1031 (Chapter 1) December 30, 2023 40 / 116
Orthogonal Projection of a Vector Along Another Vector...

Example
Suppose a vector v has magnitude 6 units and forms an angle of 60o with
vector w of magnitude 4 units. Find:

(a) Projw v. (b) Projv w. (c) Proj3w 2v.

Example
If v = (1, 0, 2) and w = (2, 1, 2) are vectors in R3 , then
 
v·w
Projw v = w,
kwk2

where v · w = 1(2) + 0(1) + 2(2) = 6 and kwk2 = 9. Therefore

 
6 4 2 4
Projw v = (2, 1, 2) = , , .
9 3 3 3
Tilahun Abebaw(PhD) (EAU) Math 1031 (Chapter 1) December 30, 2023 41 / 116
Direction Cosines of Vectors in Space

Given a vector u = (a1 , a2 , a3 ) in space, we can write u in terms of the

standard unit vectors i = (1, 0, 0), j = (0, 1, 0) and k = (0, 0, 1) as

u = a1 i + a2 j + a3 k.

The direction of u can be described by the three angles that u makes

with the three positive coordinate axes.
The three angles that u makes with the three positive coordinate axes
are called directional angles of u.

Tilahun Abebaw(PhD) (EAU) Math 1031 (Chapter 1) December 30, 2023 42 / 116
Direction Cosines of Vectors in Space...

If α, β and γ, where α, β, γ ∈ [0, π], are angles that a non-zero vector u = (a1 , a2 , a3 )
makes with positive x, y and z−axes respectively, as shown in the above, then the
angles α, β and γ are called directional angles of u.

Let u = (a1 , a2 , a3 ) = a1 i + a2 j + a3 k be a nonzero vector in space and α, β and γ

be its directional angles.

The cosine of these angles are given by:

hu, ii a1 hu, ji a2 hu, ki a3
cos α = = , cos β = = and cos γ = = .
kukkik kuk kukkjk kuk kukkkk kuk

This implies a1 = kuk cos α, a2 = kuk cos β and a3 = kuk cos γ and hence

u = kuk(cos αi + cos βj + cos γk).

The cosines of the three directional angles, cos α, cos β and cos γ are called the
direction cosines of the vector u.

Tilahun Abebaw(PhD) (EAU) Math 1031 (Chapter 1) December 30, 2023 43 / 116
Direction Cosines of Vectors in Space...

The direction cosines of u have a relation

cos2 α + cos2 β + cos2 γ = 1 .

This is because
a12 a22 a32 a12 + a22 + a32
cos2 α + cos2 β + cos2 γ = + + = = 1.
kuk2 kuk2 kuk2 a12 + a22 + a32

Example
Find the direction cosines of the vector u = 3i − 2j + 4k.

Example
If a nonzero vector v in R3 makes an angle of 60o each with the positive
x and y − axes, then find the cosine of the angle that v makes with the
positive z−axis.
Tilahun Abebaw(PhD) (EAU) Math 1031 (Chapter 1) December 30, 2023 44 / 116
Direction Cosines of Vectors in Space

Example
Find a vector v of length 4 units in space with directional angles α = π4 , β =
2π π
3 and γ = 3 with respect to the positive x, y and z−axes, respectively.
Solution:
If v is a vector of length 4 units with directional angles α = π4 , β = 2π
3 and
π
γ= 3 with respect to the positive x, y and z−axes respectively, then

v = kvk(cos α, cos β, cos γ)

= 4(cos α, cos β, cos γ)
π 2π π
= 4(cos , cos , cos )
4 3 3
√
√

2 1 1
= 4 ,− , = (2 2, −2, 2).
2 2 2
√
Tilahun Abebaw(PhD) (EAU) Math 1031 (Chapter 1) December 30, 2023 45 / 116
Vectors in Rn

Let n be a positive integer. A vector in n−space is an n−tuple of numbers

(x1 , x2 , . . . , xn ), where x1 , x2 , . . . , xn are called components of the vector.
For each i, where 1 ≤ i ≤ n, xi is called the i th −component of the given vector and
the set of all vectors in n−space is denoted by Rn .

Definition
Let v = (x1 , x2 , . . . , xn ) , w = (y1 , y2 , . . . , yn ) ∈ Rn , where n ≥ 2 and α be a real number.

(a) v and w are said to be equal, written as v = w, if xi = yi for each i, 1 ≤ i ≤ n.

(b) The sum of the vectors v and w is a vector in Rn , denoted by v + w , defined by

v+w = (x1 + y1 , x2 + y2 , . . . , xn + yn ).

(c) The scalar multiple of v by α is a vector in Rn , denoted by αv, is defined by

αv = (αx1 , αx2 , . . . , αxn ).

Tilahun Abebaw(PhD) (EAU) Math 1031 (Chapter 1) December 30, 2023 46 / 116
Vectors in Rn ...

Theorem
Let u, v and w be vectors in Rn for a positive integer n ≥ 4 and α and β be real numbers.
Then,

(a) u + (v + w) = (u + v) + w. (Addition of vectors is associative.)

(b) v + w = w + v. (Addition of vectors is Commutative.)

(c) v + 0 = v = 0 + v , where 0 = (0, 0, . . . , 0).

(d) v +(−v ) = 0 = (−v )+v , where v = (x1 , x2 , . . . , xn ) and −v = (−x1 , −x2 , . . . , −xn ).

(b) α(βv) = (αβ)v.

(c) (α + β)v = αv + βv. (Scalar multiplication is distributive over addition of numbers.)

(d) α(u + v) = αv + αu. (Scalar multiplication is distributive over addition of vectors.)

(e) 1v = v

Tilahun Abebaw(PhD) (EAU) Math 1031 (Chapter 1) December 30, 2023 47 / 116
Vectors in Rn

Definition
Let v = (x1 , x2 , . . . , xn ) and w = (y1 , y2 , . . . , yn ) be vectors in Rn for a
positive integer n ≥ 4. Then the scalar product of these two vectors, denoted
by hv, wi or v · w, defined by

hv, wi = x1 y1 + x2 y2 + · · · + xn yn = v · w.

For a vector v = (x1 , x2 , . . . , xn ) in Rn , the inner product of v with itself is

given by:
v · v = x12 + x22 + · · · + xn2 .
Thus, magnitude of v (which is also called the norm of v), denoted by kvk
is given by: q
kvk = x12 + x22 + · · · + xn2 .
Tilahun Abebaw(PhD) (EAU) Math 1031 (Chapter 1) December 30, 2023 48 / 116
Vectors in Rn

Example
Let u = (1, 2, 0, 2) and w = (3, 0, 4, 0) be vectors in R4 . Then
(a) u · w = 1(3) + 2(0) + 0(4) + 2(0) = 3 + 0 + 0 + 0 = 3.
√ √ √
(b) kuk = 12 + 22 + 02 + 22 = 1 + 4 + 0 + 4 = 9 = 3.
√ √ √
(c) kwk = 32 + 02 + 42 + 02 = 9 + 0 + 16 + 0 = 25 = 5.
(d) If θ is the angle between, then
u·w 3 1
cos θ = = = .
kukkwk 3×5 5

Tilahun Abebaw(PhD) (EAU) Math 1031 (Chapter 1) December 30, 2023 49 / 116
Vectors in Rn ...

Theorem
Let u, v and w be vectors in Rn for an integer n ≥ 4 and α be a real number. Then

(a) v · w = w · v.

(b) u · (v + w) = u · v + u · w and (u + v) · w = u · w + v · w.

(c) α(v · w) = (αv) · w = v · (αw).

Example
√
If v = (1, x, −2, 5) is a vector in R4 , then determine the value(s) of x so that kvk = 39.

Example
If v = (1, 2, 1, 1) and w = (1, 5, 1, 0) are in R4 , then find the projection of v onto w.

Example
Find the value(s) of x so that v = (5, x, 1, 3) and w = (x, x, 0, 2) are orthogonal.

Tilahun Abebaw(PhD) (EAU) Math 1031 (Chapter 1) December 30, 2023 50 / 116
The Vector Product of Vectors in Space

Definition
Let u = (a1 , a2 , a3 ) and w = (b1 , b2 , b3 ) be vectors in R3 . The cross (or
vector) product of u and w, denoted by u × w, is the vector in R3 defined
by
u × w = (a2 b3 − a3 b2 , a3 b1 − a1 b3 , a1 b2 − a2 b1 ).

Vector product of two vectors is defined only for vectors in R3 and the
vector product of two vectors in R3 is also a vector in R3 .
Example
Let u = (1, 2, 3) and w = (1, 5, −1) be two vectors in R3 . The vector product of u
and v is:
u × w = ((−2 − 15), 3 − (−1), 5 − 2) = (−17, 4, 3).

Tilahun Abebaw(PhD) (EAU) Math 1031 (Chapter 1) December 30, 2023 51 / 116
The Vector Product of Vectors in Space...

Let u = (a1 , a2 , a3 ) and w = (b1 , b2 , b3 ) be two vectors in R3 .

(a) The scalar product of the vectors u and u×w is zero. i.e. u·(u×w) = 0.
(b) The scalar product of the two vectors w and u × w is also zero. That is,
w · (u × w) = 0.

Therefore, from (a) and (b), we can conclude that the vector u × w is
orthogonal to both vectors u and w.
Let θ be the angle between two vectors u = (a1 , a2 , a3 ) and v =
(b1 , b2 , b3 ) in R3 .
Then, we have:

ku × vk2 = kuk2 kvk2 − (u · v)2 .

Tilahun Abebaw(PhD) (EAU) Math 1031 (Chapter 1) December 30, 2023 52 / 116
The Vector Product of Vectors in Space...

On the other hand, the scalar product of the vectors u and v is given
by: u · v = kukkvk cos θ.
This implies

ku × vk2 = kuk2 kvk2 − kuk2 kvk2 cos2 θ = kuk2 kvk2 (1 − cos2 θ).

But (1−cos2 θ) = sin2 θ and hence θ ∈ [0, π] , ku×vk2 = kuk2 kvk2 sin2 θ.
Therefore, the magnitude of u × v is given by:

ku × vk = kukkvk sin θ. (4)

If u and v are two nonzero vectors in R3 , then the sine of the angle
between them is given by:

ku × vk
sin θ = .
kukkvk
Tilahun Abebaw(PhD) (EAU) Math 1031 (Chapter 1) December 30, 2023 53 / 116
The Vector Product of Vectors in Space...

Example
Let u = (2, 1, 2) and v = (0, 2, 0) be vectors in R3 . Find the sine of the
angle between u and v.

Remark
Given the unit vectors i = (1, 0, 0), j = (0, 1, 0) and k = (0, 0, 1), we have
the following cross products of these vectors.

i × j = k, j × k = i and k × i = j.

Tilahun Abebaw(PhD) (EAU) Math 1031 (Chapter 1) December 30, 2023 54 / 116
The Vector Product of Vectors in Space...

Let u and v be two nonzero vectors in R3 and θ be the angle between

them.
(a) If u and v are parallel, then the angle between them, θ , is either 0 or
π. In both cases, sin θ = 0. This implies

ku × vk = kukkvk sin θ = kukkvk0 = 0.

Therefore, the cross product of the two parallel vectors is zero, that is,
u × v = 0.
(b) If the cross product of u and v is zero, then
ku × vk 0
sin θ = = = 0 and 0 ≤ θ ≤ π.
kukkvk kukkvk
Thus, either θ = 0 or θ = π and hence the two vectors u and v are
parallel.
Tilahun Abebaw(PhD) (EAU) Math 1031 (Chapter 1) December 30, 2023 55 / 116
The Vector)Product of Vectors in Space...

Theorem
Let u, v and w be vectors in R3 and α ∈ R.
(a) u × (v + w) = (u × v) + (u × w) (cross product is distributive over
addition of vectors)
(b) (αu) × v = α(u × v) = u × (αv)
(c) (u × v) × w = hu, wiv − hv, wiu and u × (v × w) = hu, wiv − hu, viw
(d) u · (v × w) = (u × v) · w.
The product u · (v × w) is called a triple scalar product in R3 .

Tilahun Abebaw(PhD) (EAU) Math 1031 (Chapter 1) December 30, 2023 56 / 116
Some Applications of Cross Product: Area

Consider a parallelogram in space with the vectors u and v as its two

adjacent sides as shown in the following figure.

Figure : A Parallelogram in Space

Tilahun Abebaw(PhD) (EAU) Math 1031 (Chapter 1) December 30, 2023 57 / 116
Some Applications of Cross Product: Area...

If θ is the angle between the two vectors u and v, then, recall from your
knowledge in geometry, the area A of the parallelogram is the product of
the lengths its two adjacent sides and the sine of the included side.
Therefore
A = kukkvk sin θ.

But, since from Equation 4 we have, kukkvk sin θ = ku × vk, the area of
the parallelogram can be given by:

Area = ku × vk.

Example
Find the area and the sine of the measure of ∠BAC of 4ABC with vertices
A(5, −1, −2), B(7, 1, 0) and C(−5, −3, 4) in space.
Tilahun Abebaw(PhD) (EAU) Math 1031 (Chapter 1) December 30, 2023 58 / 116
Some Applications of Cross Product: Volume

Consider a parallelepiped whose edges are determined by the vectors u, v

and w as shown in the following Figure.

Figure : Parallelepiped in Space

The volume of the parallelepiped can be determined as follows:

Volume = BA h,

where BA is the base area and h is the height of the parallelepiped.

Tilahun Abebaw(PhD) (EAU) Math 1031 (Chapter 1) December 30, 2023 59 / 116
Some Applications of Cross Product: Volume...

By considering the base to be the parallelogram with sides determined by

the vectors u and v, we have

BA = ku × vk and h = kwk| cos θ|,

where θ is the angle between w and u × v. Then,

(u × v) · w = ku × vkkwk cos θ,

which implies that

(u × v) · w
cos θ = .
ku × vkkwk
By substituting these values in the volume formula, we have
ku × vkkwk|(u × v) · w|
Volume = BA h = = |(u × v) · w|.
ku × vkkwk
Tilahun Abebaw(PhD) (EAU) Math 1031 (Chapter 1) December 30, 2023 60 / 116
Some Applications of Cross Product: Volume..

Therefore, the volume of the parallelepiped is given by the triple scalar

product:
Volume = |(u × v) · w|. (5)

By changing the base, we can also show that

Volume = |u · (v × w)| = |(u × w) · v|.

If three vectors u,v and w in space are in the same plane, then the height
of the parallelepiped with the three vectors determining the edges is
zero. Thus, the triple scalar product, (u × v) · w, is zero.

Tilahun Abebaw(PhD) (EAU) Math 1031 (Chapter 1) December 30, 2023 61 / 116
Some Applications of Cross Product: Volume..

On the other hand, if triple product of the three vectors, (u × v) · w, is

zero then the cross product, u × v, is orthogonal to the third vector w.
This implies vector w is in the same plane as the other two vectors u
and v .
Therefore, three nonzero vectors , u, v and w are coplanar if and only
if the triple scalar product u · (v × w) is zero.
Example
Compute the volume of a parallelepiped whose edges are determined by the
vectors u = 3i − 4j − 2k, v = −i + j − k and w = i + j − 4k.

Example
Determine whether the three vectors u = 2i−3j+k, v = i−j and w = j−3k
are coplanar or not.
Tilahun Abebaw(PhD) (EAU) Math 1031 (Chapter 1) December 30, 2023 62 / 116
Equation of a Line in Space

Let ` be a line passing through a point P(x0 , y0 , z0 ) and v = (a, b, c)

be a nonzero vector in space which is in the direction of the line, that
is, any nonzero vector on the line is parallel to the vector v.
−→
Suppose for any point X(x, y , z) on `, the vector PX is parallel to the
−→
given vector v. Thus, there exists a scalar t ∈ R such that PX = tv.
That is, (x − x0 , y − y0 , z − z0 ) = t(a, b, c) for some t ∈ R.

Tilahun Abebaw(PhD) (EAU) Math 1031 (Chapter 1) December 30, 2023 63 / 116
Equation of a Line in Space...

Therefore, the set of all points on the line are given by the equation:

` : (x − x0 , y − y0 , z − z0 ) = t(a, b, c) for t ∈ R.

The above equation involves the parameter t.

Thus, the equation is called a parametric equation of the line and the
vector v is called a direction vector of the line.

Example
Find a parametric equation of the line passing through the point P(1, 2, 3)
−→
and parallel to the vector AB, where A(1, 1, −3) and B(−3, 2, −1).

Tilahun Abebaw(PhD) (EAU) Math 1031 (Chapter 1) December 30, 2023 64 / 116
Equation of a Line in Space...

If v = (a, b, c) is a direction vector of a line that passes through the point P(x0 , y0 , z0 )
and X(x, y , z) is an arbitrary point on the line, then a parametric equation of the
line is: (x, y , z) = (x0 , y0 , z0 ) + t(a, b, c), t ∈ R.

This implies 
x = x0 + ta



y = y0 + tb t ∈ R.



z = z + tc 
0

x − x0 y − y0 z − z0
If abc 6= 0, then solving for t gives us: t = = =
a b c
Thus, the set of all points (x, y , z) on the given line satisfy the equation:
x − x0 y − y0 z − z0
= =
a b c
and this equation does not involve any parameter t and this equation is called a
symmetric equation of the line.

Tilahun Abebaw(PhD) (EAU) Math 1031 (Chapter 1) December 30, 2023 65 / 116
Equation of a Line in Space...

In the parametric equation (x, y , z) = (x0 + ta, y0 + tb, z0 + tc), t ∈ R, if either of

a, b, or c is equal to zero, say c = 0 and ab 6= 0, then the symmetric equation of
the line is reduced to the equation:
x − x0 y − y0
= , z = z0 .
a b
Similarly if a = 0 and bc 6= 0, then the symmetric equation is reduced to the
equation:
y − y0 z − z0
x = x0 , = and
b c
6 0, then the symmetric equation becomes
if b = 0 and ac =

x − x0 z − z0
= , y = y0 .
a c

Example
Find the symmetric equation of the line ` passing through the point P(2, 1, 3) with the
vector v = (3, 5, 0) as its direction vector.
Tilahun Abebaw(PhD) (EAU) Math 1031 (Chapter 1) December 30, 2023 66 / 116
Equation of a Line in Space...

Remark
1 If v is a direction vector for a line ` and α ∈ R and α 6= 0, then the
vector αv is parallel to v and hence αv is also a direction vector for `.
2 Two lines are said to be parallel if any two nonzero vectors on the two
lines are parallel.
3 Thus, two lines are parallel if and only if their direction vectors are
parallel.

Example
The lines `1 and `2 defined by `1 : X = (2, 1, 3) + t(1, 1, 2), t ∈ R and
`2 : X = (1, −1, 3) + t(2, 2, −1), t ∈ R are not parallel.

Tilahun Abebaw(PhD) (EAU) Math 1031 (Chapter 1) December 30, 2023 67 / 116
Equation of a Line in Space...

Remark
1 Given a line ` with parametric equation

` : (x, y , z) = (x0 , y0 , z0 ) + t(a, b, c), t ∈ R

a point P(d, e, f ) is on the line if there exists some t ∈ R such that

(d, e, f ) = (x0 + ta, y0 + tb, z0 + tc).

If there is no such t, then the point is not on the line.

2 If a symmetric equation of the line ` is given by
x − x0 y − y0 z − z0
= = ,
a b c
then the point P(d, e, f ) is on the line only when the equation
d − x0 e − y0 f − z0
= =
a b c
is satisfied.
Tilahun Abebaw(PhD) (EAU) Math 1031 (Chapter 1) December 30, 2023 68 / 116
Equation of a Line in Space...

Example
Show that P(−1, 4, 4) is on the line ` : (x, y , z) = (1 − 2t, 3 + t, 7 − 3t), t ∈
R.

Example
Is the point Q(1, 2, 3) on the line ` : (x, y , z) = (1 + 3t, 4 + t, 3 − t), t ∈ R?

Example
Is the point R(−2, 3, 4) on the line
x +1 y +5 z +3
`: = = ?
−2 4 2

Tilahun Abebaw(PhD) (EAU) Math 1031 (Chapter 1) December 30, 2023 69 / 116
Distance from a Point to a Line

Let ` be a line with direction vector v and P be a point not on `.

Let Q be a point on ` which is the foot of the perpendicular from the point P.
Then, the distance, d(P, `), from the point P to the line ` is the length of the
−−→
kP0 P × vk
perpendicular segment PQ and it is given by d(P, `) = , where P0 is a
kvk
point on `.

Example
Find the distance from the point P(2, 1, −2) to the line ` with symmetric equation:
1−z
` : x = 5, y − 2 = .
3
Tilahun Abebaw(PhD) (EAU) Math 1031 (Chapter 1) December 30, 2023 70 / 116
Distance between two lines

Consider two lines in space `1 and `2 such that `1 passes through point P and is
parallel to vector v1 and `2 passes through Q and is parallel to v2 .

We want to compute the smallest distance D between the two lines.

If the two lines intersect, then it is clear that D = 0.

If they do not intersect and but they are parallel, then D corresponds to the distance
between point Q and line `1 and is given by
−→
|PQ × v1 |
D= .
kv1 k

Assume the lines are not parallel and do not intersect (skew lines) and let N = v1 ×v2
be a vector perpendicular to both lines. Then,
−→
|PQ · N|
D= .
kNk

Tilahun Abebaw(PhD) (EAU) Math 1031 (Chapter 1) December 30, 2023 71 / 116
Distance between two lines...

Example
Find the distance between the two lines.

`1 : (x, y , z) = (0, −t, t), t ∈ R and `2 : (x, y , z) = (1 + 2s, s, −3s), s ∈ R.

Example
Find the distance between `1 and `2 , where the two lines are given by

`1 : (x, y , z) = (−2, −1, 3) + t(−5, 1, 1), t ∈ R

and
`2 : (x, y , z) = (−4, −3, 2) + s(10, −2, −2), s ∈ R.

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Equation of a Plane in Space

Let P be a point and N be a nonzero vector in R3 .

−→
The set of all points X in R3 such that the vector PX is orthogonal to
N is a plane π passing through point P with normal vector N.

Tilahun Abebaw(PhD) (EAU) Math 1031 (Chapter 1) December 30, 2023 73 / 116
Equation of a Plane in Space...
−→
The vectors PX and N are orthogonal means the scalar product of the
two vectors is zero.
−→ −→ −→
That is, PX · N = 0 and the vector PX is: PX = X − P.
−→
Thus, PX · N = 0 implies (X − P ) · N = 0.
Hence, we have the equation X · N = P · N.
Therefore, the set of points X on a plane that passes through point P
with normal vector N satisfy the equation:

π : X · N = P · N.

The above Equation is called normal form of equation of the given

plane and the vector N is called a normal vector to the plane.
Tilahun Abebaw(PhD) (EAU) Math 1031 (Chapter 1) December 30, 2023 74 / 116
Equation of a Plane in Space...

Observe that, for a nonzero vector N and a nonzero scalar α, the vectors N and αN
are parallel and hence, if N is a normal vector to a plane, then αN is also a normal
vector to the same plane.

If X(x, y , z), P(x0 , y0 , z0 ) and N = (a, b, c), then the Equation of the plane becomes

π : ax + by + cz = ax0 + by0 + cz0 ,

since the components of N; a, b and c are given numbers and x0 , y0 and z0 are also
given numbers, ax0 + by0 + cz0 = d is a constant.

Thus, ax + by + cz = d is a linear equation in the variables x, y and z.

Thus, every plane in R3 can be represented by a linear equation in three variables

and conversely each linear equation in three variables ax + by + cz = d, where
kNk2 = a2 + b 2 + c 2 6= 0 describes a plane with normal vector N = (a, b, c).

Tilahun Abebaw(PhD) (EAU) Math 1031 (Chapter 1) December 30, 2023 75 / 116
Equation of a Plane in Space...

Example
Find equation of a plane π passing through the point P(1, 2, 3) and perpendicular to the
vector N = (2, 4, −5).

The relationship between normal vectors of planes can be used to determine the
relationship between two planes they represent. Two plane π1 and π2 with respective
normal vectors N1 and N2 are said to be:
(a) parallel to each other (written π1 k π2 ) if their normal vectors are parallel.
(b) perpendicular to each other (written π1 ⊥ π2 ) if their normal vectors are orthogonal
to each other.

Example
Determine the value(s) of a and b so that the planes π1 and π2 with equations:
2x + ay + 3z = 5 and bx + 6y − 6z = 4 respectively are:
(a) parallel to each other. (b) perpendicular to each other.

Tilahun Abebaw(PhD) (EAU) Math 1031 (Chapter 1) December 30, 2023 76 / 116
Equation of a Plane in Space...

Remark
Any three none collinear points (points that are not on the same line) in space determine
a unique plane. If three points; A, B and C in space are given, the points are collinear
−→ −
→
if and only if the vectors AB and AC are parallel. That is, the points A, B and C are
−→ − →
collinear if and only if AB × AC = 0.
−→ − → −→ − →
If AB × AC 6= 0, then the points A, B and C are not collinear and the vector N = AB × AC
is a normal vector to the unique plane containing the points A, B and C.

Example
Determine whether the points A(1, 2, −3), B(1, 4, 5) and C(7, 2, 2) are collinear or not. If
they are collinear, find a parametric equation of the line containing them and if they are
not collinear, find an equation of the plane containing them.

Tilahun Abebaw(PhD) (EAU) Math 1031 (Chapter 1) December 30, 2023 77 / 116
Equation of a Plane in Space...

Remark
If four distinct points A, B, C and D in space are given, then the points are
−→ −→ −→
coplanar (on the same plane) if and only if the three vectors AB, AC and AD
are coplanar. That is, points A, B, C and D are on the same plane (coplanar)
−→ −→ −→
if and only if the triple scalar product of the three vectors AB, AC and AD
is zero. That is,
−→ −→ −→
AB · AC × AD = 0.

Example
Determine whether or not the four points A(−1, 1, 0), B(0, 2, 3), C(1, −1, 1)
and D(2, 0, −1) in space are coplanar. If they are coplanar, find an equation
of the plane containing these points.
Tilahun Abebaw(PhD) (EAU) Math 1031 (Chapter 1) December 30, 2023 78 / 116
Equation of a Plane in Space...

Remark
A point (x0 , y0 , z0 ) in space is on a plane π given by the equation π :
ax + by + cz = d if and only if ax0 + by0 + cz0 = d.

Example
Which of the two points P(1, 2, −1) and Q(1, 0, 1) lie on the plane π :
2x + y − 3z = −1?

Tilahun Abebaw(PhD) (EAU) Math 1031 (Chapter 1) December 30, 2023 79 / 116
Intersection of two lines in space

Given two lines in the same plane are either parallel to each other or
intersect at a point.
However, given two lines in space, there are three different possibilities.
If `1 and `2 are two distinct lines in R3 , only one of the following is
possible.
(i) `1 and `2 are parallel;
(ii) `1 and `2 intersect at a point; or
(iii) `1 and `2 are neither parallel nor intersecting.

Two lines in space that are neither parallel nor intersecting are called
Skew Lines.

Tilahun Abebaw(PhD) (EAU) Math 1031 (Chapter 1) December 30, 2023 80 / 116
Intersection of two lines in space

If two lines `1 and `2 parallel or intersecting, then they lie on the same
plane, i.e., their respective direction vectors, v1 and v2 are coplanar with
−→
the vector PQ, where P and Q are points on `1 and `2 respectively.
Therefore, the triple scalar product of these vectors is zero, that is,
−→
PQ · (v1 × v2 ) = 0.

Example
Given are lines,
x −1 y +1 z −4 x −3 y −2 z +2
`1 : = = and `2 : = = ,
−3 4 −2 −5 1 4
examine whether the two lines intersect, are parallel or are skew lines, and
if intersect, find the intersection point and the angle between lines.
Tilahun Abebaw(PhD) (EAU) Math 1031 (Chapter 1) December 30, 2023 81 / 116
Intersection of a plane and a line in space
Given a plane π and a line ` in space there are three possibilities.

(i) ` and π are parallel

(ii) ` meet π at a fixed point; or
(iii) ` lies in π.

Example
Find the intersection (if any) of the line

` : (x, y , z) = (2 + 3t, 1 + 2t, −3t), t ∈ R

with each of the following planes.

(a) π1 : x + y + z = 1

(b) π2 : −2x + 3y = −1,

(c) π3 : x + z = 3

Tilahun Abebaw(PhD) (EAU) Math 1031 (Chapter 1) December 30, 2023 82 / 116
Intersection of two planes in space

Given two distinct planes π1 and π2 only one of the following holds.

(i) π1 and π2 are parallel;

(ii) π1 and π2 meet on a line.

Example
Find a parametric equation of the line of intersection of the planes deter-
mined by the equations,

π1 : 2x − y + z = 1 and π2 : 3x + y + z = 2

Tilahun Abebaw(PhD) (EAU) Math 1031 (Chapter 1) December 30, 2023 83 / 116
Distance from a Point to a Plane

Let Q be a point on the plane π and N be a normal vector to the plane and P be a
point in space not on the plane π.
Let R be the foot of perpendicular segment from P onto the plane, as shown in the
Figure below.
The length of the segment PR is the distance from the point P to the plane π,
−→
−
→ |PQ · N|
d(P, π) = kPRk = .
kNk

Tilahun Abebaw(PhD) (EAU) Math 1031 (Chapter 1) December 30, 2023 84 / 116
Distance from a Point to a Plane...

Example
Find the distance from the point P(1, 1, 2) in space to the plane π given by
the equation:
π : 3x + y − 5z = 2.

Example (Application Problem in Engineering)

Two long straight pipes are specified using Cartesian co-ordinates as follows:
Pipe A: diameter 0.8 in; axis through points C(2, 5, 3) and D(7, 10, 8).

Pipe B: diameter 1.0 in; axis through points P(0, 6, 3) and Q(−12, 0, 9).

Do the pipes need re-aligning to avoid intersection?

Tilahun Abebaw(PhD) (EAU) Math 1031 (Chapter 1) December 30, 2023 85 / 116
Vector Space

Definition
A (real) vector space is a nonempty set V of vectors together with two oper-
ations ” + ” and ” · ”, called addition and scalar multiplication respectively,
satisfying the following properties.
(a) If u and w are elements of V, then u + w is in V (that is, V is closed
under the operation ” + ”.)
(i) For u and w in V, u + w = w + u. (Addition is commutative.)
(ii) For u, v and w in V, (u +v )+w = u +(v +w ). (Addition is associative.)
(iii) There exists a unique element 0 in V such that u + 0 = 0 + u = u for
all u in V.
(iv) For each u in V, there exists a unique element in V, denoted by −u such
that u + (−u) = 0 = (−u) + u.

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Vector Spaces...

Definition (... Continued)

(b) If u is an element of V and c is a real number, then c · u, which we
shall also denote it by cu, is in V.
(i) For any real number c and for all u and w in V,

c · (u + w ) = c · u + c · w .

(ii) For all real numbers c and d and for all u in V,

(c + d) · u = c · u + d · u.

(iii) For all real numbers c and d and for any u in V, (cd) · u = c(d · u).
(iv) For all u in V, 1 · u = u.

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Vector Space...

The elements of V are called vectors and the real numbers are called
scalars.
The vector 0 is called the zero vector.
For a vector u in V, the vector −u is called the additive inverse of u.
The vector space V is said be a real vector space (or a vector space
over R).
Instead of R, if the scalars are from the set of complex numbers C,
then V is said to be a complex vector space (or a vector space over C.)
For a vector u in V and a scalar c, the scalar multiple c · u is denoted
by cu.

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Examples for Vector Spaces

Example
Consider the set of vectors in the coordinate plane, R2 , together with the operations
of vector addition and scalar multiplication defined as follows. For u = (x1 , x2 ), w =
(y1 , y2 ) ∈ R2 and α ∈ R, we define u + w = (x1 + y1 , x2 + y2 ) and αu = (αx1 , αx2 ).
Thus, R2 is a vector space over R.

Example
For a positive integer n, consider the set of vectors in n−space, Rn , together with vector
addition and scalar multiplication defined as follows. For vectors u = (x1 , x2 , . . . , xn ) and
w = (y1 , y2 , . . . , yn ) in Rn and a real number α, define,
1 u + w = (x1 + y1 , x2 + y2 , . . . , xn + yn ); and
2 αu = (αx1 , αx2 , . . . , αxn ).

Then, Rn is a vector space over R.

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Examples for Vector Spaces ...

Example
Let A be a nonempty subset of the set of real numbers and V be the set of all real valued
functions from A into R. That is,
function
V = {f |f : A −−−−→ R}.

Define addition and scalar multiplication on V as follows.

(a) For f and g in V, define addition of the two elements by:

(f + g )(x) := f (x) + g (x) for all x ∈ A.

(b) For α ∈ R and f in V, define scalar multiplication by:

(αf )(x) := αf (x) for all x ∈ A.

Then, V is a vector space over R and it is called the space of real valued functions on the
set A.
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Examples for Vector Spaces ...

Example
Let V = R2 . For u = (x1 , x2 ), w = (y1 , y2 ) in R2 and α ∈ R, define
1 u + w = (x1 + y1 , x2 + y2 ); and
2 αu = α(x1 , x2 ) = (αx1 , 0).
Then, R2 is not a vector space with respect to the operations defined.

Remark
If n = 1, the set of real numbers R1 = R is a vector space over R with
respect to addition and multiplication of real numbers.

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Basic Properties of Vector Spaces

The following theorem presents some more basic properties that are
common to all vector spaces.
Theorem
Let V be a vector space over R. Then,
(a) 0u = 0 for all u ∈ V.
(b) α0 = 0 for all α ∈ R.
(c) For α ∈ R and u ∈ V, if αu = 0, then α = 0 or v = 0.
(d) (−α)v = α(−v) = −(αv) for all α ∈ R and for all v ∈ V.
(e) Let u, v, w ∈ V. If u + v = u + w, then v = w.

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Subspaces of Vector Spaces

Definition
Let V be a vector space over R and W be a nonempty subset of V. W is said to be a sub-
space of V if W is a vector space over R with respect to addition and scalar multiplication
defined on V.

Example
Let V be a vector space over R.

(a) V is a subset of V and V is a vector space. Hence, V is a subspace of itself.

(b) Consider {0}, which is a subset of V. For any α ∈ R, we have α0 = 0 and

0 + 0 = 0. Thus, all the properties of addition and scalar multiplication defined on
V are satisfied on {0}.
Therefore, {0} is a vector space over R and hence it is a subspaces of V.

The two subspaces, {0} and V, are called the trivial subspaces of V and any other
subspace of V is called a proper subspace of V.
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Subspaces of Vector Spaces...

Theorem
Let V be a vector space over a field R and W be a nonempty subset of V.
Then W is a subspace of V if and only if the following two conditions are
satisfied:
(a) If v, w ∈ W, then v + w ∈ W. That is, W is closed under the addition
operation.
(b) If α ∈ R and w ∈ W, then αw ∈ W. That is, W is closed under the
scalar multiplication.

Observe that; if V is a vector space and W is a subspace of V, then W

contains the additive identity, 0, of V.
That is, every subspace of a vector space must contain the zero element
of the vector space.
Tilahun Abebaw(PhD) (EAU) Math 1031 (Chapter 1) December 30, 2023 94 / 116
Subspaces of Vector Spaces...

Example
For a positive integer n, let

Pn (R) = {a0 + a1 x + · · · + an x n |a0 , a1 , . . . , an ∈ R},

the set of all polynomials of degree less than or equal to n over R. Define
addition and scalar multiplication on Pn (R) as follows.
If f (x) = a0 + a1 x + · · · + an x n and g (x) = b0 + b1 x + · · · + bn x n are two
polynomials in Pn (R) and α ∈ R, then we define:
(a) f (x) + g (x) = (a0 + b0 ) + (a1 + b1 )x + · · · + (an + bn )x n and
(b) αf (x) = (αa0 ) + (αa1 )x + · · · + (αan )x n .
Then, Pn (R) is a vector space over R.

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Subspaces of Vector Spaces...

Example
Consider the vector space R3 over R with the usual addition and scalar
multiplication.
(a) Show that the set U = {(a, 0, , 0) | a ∈ R} is a subspace of R3 .
(b) Show that the set W = {(x, y , z) ∈ R3 | x + 2y + z = 0} is a subspace
of R3 .
(c) Show that the set V = {(a, b, c) ∈ R3 | a, b, c ≥ 0} (which represents
the first octant of R3 ) is not a subspace of R3 .

Tilahun Abebaw(PhD) (EAU) Math 1031 (Chapter 1) December 30, 2023 96 / 116
Subspaces of Vector Spaces...

Example
Let a, b and c be constants and not all are zero and

W = {(x, y , z) ∈ R3 ax + by + cz = 0}.

Then, W is a subspace for R3 .

Example
function
Let V = {f | R −−−−−→ R}, the vector space of real valued functions of
continuous
real variables and W = {f | R −−−−−−→ R}, the set of all continuous real
valued function of real variables. Show that W is a subspace of V.

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Linear Combinations of Vectors

Definition
Let V be a real vector space. If v1 , . . . , vn ∈ V and α1 , . . . , αn ∈ R, then
the expression
α1 v1 + α2 v2 + · · · + αn vn ∈ V

is called a linear combination of the vectors v1 , v2 , . . . , vn .

Tilahun Abebaw(PhD) (EAU) Math 1031 (Chapter 1) December 30, 2023 98 / 116
Linear Combinations of Vectors...

Theorem
Let V be a vector space and v1 , v2 , . . . , vn ∈ V. Then,

W = {α1 v1 + α2 v2 + · · · + αn vn |α1 , α2 , . . . , αn ∈ R}

is a subspace of V.

Definition
The subspace W given in the above Theorem is called the subspace of V
generated (or spanned) by the set B = {v1 , v2 , . . . , vn }. It is denoted by

W = [B] = [v1 , v2 , . . . , vn ] = Spann(B).

Tilahun Abebaw(PhD) (EAU) Math 1031 (Chapter 1) December 30, 2023 99 / 116
Linear Combinations of Vectors...

Example
Let B = {(1, 0, 0), (0, 1, 0)} a subset of R3 , with the usual addition and
scalar multiplication. Then,

[B] = {α(1, 0, 0) + β(0, 1, 0) | α, β ∈ R}

= {(α, 0, 0) + (0, β, 0) | α, β ∈ R} = {(α, β, 0) | α, β ∈ R};

which represents the xy − plane in space and the xy −plane of the 3−space
is generated by the two vectors (1, 0, 0) and (0, 1, 0).

Example
Does v = (1, 2, 3) belong Spann{(1, 0, 0), (0, 1, 1)} in R3 ?

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Linear Dependence and Independence of Vectors

Theorem
Let V be a vector space over R and v1 , v2 , . . . , vn , w be vectors in V.
If w ∈ [v1 , v2 , . . . , vn ], then [v1 , v2 , . . . , vn ] = [v1 , v2 , . . . , vn , w ].
That is, if w is generated by the vectors v1 , v2 , . . . , vn in V, then the
subspace generated by v1 , v2 , . . . , vn , w is the same as the subspace
generated by v1 , v2 , . . . , vn .

Example
In R2 , since (2, 3) = 2(1, 0) + 3(0, 1), we have (2, 3) ∈ [(0, 1), (1, 0)].
That is, (2, 3) is generated by the vectors (0, 1) and (1, 0).
Therefore, we have [(0, 1), (1, 0)] = [(1, 0), (0, 1), (2, 3)].

Tilahun Abebaw(PhD) (EAU) Math 1031 (Chapter 1) December 30, 2023 101 / 116
Linear Dependence and Independence of Vectors...

Corollary
Let v1 , v2 , . . . , vn , w1 , w2 , . . . , wn be vectors in a vector space V. If wi ∈ [v1 , v2 , . . . , vn ] for
all i = 1, 2, . . . , m, then

[v1 , v2 , · · · , vn ] = [v1 , v2 , . . . , vn , w1 , w2 , . . . , wm ].

Definition
Let V be a vector space over R. A subset {v1 , . . . , vn } of n−vectors in V is said to be
Linearly Dependent(LD) if there exist scalars α1 , . . . , αn ∈ R, not all zero, such that
α1 v1 + α2 v2 + · · · + αn vn = 0.
The vectors v1 , v2 , . . . , vn are said to be Linearly Independent (LI) if v1 , v2 , . . . , vn are
not linearly dependent.
That is, the vectors v1 , v2 , . . . , vn are said to be Linearly Independent if
α1 v1 + α2 v2 + · · · + αn vn = 0 holds only for α1 = α2 = · · · = αn = 0.

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Linear Dependence and Independence of Vectors...

Example
Consider the vector space R3 with respect to the usual vector addition and
scalar multiplication over R.
(a) The vectors (1, 0) and (0, 1) are Linearly Dependent in R2 .
(b) The vectors (0, 0, 1), (2, −1, 0), (−4, 2, 0) are Linearly Dependent in R3 .
(c) The vectors (1, 1, 1), (1, 1, 0), (1, 0, 0) are Linearly Independent in R3 .
(d) The standard unit vectors i = (1, 0, 0), j = (0, 1, 0) and k = (0, 0, 1)
are Linearly Independent in R3 .
(e) For a positive integer n, the vectors e1 , e2 , . . . , en are linearly indepen-
dent in Rn .

Tilahun Abebaw(PhD) (EAU) Math 1031 (Chapter 1) December 30, 2023 103 / 116
Linear Dependence and Independence of Vectors...

Example
function
Let V = {f | R −−−−−→ R}, the space of real valued functions over the real
variable. Then
(a) the functions determined by sin x and cos x are Linearly Independent
in V;
(b) the functions e x , e −x and cosh x are linearly dependent;
(c) the functions sin 2t, cos 2t, sin t cos t are Linearly Dependent in V;
(d) the functions determined by x and x 2 are Linearly Independent in V.
(e) the functions x + 1, x − 1 and x 2 + 2 are Linearly Independent in V.

Tilahun Abebaw(PhD) (EAU) Math 1031 (Chapter 1) December 30, 2023 104 / 116
Linear Dependence and Independence of Vectors...

Remark
Let B be a finite set of vectors in a vector space V over R.
(i) If a subset of B is linearly dependent, then the set B itself is linearly
dependent.
That is, if B is linearly independent, then every nonempty subset of B
is linearly independent.
(ii) If 0 ∈ B, then B is linearly dependent.
(iii) If any element of B is a scalar multiple of another element of B , then
B is linearly dependent.
That is, a given set of vectors is linearly independent only if none of the
given vectors is a linear combination of the other vectors in the given
set.
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Basis and Dimension of a Vector Space

Definition
Let V be a vector space. A set B = {v1 , v2 , . . . , vn } of vectors in V is called a basis for V
if

(a) the set B = {v1 , v2 , . . . , vn } spans (or generates) V and

(b) the set B = {v1 , v2 , . . . , vn } is Linearly Independent.

Example
In our previous examples, have seen that the set B = {(1, 0, 0), (0, 1, 0), (0, 0, 1)} is linearly
independent. If (x, y , z) is an arbitrary vector in R3 , then

(x, y , z) = x(1, 0, 0) + y (0, 1, 0) + z(0, 0, 1).

That means, R3 is generated by B as (x, y , z) is an arbitrary element in R3 .

Therefore, B = {(1, 0, 0), (0, 1, 0), (0, 0, 1)} is a basis for R3 and it is called the standard
basis for R3 .
Tilahun Abebaw(PhD) (EAU) Math 1031 (Chapter 1) December 30, 2023 106 / 116
Basis and Dimension of a Vector Space...

Example
For a positive integer n, we want to show that the set B = {e1 , e2 , . . . , en },
where ei = (0, 0, . . . , 1, . . . , 0, 0) is a vector in Rn with 1 in the i th −cordinate
for i = 1, . . . , n and 0 otherwise, is a basis of Rn . This is because,
(a) if (x1 , x2 , . . . , xn ) ∈ R, then (x1 , x2 , . . . , xn ) = x1 e1 + x2 e2 + · · · + xn en .
That is, the set B = {e1 , e2 , . . . , en } generates Rn .
(b) for α1 , α2 , . . . , αn ∈ R, the equation α1 e1 + α2 e2 + · · · + αn en =
(0, 0, . . . , 0) implies (α1 , α2 , . . . , αn ) = (0, 0, . . . , 0).
Thus, α1 = α2 = · · · = αn = 0 and hence the set B = {e1 , e2 , . . . , en }
is linearly independent.
Therefore, B = {e1 , e2 , . . . , en } is a basis for Rn and it is called the standard
basis for Rn .
Tilahun Abebaw(PhD) (EAU) Math 1031 (Chapter 1) December 30, 2023 107 / 116
Basis and Dimension of a Vector Space...

A basis for a given vector space is not unique, as we can see it in the
following example.

Example
In our discussion above, we have seen that B = {(1, 0)(0, 1)} is a basis for
R2 . The set B 0 = {(1, 2), (1, 3)} is also a basis for R2 . (Check!)

Example
Show that B = {x + 1, x − 1, x 2 − 2} is a basis for P2 (R).
We can also show that the set {1, x, x 2 } is also a basis for P2 (R) and this
basis is called the standard basis for P2 (R).

In general, for a positive integer n, the set {1, x, . . . , x n } is a basis for

Pn (R), called the standard basis Pn (R).
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Theorem
Let V be a vector space over a field R and let {v1 , v2 , . . . , vn } be a basis of V. Then, any
element v ∈ V can be written uniquely as a linear combination of v1 , v2 , . . . , vn

For a basis {v1 , v2 , . . . , vn } of a vector space V over R and a vector v ∈ V , there exist
unique scalars α1 , α2 , . . . , αn ∈ R such that α1 v1 + α2 v2 + · · · + αn vn and these scalars
form a component representation vector

(α1 , α2 , . . . , αn ) ∈ Rn

and this vector is called a coordinate vector of v with respect to the basis {v1 , . . . , vn }.

Definition
Let V be a vector space over R and B = {v1 , v2 , . . . , vn } be a basis of V. If w ∈ V such that
w = α1 v1 +α2 v2 +· · ·+αn vn for some α1 , . . . αn ∈ R, then the vector (α1 , α2 , . . . , αn ) ∈ Rn
is called the coordinate vector of w with respect to the basis B and it is denoted by [v ]B .

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Example
(a) The coordinate vector of (2, −1, 5) in R3 with respect to the basis B =
{(0, 1, −1), (1, 1, 0), (1, 0, 2)} is (−1, 0, 2) as
(2, −1, 5) = −1((0, 1, −1) + 0(1, 1, 0) + 2(1, 0, 2).
Therefore [(2, −1, 5)]B = (−1, 0, 2).

(b) The coordinate vector of (x, y , z) with respect to the basis

3
{(1, 0, 0), (0, 1, 0), (0, 0, 1)} of R is (x, y , z) itself, as (x, y , z) = x(1, 0, 0) +
y (0, 1, 0) + z(0, 0, 1).

The set {(1, 0, 0), (0, 1, 0), (0, 0, 1)} is linearly independent in R3 and for any vector
(a, b, c) ∈ R3 , {(1, 0, 0), (0, 1, 0), (0, 0, 1), (a, b, c)} is linearly dependent.
This is because a(1, 0, 0) + b(0, 1, 0) + c(0, 0, 1) + (−1)(a, b, c) = (0, 0, 0).
The set {(1, 0, 0), (0, 1, 0), (0, 0, 1)} is called a maximal linearly independent set and
such sets form a basis of the given vector space.
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Definition
Let {v1 , v2 , . . . , vr } be a linearly independent subset of a vector space V. If the set
{v1 , v2 , . . . , vr , v } is linearly dependent for every v ∈ V, then the set {v1 , v2 , . . . , vr }
is called a maximal linearly independent subset of V.

Theorem
Let V be a vector space and {v1 , v2 , . . . , vn } be a maximal linearly independent subset of
V. Then the set {v1 , v2 , . . . , vn } is a basis of V.

In one of our previous examples, we have seen that B = {x + 1, x − 1, x 2 − 2} is a

basis for P2 (R). For the polynomial f (x) = 3 − x + 7x 2 we have

3 − x + 7x 2 = 8(x + 1) − 9(x − 1) + 7(x 2 − 2).

This implies [3 − x + 7x 2 ]B = (8, −9, 7).

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Theorem
Let V be a vector space. If the set {v1 , v2 , . . . , vn } generates V and {w1 , w2 , . . . , wm } is
a linearly independent set of vectors in V, then m ≤ n. That is, we cannot have large
number of linearly independent vectors than the number of generators.

This theorem tells us that a basis of a given vector space is a minimal set of gener-
ators.
That is, a basis of a given vector space is a set of generators with smallest possible
number of elements.

Corollary
Let V be a vector space and let {v1 , v2 , . . . , vn } be a basis for V. Then any other basis of
V has exactly n elements.

The corollary tells us that, any two bases of the same vector space have the same
number of elements and this number is referred as the dimension of the given vector
space.
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Definition
Let V be a vector space over R with a finite set of generators. The number
of elements in a basis of V is called the dimension of V, denoted by dim V.

Example
(a) We have seen in one of our previous examples that the set B =
{(1, 0), (0, 1)} is a basis for R2 . Thus dim(R2 ) = 2.
(b) In general, for a positive integer n, the set B = {e1 , e2 , . . . , en }, where
ei is a vector in Rn with 1 in the i th −cordinate for i = 1, . . . , n and 0
otherwise, is a basis of Rn . Therefore, dim(Rn ) = n.
(d) We already know that the set B = {1, x, x 2 , . . . , x n } is a basis for
Pn (R). Thus, dim(Pn (R)) = n + 1.
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Remark
(a) If V = {0}, then V has no basis and we say that dim V = 0.
(b) If V has a basis consisting of finite number of elements or has dimension
zero, we say V is finite dimensional. Otherwise it is called infinite
dimensional vector space.

There are different infinite dimensional vector spaces in practice, but they
are not considered in this course.
Theorem
Let V be a vector space of dimension n and {v1 , v2 , . . . , vn } be any linearly
independent subset of V. Then {v1 , v2 , . . . , vn } is a basis of V .

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Example
Show that the set B = {(1, 0), (1, 1)} is a basis for R2 .

Example
Given the B = {(1, 1, 1, ), (1, 2, 2), (1, 2, 3)} in R3 , Suppose

a(1, 1, 1, ) + b(1, 2, 2) + c(1, 2, 3) = (0, 0, 0).

Then, we have (a + bc, a + 2b + 2c, a + 2b + 3c) = (0, 0, 0). This implies,

a + b + c = 0, a + 2b + 2c = 0 and a + 2b + 3c = 0. Solving this we get
a = b = c = 0 and this means the set B is Linearly independent. Since the
dimension of R3 is 3 and B linearly independent and it has 3 elements, B is
a basis for R3 (by the previous Theorem).
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Corollary
Let V be finite dimensional vector space and W be a subspace of V. If V and W have the
same dimension, then the sets V and W are equal.

Theorem
Let V be a finite dimensional vector space with dimension n. Every nonzero subspace W
of V has a basis and the dimension of W is less than or equal to n.

Example
Find a basis and the dimension for W = {x, y ) ∈ R2 |x − 2y = 0} in R2 .

Example
Find a basis and the dimension for W = {x, y , z) ∈ R2 |x + y − z = 0} in R3 .

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