Relational Algebra

π
CS 33102
Lecture 7
By relieving the brain of all unnecessary
work, a good notation sets it free to
concentrate on more advanced problems,
and, in effect, increases the mental power of
the race.
-- Alfred North Whitehead (1861 - 1947)
These slides are taken from the slides from
(CS186 EECS Berkley by Prof. Michael
Franklin) and are modified incorporating other
sources.
 The set of allowed values for each attribute is called the domain
of the attribut
Attribute values are (normally) required to be atomic; that is,
indivisibl
The special value null is a member of every domai
The null value causes complications in the definition of many
operations
e

 Relation Schema and Instance

A1, A2, …, An are attribute

R = (A1, A2, …, An ) is a relation schem

Example
instructor = (ID, name, dept_name, salary
Formally, given sets D1, D2, …. Dn a relation r is a subset of
D1 x D2 x … x Dn
Thus, a relation is a set of n-tuples (a1, a2, …, an) where each ai ∈ Di

The current values (relation instance) of a relation are specified by

a tabl
An element t of r is a tuple, represented by a row in a table
e

 Relations are Unordered

Order of tuples is irrelevant (tuples may be stored in an arbitrary order

Example: instructor relation with unordered tuples

 Database
A database consists of multiple relation
Information about an enterprise is broken up into part
instructor
student
adviso

Bad design:
univ (instructor -ID, name, dept_name, salary, student_Id, ..)
results i

repetition of information (e.g., two students have the same instructor

the need for null values (e.g., represent an student with no advisor
Normalization theory (Chapter 7) deals with how to design “good” relational
schemas
n

 Keys
Let K ⊆
K is a superkey of R if values for K are sufficient to identify a unique tuple
of each possible relation r(R)
Example: {ID} and {ID,name} are both superkeys of instructor

Superkey K is a candidate key if K is minimal

Example: {ID} is a candidate key for Instructo
One of the candidate keys is selected to be the primary key
which one
Foreign key constraint: Value in one relation must appear in anothe
Referencing relatio
Referenced relation
R

Schema Diagram for University Database

 Relational Query Languages
Procedural vs.non-procedural, or declarativ
“Pure” languages
Relational algebr
Tuple relational calculu
Domain relational calculu
Relational operators
a

 Relational Query Languages

• Query languages: Allow manipulation and retrieval of
data from a database.
• Relational model supports simple, powerful QLs:
– Strong formal foundation based on logic.
– Allows for much optimization.
• Query Languages != programming languages!
– QLs not expected to be “Turing complete”.
– QLs not intended to be used for complex calculations.
– QLs support easy, efficient access to large data sets.
Formal Relational Query Languages
Two mathematical Query Languages form the
basis for “real” languages (e.g. SQL), and for
implementation:
Relational Algebra: More operational, very useful
for representing execution plans.

Relational Calculus: Lets users describe what

they want, rather than how to compute it.
(Non-procedural, declarative.)

Understanding Algebra & Calculus is key to

understanding SQL, query processing!
 Preliminaries

• A query is applied to relation instances, and the

result of a query is also a relation instance.
– Schemas of input relations for a query are fixed (but query will run over
any legal instance)
– The schema for the result of a given query is also fixed. It is determined
by the definitions of the query language constructs.
• Positional vs. named-field notation:
– Positional notation easier for formal definitions, named-field notation
more readable.
– Both used in SQL
 Relational Algebra: 6 Basic Operations
• Selection ( σ ) Selects a subset of rows from
relation (horizontal).
• Projection ( π ) Retains only wanted columns
from relation (vertical).
• Cross-product (x) Allows us to combine two
relations.
• Set-difference (–) Tuples in r1, but not in r2.
• Union (∪ ) Tuples in r1 and/or in r2.
• rename (ρ)
Since each operation returns a relation, operations can
be composed! (Algebra is “closed”.)
 Example Instances R1 sid bid day
22 101 10/10/96
58 103 11/12/96

S1 sid sname rating age

bid bname color 22 dustin 7 45.0
101 Interlake blue 31 lubber 8 55.5
102 Interlake red 58 rusty 10 35.0
103 Clipper green
104 Marine red S2
sid sname rating age
Boats
28 yuppy 9 35.0
31 lubber 8 55.5
44 guppy 5 35.0
58 rusty 10 35.0
 Projection
• Examples: π age(S2) ; π sname, rating(S2)
• Retains only attributes that are in the “projection list”.
• Schema of result:
– exactly the fields in the projection list, with the
same names that they had in the input relation.
• Projection operator has to eliminate duplicates
(How do they arise? Why remove them?)
– Note: real systems typically don’t do duplicate
elimination unless the user explicitly asks for it.
(Why not?)
 sname rating
Projection yuppy 9
lubber 8
guppy 5
rusty 10
sid sname rating age π sname,rating (S 2)
28 yuppy 9 35.0
31 lubber 8 55.5
44 guppy 5 35.0
58 rusty 10 35.0 age
S2 35.0
55.5
π age(S2)
 Selection (σ)

• Selects rows that satisfy selection condition.

• Result is a relation.
Schema of result is same as that of the input relation.
• Do we need to do duplicate elimination?

sid sname rating age

28 yuppy 9 35.0 sname rating
31 lubber 8 55.5
yuppy 9
44 guppy 5 35.0
58 rusty 10 35.0 rusty 10
σ rating >8(S2) π sname,rating(σ rating >8(S2))
 Union and Set-Difference

• All of these operations take two input relations,

which must be union-compatible:
– Same number of fields.
– `Corresponding’ fields have the same type.

• For which, if any, is duplicate elimination

required?
 Union
sid sname rating age sid sname rating age
22 dustin 7 45.0 22 dustin 7 45.0
31 lubber 8 55.5
31 lubber 8 55.5
58 rusty 10 35.0
58 rusty 10 35.0
44 guppy 5 35.0
S1 28 yuppy 9 35.0
sid sname rating age S1∪ S2
28 yuppy 9 35.0
31 lubber 8 55.5
44 guppy 5 35.0
58 rusty 10 35.0
S2
 Set Difference
sid sname rating age
sid sname rating age
22 dustin 7 45.0
22 dustin 7 45.0
31 lubber 8 55.5 S1− S2
58 rusty 10 35.0
S1

sid sname rating age sid sname rating age

28 yuppy 9 35.0 28 yuppy 9 35.0
31 lubber 8 55.5 44 guppy 5 35.0
44 guppy 5 35.0 S2 – S1
58 rusty 10 35.0
S2
 Cross-Product
• S1 x R1: Each row of S1 paired with each row of R1.
• Q: How many rows in the result?
• Result schema has one field per field of S1 and R1,
with field names `inherited’ if possible.
– May have a naming conflict: Both S1 and R1 have a
field with the same name.
– In this case, can use the renaming operator:
ρ (C(1→ sid1, 5 → sid2), S1× R1)
 Cross Product Example
sid sname rating age
sid bid day
22 dustin 7 45.0
22 101 10/10/96 31 lubber 8 55.5
58 103 11/12/96 58 rusty 10 35.0
R1
S1

(sid) sname rating age (sid) bid day

22 dustin 7 45.0 22 101 10/10/96
R1 X S1 = 22 dustin 7 45.0 58 103 11/12/96
31 lubber 8 55.5 22 101 10/10/96
31 lubber 8 55.5 58 103 11/12/96
58 rusty 10 35.0 22 101 10/10/96
58 rusty 10 35.0 58 103 11/12/96
 Compound Operator: Intersection

• In addition to the 5 basic operators, there are

several additional “Compound Operators”
– These add no computational power to the
language, but are useful shorthands.
– Can be expressed solely with the basic ops.

• Intersection takes two input relations, which must

be union-compatible.
• Q: How to express it using basic operators?
R ∩ S = R − (R − S)
 Intersection
sid sname rating age
22 dustin 7 45.0
31 lubber 8 55.5 sid sname rating age
58 rusty 10 35.0 31 lubber 8 55.5
S1 58 rusty 10 35.0
sid sname rating age
28
31
yuppy
lubber
9
8
35.0
55.5
S1∩ S2
44 guppy 5 35.0
58 rusty 10 35.0
S2
 Compound Operator: Join
• Joins are compound operators involving cross product,
selection, and (sometimes) projection.
• Most common type of join is a “natural join” (often just called
“join”). R S conceptually is:
– Compute R X S
– Select rows where attributes that appear in both relations have equal
values
– Project all unique atttributes and one copy of each of the common
ones.
• Note: Usually done much more efficiently than this.
• Useful for putting “normalized” relations back together.
 Natural Join Example
sid sname rating age
sid bid day 22 dustin 7 45.0
22 101 10/10/96 31 lubber 8 55.5
58 103 11/12/96 58 rusty 10 35.0
R1
S1

R1 S1 =

sid sname rating age bid day

22 dustin 7 45.0 101 10/10/96
58 rusty 10 35.0 103 11/12/96
 Other Types of Joins
• Condition Join (or “theta-join”):
R!
!c S = σ c ( R × S)

• Result schema same as that of cross-product.

• May have fewer tuples than cross-product.

• Equi-Join: Special case: condition c contains

only conjunction of equalities.
 “Theta” Join Example
sid bid day sid sname rating age
22 101 10/10/96 22 dustin 7 45.0
58 103 11/12/96 31 lubber 8 55.5
58 rusty 10 35.0
R1
S1

!
S1! R1 =
!! S1.sid< R1.sid

(sid) sname rating age (sid) bid day

€

22 dustin 7 45.0 58 103 11/12/96

31 lubber 8 55.5 58 103 11/12/96
 Compound Operator: Division

• Useful for expressing “for all” queries like:

Find sids of sailors who have reserved all boats.
• For A/B attributes of B are subset of attrs of A.
– May need to “project” to make this happen.
• E.g., let A have 2 fields, x and y; B have only field
y:
A B = { x ∀ y ∈ B(∃ x, y ∈ A)}
A/B contains all x tuples such that for every y tuple in B, there is
an xy tuple in A.
Examples of Division A/B
sno pno pno pno pno
s1 p1 p2 p2 p1
s1 p2
B1 p4 p2
s1 p3
s1 p4
B2 p4
s2 p1 sno
B3
s2 p2 s1
s3 p2 s2 sno
s4 p2 s3 s1 sno
s4 p4 s4 s4 s1
A A/B1 A/B2 A/B3
 Expressing A/B Using Basic Operators
• Division is not essential op; just a useful shorthand.
– (Also true of joins, but joins are so common that systems implement joins
specially.)
• Idea: For A/B, compute all x values that are not
`disqualified’ by some y value in B.
– x value is disqualified if by attaching y value from B, we obtain an xy tuple
that is not in A.

Disqualified x values: π x ((π x ( A) × B) − A)

A/B: π x ( A) − Disqualified x values
 sid bid day
Reserves
Examples 22 101 10/10/96
58 103 11/12/96
sid sname rating age
Sailors 22 dustin 7 45.0
31 lubber 8 55.5
•
58 rusty 10 35.0

Boats
bid bname color
101 Interlake Blue
102 Interlake Red
103 Clipper Green
104 Marine Red
 Find names of sailors who’ve reserved boat #103

• Solution 1: π sname ((σ Re serves) !

!Sailors)
bid =103

• Solution 2: π sname (σ (Re serves !

!Sailors))
bid =103
 Find names of sailors who’ve reserved a red boat

• Information about boat color only available in

Boats; so need an extra join:
π sname ((σ Boats) !
!Re serves !
!Sailors)
color =' red '

A more efficient (???) solution:

π sname(π ((π (σ !Res)!
Boats))! !Sailors)
!! sid bid color='red '
€

A query optimizer can find this given the first solution!

 Find sailors who’ve reserved a red or a green boat
• Can identify all red or green boats, then find
sailors who’ve reserved one of these boats:

ρ (Tempboats, (σ Boats))
color =' red ' ∨ color =' green '
π sname(Tempboats !
!Re serves !
!Sailors)
 Find sailors who’ve reserved a red and a green boat
• Previous approach won’t work! Must identify
sailors who’ve reserved red boats, sailors who’ve
reserved green boats, then find the intersection
(note that sid is a key for Sailors):

ρ (Tempred, π ((σ Boats) !

!Re serves))
sid color =' red '
ρ (Tempgreen, π ((σ Boats) !
!Re serves))
sid color =' green'

π sname((Tempred ∩ Tempgreen) !
!Sailors)
 Find the names of sailors who’ve reserved all boats

• Uses division; schemas of the input relations

to / must be carefully chosen:

ρ (Tempsids, (π Re serves) / (π Boats))

sid, bid bid
π sname (Tempsids !
!Sailors)

To find sailors who’ve reserved all ‘Interlake’ boats:

..... /π (σ Boats)
bid bname =' Interlake'