Memory Storage

Memory is the best essential element of a computer because computer can't perform

simple tasks. The performance of computer mainly based on memory and CPU.

Memory Hierarchy

The hierarchical arrangement of storage in current computer architectures is

called the memory hierarchy. The computer

uses a hierarchy of memory that is

organized in a manner to enable the fastest

speed and largest capacity of memory as

shown in figure. The memory is

characterized on the basis of two key

factors; capacity and access time

Parameters of Memory Some related parameters of memory are as follows

1. Storage Capacity It is representative of the size of memory. The capacity of internal

memory or main memory can be expressed in terms of number of words or bytes.

2. Access Modes A memory is comprised of various memory locations. The information

from these memory locations can be accessed randomly, sequentially and directly.

3. Access Time The access time is the time required between the desired modes for a

read or write operation till the data is made available or written at the desired location.

4. Physical Characteristics In this respect, the devices can be categorised into four

main categories as electronic, magnetic, mechanical, and optical.

5. Permanence of Storage Its permanence is high for future use in magnetic materials

Memory is internal storage media of computer that has several names such as majorly

categorized into two types,

1.Main memory/ Primary Memory

2. Secondary Memory / Auxiliary Memory

Primary Memory or Main Memory

Primary memory is computer memory that a processor or computer accesses first or

directly. It allows a processor to access running execution applications and services

that are temporarily stored in a specific memory location. Primary memory is also

known as primary storage or main memory

1. RAM (Volatile Memory).

2. ROM (Non-Volatile Memory

Random Access Memory (RAM):

It is a volatile memory. It means it does not store data or

instructions permanently. It is read/write memory which

stores data till the machine is working. When you switch on

the computer and perform some tasks the data and

instructions from the hard disk are stored in RAM.

CPU utilizes this data to perform the required tasks. As soon as

you shut down the computer the RAM loses all the data.

RAM categorized into following types.

1. DRAM- Dynamic memory must be constantly refreshed, or it loses its contents. This

type of memory is more economical.

2. SRAM- SRAM is faster and less volatile than DRAM but requires more power and is

more expensive. It does not need to be refreshed like a DRAM.

3. SDRAM(Synchronous Dynamic Random-Access Memory) - A type of DRAM that can

run at much higher clock speeds.

4. Double-Data-Rate SDRAM (DDR SDRAM): This faster version of SDRAM performs its

operations on both edges of the clock signal; whereas a standard SDRAM performs its

operations on the rising edge of the clock signal. Since they transfer data on both edges
 of the clock, the data transfer rate is doubled. To access the data at a high rate, the

memory cells are organized into two groups. Each group is accessed separately

5. Rambus DRAM (RDRAM): The RDRAM provides a very high data transfer rate over a

narrow CPU-memory bus. It uses various speedup mechanisms, like synchronous

memory interface, caching inside the DRAM chips and very fast signal timing. The

Rambus data bus width is 8 or 9 bits.

SRAM DRAM
SRAM stands for Static Random Access DRAM stands for Dynamic Random Access

Memory. Memory.

Uses a flip-flop circuit to store data Uses a capacitor and a transistor to store

data

SRAM has a lower access time, so it is faster DRAM has a higher access time, so it is

compared to DRAM. slower than SRAM.

SRAM has long data life. DRAM has short data life.

SRAM has a storage capacity of 1 MB to 16 MB in DRAM, which is often found in tablets and

most cases. smartphones, has a capacity of 1 GB to 2 GB

SRAM is costlier than DRAM. DRAM costs less compared to SRAM.

SRAM provides faster speed of data read/write. DRAM provides slower speed of data

read/write.

SRAM requires a constant power supply, which DRAM offers reduced power consumption

means this type of memory consumes more due to the fact that the information is stored

power. in the capacitor.

 Good choice for applications that may be Not suitable for such applications.

exposed to extreme temperatures.

Due to complex internal circuitry, less storage is Due to the small internal circuitry in the

available compared to the same physical size of one-bit memory cell of DRAM, a large

a DRAM memory chip. storage capacity is available.

SRAM has low packaging capacity. DRAM has a high packaging density.

SRAM is used in cache memories. DRAM is used in main memories.

SRAM does not require refresh time. DRAM requires periodic refresh time.

SRAMs are used as cache memory in computer DRAMs are used as main memory in

and other computing devices. computer systems.

Read Only Memory (ROM):

It is a non-volatile memory. It means it does not

lose its data or programs that are written on it at

the time of manufacture. So it is a permanent

memory that contains all important data and

instructions needed to perform important tasks

like the boot process.

ROM memory has several models such names are following.

1. PROM: Programmable Read Only Memory (PROM) maintains large storage media but
can't offer the erase features in ROM. This type of RO maintains PROM chips to write

data once and read many. The programs or instructions designed in PROM can't be

erased by other programs. It is also non-volatile in nature.

2. EPROM : Erasable Programmable Read Only Memory designed for recover the

problems of PROM and ROM. Users can delete the data of EPROM thorough pass on

ultraviolet light and it erases chip is reprogrammed. So, it is also known as Ultraviolet

Erasable Programmable ROM (UVEPROM).

3. EEPROM: Electrically Erasable Programmable Read Only Memory similar to the

EPROM but it uses electrical beam for erase the data of ROM, then rewritten

electrically and the burning process is reversible by exposure to electric pulses. It is

the most flexible type of ROM, and is now commonly used for holding BIOS.

Some other memories are

Register Memory:

Register memory is the smallest and fastest memory in a computer. It is located

in the CPU in the form of registers. A register temporarily holds frequently used

data, instructions and memory address that can be quickly accessed by the CPU.
Cache Memory:

It is small in size but faster than the main memory. The CPU can access it more

quickly than the primary memory. It holds the data and programs frequently used

by the CPU. So if the CPU finds the required data or instructions in cache

memory it doesn't need to access the primary memory (RAM).

Virtual memory:

Virtual memory is a system where all physical memory is controlled by the

operating system. When a program needs memory, it requests it from the

operating system. The operating system then decides in what physical location to

place the program's code and data.

Secondary Memory:

The storage devices in the computer or connected to the computer are known as

secondary memory of the computer. It is non-volatile in nature so permanently stores

the data even when the computer is turned off. The CPU can't directly access the

secondary memory. First the secondary memory data is transferred to primary

memory then CPU can access it. Common secondary storage devices are the hard disk

and optical disks. The hard disk has enormous storage capacity compared to main

memory.

There are three main types of secondary storage in a computer system:

Solid state storage devices(such as USB memory sticks):

Solid state storage is also faster than traditional hard disk drives because the

data is stored electrically in silicon chips called cells.

Within the cells, the binary data is stored by holding

an electrical current in a transistor with an on / off

mode.
 Optical storage devices(such as CD, DVD and Blue-ray discs):

Optical devices use a laser to scan the surface of a spinning disc made from

metal and plastic. The disc surface is divided

into tracks, with each track containing many

flat areas and hollows. The flat areas are

known as lands and the hollows as pits.

Magnetic storage devices(such as hard disk drives):

Magnetic devices such as hard disk drives use magnetic fields to magnetise tiny

individual sections of a metal spinning disk. Each tiny section represents one bit.

A magnetised section represents a binary '1' and a demagnetised section

represents a binary '0'.

Hard Disk Drive:

It is a non-removable storage device containing

magnetic disks or platters rotating at high speeds.

The hard drives store data in segments of

concentric circles. It may spin at 5,400 to 15,000

RPM.

It consists of a spindle that holds non-magnetic flat circular disks, called platters,

which hold the recorded data. Each platter requires two read/write heads, that are

used to write and read information from a platter.

All the read/write heads are attached to a single access arm so that they cannot move

independently. Sectors Tracks

The information is recorded in bands; each band of information is called a track. Each

platter has the same number of tracks and a

track location that cuts across all platters is

called a cylinder. The tracks are divided into

pie-shaped sections known as sectors

Optical disk:

It is an electronic data storage medium that can be written to and read using a

low-powered laser beam.

• CD-ROM: "Read Only" (used for distribution of commercial software, for example)

Standard storage capacity is 640MB.

• CD-R (or CD-WORM): "Write Once, Read Many" times

• CD-RW: rewritable multiple times

• DVD: similar to CD, but with significantly larger storage capacity (4.7GB)

Write once read many (WORM) describes a data storage device in which information,

once written, cannot be modified

DVDs come in three varieties as follows

(i) DVD-ROM

(Digital Video Disc-Read Only Memory)

(ii) DVD-R (DVD-Recordable)

(iii) DVD-RW (DVD-Rewritable)

Blu-ray Disc

It is an optical disc storage medium designed to re-capture the data normally in

DVD format. Blu-ray disc (BD) contains 25 GB (23.31 GB) per layer space. The

name Blu-ray disc refers to the blue laser used to read the disc, which allows
 information to be stored at a greater density than the longer- wavelength red

laser used in DVDs. Blu-ray can hold almost 5 times more data than a single

layer DVD. The variations in the formats are as follows

(i) BD-ROM (Read only)

(ii) BD-R (Recordable)

(iii) BD-RW (Rewritable)

(iv) BD-RE (Rewritable)

Pen/ThumbDrive

Pen drive is also known as flash drive. A flash drive is a data storage device that

consists of flash memory (key memory) with a portable USB (Universal Serial

Bus) interface. USB flash drives are typically removable, rewritable and much

smaller than a floppy disk. Today, flash drives

are available in various storage capacities as

256MB, 512MB, 1GB, 4GB, 16GB upto 64 GB.

They are widely used as an easy and small

medium to transfer and store the information

from the computers

Floppy Disk: Floppy disk is composed of a thin, flexible

magnetic disk sealed in a square plastic carrier. Floppy disks

were widely used to distribute software, transfer files, and

create backup copies of data. To read and write data from a

floppy disk, a computer system must have a floppy disk drive (FDD).

Floppy disk is available in three sizes; 8 inch, 5 1/4 inch and 3 1/2 inch
Memory Cards

These are the data storage devices in a chip shaped which can store the data in

it. They are commonly used in many electronic devices, including digital cameras,

mobile phones, laptop computers. They are small, re-recordable, easily portable

and very light weighted.

Primary memory Secondary memory

The primary memory is categorized as The secondary memory is always a non-
volatile & nonvolatile memories. volatile memory.
These memories are also called internal Secondary memory is known as a Backup
memory. memory or Additional memory or Auxiliary
memory.
Data is directly accessed by the processing Data cannot be accessed directly by the
unit. processor. It is first copied from
secondary memory to primary memory.
It holds data or information that is currently It stores
Only thenaCPU
substantial amount
can access it. of data and
being used by the processing unit. Capacity information. Capacity is generally from
is usually in 16 to 32 GB 200GB to terabytes.
Primary memory can be accessed by the Secondary memory is accessed by I/O
data bus. channels.

Primary memory is costlier than secondary Secondary memory is cheaper than

memory. primary memory.
Semi-volatile memory:

A third category of memory is "semi-volatile". The term is used to describe a

memory which has some limited nonvolatile duration after power is removed, but

then data is ultimately lost. A typical goal when using a semi-volatile memory is

to provide high performance/durability/etc. associated with volatile memories,

while providing some benefits of a true non-volatile memory.

Magnetic Tape:Magnetic tape used in recording sound, pictures, or computer data.

Flash memory: a kind of memory that retains data in the absence of a power supply

Transfer rate The rate at which data is written to disc or read from disc is called data
transfer rate.

Root directory is the main folder of disc. It contains information about all folders on the
disc.
 Memory unit

Memory unit is the amount of data that can be stored in the storage unit. This
storage capacity is expressed in terms of Bytes.

Unit Description

Bit (Binary Digit) A binary digit is logical 0 and 1

representing a passive or an active
state of a component in an electric
Nibble A group of 4 bits is called nibble.
circuit.
Byte A group of 8 bits is called byte. A
byte is the smallest unit, which can
represent a data item or a
character.
Kilobyte (KB) 1 KB = 1024 Bytes
Megabyte (MB) 1 MB = 1024 KB

GigaByte (GB) 1 GB = 1024 MB

TeraByte (TB) 1 TB = 1024 GB

PetaByte (PB) 1 PB = 1024 TB
Exa Byte 1 EB = 1024 PB

Zetta Byte 1 ZB = 1024 EB

Yotta Byte 1 YB = 1024 ZB

 Questions

Q1. Where is data saved permanently?

a) Memory

b) Storage

c) CPU

d) Printer

Q2. The term ‘gigabyte’ refers to

a) 1024 byte

b) 1024 kilobyte

c) 1024 megabyte

d) None of these

Q3. A personal computer’s primary memory, commonly known as its main memory,

consists of?

a) RAM only

b) ROM only

c) Both RAM and ROM

d) Cache Memory
Q4. What are the two properties of RAM?

a) Volatile, Temporary

b) Non-volatile, Temporary

c) Non-volatile, Permanent

d) None of the above

Q5. Which of the following has the fastest speed in the computer memory hierarchy?

a) Cache

b) Register in CPU

c) Disk Cache

d) None of the above

Q6. Where is the buffer between the CPU and main memory located?

a) RAM

b) ROM

c) Cache

d) Storage

Q7. A byte is a collection of

a) four bits

b) six bits
c) eight bits

d) ten bits

Q8. Which form of memory allows for the permanent storage of programs and data

once they have been created?

a) EPROM

b) PROM

c) EEPROM

d) None of the above

Q9. How many different types of RAM are there?

a) 4

b) 3

c) 2

d) 6

Q10. ‘FDD’ stands for

a) Floppy Drive Detector

b) Floppy Drive Demodulator

c) Floppy Disk Drive

d) Floppy Demodulator Disc

Q11. The capacity of 3.5 inch floppy disk is

a) 1.40 MB

b) 1.44 GB

c) 1.40 GB

d) 1.44 MB

Q12. Tape drive provides ____________ access to data.

a) timely

b) sporadic

c) random

d) sequential

Q13. Cache memory acts between

a) CPU and RAM

b) RAM and ROM

c) CPU and hard disk

d) All of these

Q14. What is called the permanent memory built into your computer?

a) RAM

b) ROM
c) CPU

d) CD-ROM

Q15. How many types of memory does a computer have?

a) Four

b) Eight

c) One

d) Two

Q16. Which of the following is not a ROM?

a) PROM

b) EPROM

c) EEPROM

d) EDPROM

Q17. Which of the following computer’s memory is characterised by low cost per bit

stored?

a) primary

b) secondary

c) hard disk

d) All of these
Q18. The secondary storage devices can only store data but they cannot perform

a) arithmetic operations

b) logic operations

c) fetch operations

d) All of the above

Q19. Data on a floppy disk is recorded in rings called

a) sectors

b) ringers

c) rounders

d) tracks

Q20. Which of the following can hold maximum data?

a) Optical disc

b) Floppy disk

c) Magnetic disk

d) Magnetic tape