ELECTRONICS LAB MANUAL (VOLUME 2) (@) Voltage gai (B) Input resistance = = ccm (@) Output resistance = 0 (Bandwidth == (Slew rate=* Define input bias current J. Why does it exist in ‘op-amp? How isit compensated? Input bias current is defined as the average of the currents entering into the inverting and non. inverting terminals of an op-amp. Input bias current Te gy + Iyg/2, Where Ip, and Igy are the base bias currents of the op-amp. ‘The inverting and non-inverting terminals ofan op- amp are two base (gate) terminals ofthe transistors (FETS or MOSFETS) of a differential amplifier. In fan ideal op-amp no current flows through these terminals. However, a small amount of current flows through these terminals which is ofthe order of nA (ypically {80-500 nA) in bipolar op-amps and pA for FET op amps. ‘To compensate for bias currents, a compensating TESitOF Reagp 16 Used. ValUe Of Rigay i the parallel combination of the resistors connected to the inverting terminal Define input offset current. Input offset current is defined as the algebraic difference between the currents into the inverting and non-inverting terminals, Typical and maximum values of offset curtent are 20nA and 200 nA. Input offset current gly Define input offset voltage. Input offset voltage is defined as the voltage that ‘must be applied between the input terminals of an TaalELECTRONICS LAB MANUAL (VOLUME 2) op-amp to nullify the output voltage. Even if the input voltage to an op-amp is 2er0, output voltage may not be zero. This is because of the circuit imbalances inside the op-amp. In order to compensate this, a small voltage should be applied ‘between the input terminals ‘Whats CMRR? What is its significance? It is the ratio of differential mode gain to common, ‘mode gain, CMRR must be very high ideally. Op amp must provide high gain to difference of the inputs and zero gain to any signal that appears simultaneously at the inputs of the op-amp. IF CMRR {shigh, noise signals appearing at both inputs will be attenuated. How does the slew rate of an op-amp affect the frequency of operation? ‘An op-amp is required to have an infinite slew rate ideally. If the slew rate is finite, the op-amp may not follow the fast variations of the input signal, Dependingon the slew rate, there wil bea maximum frequency fg, for input above which the output will be distorted Maximum frequency is given by frye = (SR)10% (onv,) where SR is slew rate, V, is peak value of output. ‘Why is the input resistance ofthe op-amp toohigh? Input stage of op-amp is common emitter amplifier, Its input resistance is (1+ 6) where r, i the output resistance of current mirror circuit, which is of the order of several ki. So the input resistanceoofop.amp fs ofthe order of Ma. [Name a few high speed op-amps. 1LM318, HA2500 and LM310, Define unity gain frequency of op-amp. What is its typical value? Itis the frequency at which open loop gain decreasesELECTRONICS LAB MANUAL (VOLUME 2) tounity. Typical value for 741Cis 1 ME 10. What is the physical significance of an input offset current of 20 nA? ‘An input offset current of 20 nA implies that the current through the base of one input transistor is ‘more than the current through the base of other input transistorby 202A. 1.3 Basic Operational Amplifier Circuits Aim ‘To design and set up the following basic operational amplifier circuits. 1. Zero crossing detector 2 tnverting amplifier 3, Non-inverting amplifier 4. Voltage follower 5.Adder 6. Difference amplifier ‘Integrator 8. Differentiator Components and equipment required Op-amp, resistors, capacitor, de voltage source, signal ‘generator, breadboard, connecting wires and CRO. 1. Zero crossing detector (ZCD) It is a comparator that switches output between +V,,, and ~ V,q, when input crosses 2ero reference voltage. inverting ZCD circuit is shown in Figure 1.10. The output is driven into ~ Viqq When the input signal passes through zero to positive direction. Conversely, when input signal passes through zer0 to negative direction, the output switches to +Vjy- This circuit can be used to check whether the op-amp isin good conditionELECTRONICS LAB MANUAL (VOLUME 2) Figure 1.10 Zero crossing detector Procedure 1, Wire up the op-amp as zero crossing detector. 2. Apply @ 100 mY sine wave at the input and verify ‘whether the output isa square wave swinging from +13 Vto-13 V approximately (Figure 1.11), Figure 1.11 Waveforms and transfer characteristics of 20D. 2. Inverting amplifier ‘Thisis one of the most popular op-amp cicuits, The polarity of the input voltage gets inverted at the output, Ifa sine ‘wave is fed to the input ofthis amplifier, the output will be ‘an amplified sine wave with 180° phase shift (Figure 1.12) ‘The gain ofthe inverting amplifier is given by the expression A=-Ry/R, where, Ris the feedback resistance and R, is the input resistance. inverting amplifier can be used as a scaler because the amplitude ofthe output ean be varied by varying either of the resistors Ror Cireuit diagram and waveforms Figure 1.12 Circuit diagram and waveforms of averting amplifier.ELECTRONICS LAB MANUAL (VOLUME 2) Design Gain ofan inverting amplifier, Let the required gain be-10. ‘Then, Ry/R,~ 10. Take R,= 1 kA. Therefore, Ry= 10kA. a/R, Procedur Set up the inverting amplifieron the breadboard. 2. Apply a 2 V;, sine wave and observe the input and output waveforms simultaneously on CRO. Verify whether the output is 20 Vppsine wave with 180° out ofpphase with input. Vary the frequency of the input from Oto afew MHz, Note down the output voltage (Table 1.3). Draw the frequency response characteristics (Figure 1.13) Figure 1.13 Frequency response of inverting amplifier. Tabuler column 3. Non-inverting amplifier ‘This circuit provides a gain to the input signal without any change in polarity (Figure 1.14). The gain of the non- inverting amplifier is given by the expression A= 1 + Ry AR, where R; isthe feedback resistance and &, isthe input resistance. The input impedance of non-inverting amplifier[ 4. Voltage follower Doing a slight change in non-inverting amplifier circuit, voltage follower circuit (unity gain amplifier) can be set up. IF, = 0, expression forthe gain of non-inverting amplifier ‘becomes unity. The name voltage follower came from the fact that the output isthe replica of the input, Le, unity gain and no change in polarity (Figure 1.16). This circuit provides very high input impedance and very low output impedance. ‘This property is helpful to use voltage amplifier asa current booster and a buffer to connect a high impedance signal source ta low impedance load Circuit diagram and waveforms Figure 1.16 Creuit dlagram and waveforms of vltage follower. j= ELECTRONICS LAB MANUAL (VOLUME 2) Design Circuit isin non-inverting mode, Therefore, gain A = 1+ Ry! R. ‘Since gain is unity, By /R; should be zero. Therefore, is Procedure 1. Set up the voltage follower circuit on a breadboard, 2. Apply a 2 V,, sine wave and observe the input and output simultaneously on CRO. Verify whether the outputis 2V,, sine wave in phase with input. 5. Adder (Summing amplifier) ‘This circuit gives the sum of two input voltages. Refer tothe circuit diagram shown in Figure 1.17. Here an input voltage V, and a de voltage Vj are given as inputs to the adder ‘This is an inverting summing amplifier because the output qeanELECTRONICS LAB MANUAL (VOLUME 2) is the sum of inputs with a sign change. The minus sign in ‘the expression for the output ean be avoided ifnecessary, by inverting the output once again using a unity gain inverting amplifier. Output can be scaled by selecting the ratio 8 /R, If the ratio is greater than 1, the circuit will funetion as a summing amplifier because it provides gain also. Procedure 1. Setup the adder circuit on a breadboard, 2. Apply the inputs and verify the output. 6. Difference amplifier Cireuit diagram and waveforms ‘The working of difference amplifier can be explained using superposition theorem. The output of the circuit is V, when V, * 0. Output will be -V; when V; = 0. It means that the ‘output is V, - V, when both inputs are present (Figure 1.18). Circuit diagram and waveforms ‘Take Ry =R, = 10 kA for unity gain,ELECTRONICS LAB MANUAL (VOLUME 2) Figure 1.18 Cirul diogram and waveforms of diference amplifier Design: Analysis ofthe circuit gives that the expression for output is V; ~ V; with a condition that al resistors are of equal value, ‘Therefore, select the 10kA value resistors Procedure 1. Set up the difference amplifier. 2. Apply the inputs and verify the output. 7.Antegrator ‘This cireult performs the integration of the input waveform (Figure 1.19). The output voltage V, can be expressed as Neo-aol "where k is the constant of integration hich depends upon the value of V, at t= 0. The peak of the output waveform V, is given by the expression V, = VI/4RC, where Tis the time period of theinput square wave, Integrators are commonly used in analog computers and wave shaping networks, Gain and linearity of the output waveform are the two important advantages of ‘op-amp integrators over ordinary RCintegrators. Linearity of the waveform is achieved by the constant current through the capacitor, Due to the property of virtual ground, current ‘through the input resistance is constant due to constant potential drop across it. Current through the input resistor and capacitor isthe same. ‘Atlow frequencies ofthe input voltage, capacitor behaves at ‘an open circuit. Op-amp may saturate at low frequency even for a very low voltage at the input. This is because the open loop gain is very high. A high value feedback resistor R, is connected across the capacitor to prevent the op-amp from sing to saturation, When Ris connected, gain will decrease considerably at low frequencies, At higher frequenciesELECTRONICS LAB MANUAL (VOLUME 2) circuit behaves as an ordinary integrator. In other words, resistor Ry is effective at low frequencies and capacitor C is effective at high frequencies in the feedback path. Integratoriea frst order Low Pass Filter (LPF). It permite low frequencies to pass to output, Circuit diagrams Figure 1.19 integrator ceeuts, Design: Letinput frequency be 1 kHz. Weave, * LetC=0.01 uf, then R = 15,9 KO. Use 15 kas standard, Select R, [OR = 150 kA, so that break frequency ie 100 He. Figure 1.20 Input and output waveforms of integrator. Procedure 1, Setup the integrator circu. Apply 2 Vzp 1 ms square ‘wave atthe input and observe the input and output simultaneously on CRO. 2.Vary the de offset of the square wave input and ‘observe the difference in the output waveform, 3.Repeat the experiment by feeding triangular wave and sine wave atthe input and observe the output. 4. Apply a sine wave to the input and note down theELECTRONICS LAB MANUAL (VOLUME 2) output amplitude by varying the frequency of the sine wave. Enter it in the tabular column (Table 1.5) and plot the frequency response curve (Figure 1.21). Figure 1.21 Frequency response of integrator. Tabular column 8. Differentiator Ifthe input resistance ofthe inverting amplifier is replaced by a capacitor, it forms an inverting differentiator (Figure 41.22). The output of this circuit is the derivative of the input. Gain of the differentiator increases with increase in frequency which makes the circuit unstable. This is a drawback ofthis circuit. ‘The output voltage V, can be expressed as Differentiator functions as high pass filter. At high frequency, it becomes unstable and breaks into oscillation, Input impedance decreases with increase in frequency ‘which makes the circuit very susceptible to high frequency Both stability and high frequency noise problems are reduced significantly by the addition ofR, and C, Circuit diagramsELECTRONICS LAB MANUAL (VOLUME 2) = ? 20 Figure 1.22 Differentiator circuits Design: We have, T= 228,C ‘TakeT = imsand¢,+ 0.01 pF. ‘Then R,= 15.9 KO, Use 15 kias standard, Select T= RC,=,C,= 1/2nf, where fis thehighest frequency tobe differentiate. TakeC,=C,= 0.01 HE Procedure 1.Set up the differentiator cixcut. Apply 2 Vpp, 1 ms square wave atthe input and observe the input and ‘output simultaneously on CRO screen (Figure 1.23). Figure 1.25 Input and output wavelocms of eitferentiatr 2. Repeat the experiment by applying triangular wave or sine wave atthe input and observe the output. Apply a sine wave to the input and note down the ‘output amplitude by varying the frequency of the sine wave, Enter it in the tabular column (Table 1.6) and plot the frequency response curve (Figure 1.24).ELECTRONICS LAB MANUAL (VOLUME 2) Figure 1.24 Frequency response of diferentistor. Tabular column Result Various basic op-amp circuits were set up and their working verified. Their waveforms were observed, Examination questions (with answers) 1. Set up a non-inverting summer and non-inverting Integrator. 2.Set up a single op-amp circuit to obtain V, BV, +4V, +55. ‘The circuit in the previous question with suitable resistor values will give the required expression. > 2.Obtain the following waveform from a square Design of integrator to obtain the required waveform: Peak of the triangular wave V; is given by theELECTRONICS LAB MANUAL (VOLUME 2) expression where V is amplitude and T is time period of the square wave, Let Vbe 10. Substituting, we get, = 10k and C= 0.1 uF obtain the following transfer characteristics. 1m order to obtain the characteristics shown left, set ‘up a non-inverting amplifier with gain of 12. Apply 2 Vp sine wave input and observe the transfer characteristics For the other characteristics, set up an inverting amplifier with gain of -12. Apply a 2 Vpp sine wave input and observe the transfer characteristics, Obtain afigure of circle on the CRO screen. Differentiate or integrate a sine wave and cbserve its wansfer characteristics obtain the following transfer characteristics. (As an exercise interchange the inputs and observe the change inthe transfer characteristics) Obtain the following waveform. ‘To obtain this waveform, set up a differentiator and apply a square wavetoits input. Apply the input and output to a summer. All circuits should be in non: inverting mode with unity gain. Adjust the voltages so that the final output amplitude is less than the output saturation voltage. Try with an integratorELECTRONICS LAB MANUAL (VOLUME 2) instead of differentiator. Viva voce questions (with answers) 1.What are the merits of op-amp integrator compared to passive RC integrator? Op-amp integrator provides gain and linear output waveform, 2. Why the op-amp integrator output is linear? Current through the capacitor is always constant, ‘Therefore, the slope of charging of capacitor 1/Cis 8 constant. 3. Explain half power frequencies with respect to integrators and differentiators. The frequency at which gain reduces to 1/2 of the ‘maximum value is called cut-off frequency or 3 dB frequency because the power at the output at this frequency is half of the maximum power. 4. How a voltage follower functions as an impedance matching circuit? Voltage follower possess the required qualities of impedance matching circuit such as high input impedance, low output impedance and unity voltage sain Viva voce questions 1. Set up acecuitto find the average of three inputs. 2.Set up an op-amp circuit to obtain the output (V, + VW, Ve 3. Experimentally find out the input impedance of the {inverting and non-inverting amplifiers, 4. Experimentally find out the output impedance of theELECTRONICS LAB MANUAL (VOLUME 2) inverting and non-inverting amplifiers. 5. Draw and explain the block diagram of an op-amp. 6. Why integrators are preferred over differentitors in analog computers? 7. Find out input/output impedance of inverting/non- inverting amplifiers. 1.4 Schmitt Trigger Aim ‘To design and set up a Schmitt trigger circuit using op- amp for various Lower Threshold Point (LTP) and Upper ‘Threshold Point (UTP), Components and equipment required Op-amp, resistors, diodes, de voltage source, signal ‘generator, breadboard, connecting wires and CRO. Theory ‘Schmitt trigger isa comparator and itis known as squaring circuit because itconverts an irregular shaped waveform toa ‘square wave. The output voltage changes its state every time ‘when input voltage crosses the threshold levels. The input voltage at which output switches from +Vj, t0 Vx 8 called the upper triggering point (or upper threshold point, UTP). ‘The input voltage at which output switches from -Vjy 9 + Vs 8 called lower triggering point (or lower threshold point, uP) ‘These threshold voltages are obtained by the voltage divider R, ~R,. Suppose the output voltage is +V 4, Now the voltage across Ry is Vinp = *Viyy/(R, + R,)- When the input voltage exceeds the voltage across the resistor R,, output 00S to-V- Now the voltage across Ris Vizp = —VauRa/(Ry + R,). When the input voltage goes lower than this voltage, ‘output goes t0 Vix. ProcedureTieaeue=y) ELECTRONICS LAB MANUAL (VOLUME 2) aeoa Normally, *Vyg.* #13 V, when +V = +15 V 1 Verify whether the op-amp IC is in good condition. (This can be done by wiring it as ZCD or voltage follower. If analog IC tester is available, make use of io. 2. Set up circuits one by one, Observe the input and output on the CRO sereen, 23. Observe the transfer characteristics Waveforms and transfer choractristics YN A te > ‘Take R, = 3.3 RO. Then we get R, = 11 RO. Use 10 kM as standard. ‘Schmitt trigger for LTP =-3 V and UTP Figure 1.26 ‘Schmitt trigger for LTP = 2.V and UTP. Figure 1.25 Design: Let LTP be-3 Vanda UTPbe +3 VELECTRONICS LAB MANUAL (VOLUME 2) Figure 1.27 Figure 1.28 Waveforms and hysterss curve Design: Given, LTP = 2 V and UTP = 3V. ‘Schmitt trigger for LTP =-2 V and UTP = +3 V without Useareference voltage source .,tomakethepolarityefLTP using a reference voltage source and UTP same. = > Normally, +V,.,* +13, when +V = +15 . vena ath 4 fat taney Tet | an Solving these equations with R, = 1k and, = 22k, we get Veer" 25 V. Waveforms and transfer characteristicsELECTRONICS LAB MANUAL (VOLUME 2) reference voltage source ‘Take R, «3.3 kO and Ry, « 15 KO. Solving the equations, we get, 10R, » 38-80, R=" 10 KA. Waveforms and Transfer characteristics Solving these equations with R, = 1 kM and R, = 15 kA, we et, Voge? “5.55 ¥. Figure 1.30 Waveforms and hysterisis curve beh ei laciaee! Schmitt trigger for LT = 6 Vand UTP = -4 V using 2[=] A= 7 Figure 1.32 waveforms and hysterss curve Result ‘Schmitt trigger circuits with various UTP and LTP were set ‘upand their functioning verified. Viva voce questions (with answers) 1. What is hysteresis? Hysteresis is the difference between UTP and LTP voltages. 2. Explain one typical application of Schmitt trigger. ELECTRONICS LAB MANUAL (VOLUME 2) It is used in the front end of a digital frequency counter to count the frequency of a periodic analog ‘waveform. Schmitt trigger converts the periodic analog waveform into a square wave. Using a digital cicuit, the frequency of the square wave is measured, 1.5 Astable Multivibrator Aim ‘To design and set up an astable multivibrator using op-amp fora frequency of oscillation of 1 kHz. Components and equipment required Op-amp, diodes, zener diodes, resistors, capacitors, de voltage source, signal generator, breadboard, connecting ‘wires and CRO. Theory qeanELECTRONICS LAB MANUAL (VOLUME 2) stable multvibrator is capable of producing square wave for a given frequency, amplitude and duty cycle, The output ff the op-amp is forced to swing repetitively between positive saturation +V, and negative saturation Vg. resulting in a square wave output. Ths cireuitis also called {fre running multivibrator or square wave generator. The ‘output of the op-amp is in postive saturation if diferential ‘input voltage is negative and vice versa, The differential voltage v, = V,—V,y, where isthe feedback factor and fV a, {is the potential at non-inverting terminal ofthe op-amp. ‘The circuit of astable multivibrater shown in Figure 1.33 is designed to generate a square wave of 50% duty cycle, Consider the instant at which V, = *Vige Now the capacitor charges exponentially towards +V,,, through R. ‘Automatically v, increases and crosses zero, This happens when V, = +BV;,q The moment v, becomes positive due to further charging of the capacitor, output changes to ~ Viae Now capacitor starts discharging to zero and recharges towards -V,,. Now ¥, decreases and crosses zero, This ‘happens when V, = BV. The moment v, becomes negative ‘again, output changes to +V,. This completes one cycle. amc th ‘The time period T of the square wave is iF, where %*¥.1fpismade1/2, 7» 2.28. ‘Astable multivibrator is particularly useful for the generation of square wave of frequency in the audio frequency range. Higher frequencies ae limited by the delay time and slew rate ofthe op-amp. Circuit diagram FenELECTRONICS LAB MANUAL (VOLUME 2) Figure 1.33 Astable multvibeator, Design: Required period of oscillation T = 1 ms with duty cycle 50%. ‘Time period |" ‘Take f= 0.5 and R, Figure 1.36 ‘When f= 0.5,» 2.2RC, Let Cbe0.1 uF. Then» 4.7 KO, ‘Astable multivibrator with duty cycle other thon 50%: Astable ‘multivibrator with different time period for high and low ee! levels of voltage can be set up modifying the cicuitas shown > in Figure 1.35. During postive saturation at output, diode D, does not conduct and capacitor charges through the resistor R,and diode D,. Similarly, uring negative saturation, diode ‘D, does not conduct and the capacitor charges through the resistor R, and diode D, 1 Verify whether the op-amp is in good condition by wiring tas ZCD or voltage follower. 2.Set up the astable multivibrator and observe the waveformsat pin 6 and 2 of ‘op-amp on CRO and note down their amplitude and frequency. WaveformsELECTRONICS LAB MANUAL (VOLUME 2) She a ema Mee, Figure 1.35 Astable multivibrator with duty cele of 1/5 and its waeFoers. Design: We need 1 kHz frequency and 1/3 duty cycle. ‘Astable multivibrator with asymmetrical amplitude: The amplitude can be adjusted by varyingthe *V and-V supplies, but the duty cycle may not remain at 50%. Therefore, circuit shown in Figure 1.36 isused. Thecircuit assembly consisting of resistor R,, zener diodes D, and D, functions as a voltage clipper. When the output of the astable multivibrator is at positive saturation, output is limited at 5.6 V + 0.6 V since zener diode D, breaks into conduction. When the output of ‘the multivibrator is at negative saturation, output is limited at-9.1V + 0.6 V since zener diode D, breaks into conduction, Figure 1.36 astable multvbrator with amplitude ‘ing from 2.7 V to 6.2. ResultELECTRONICS LAB MANUAL (VOLUME 2) Astable multvibrator circuit for outputs of different amplitudes, frequency and duty cycle were set up and their functioning verified. Examination question (with answer) Generate square wave with following specification: frequency 2 kit, duty cycle = 1/4 and voltage swing from +45 Vt0-45V. Use the combination of the above circuits, Use two 5.1 V zener diodes, Viva voce question (with answer) Derive the expression for the time period of astable output ‘waveform. General expression for capacitor voltage is given by Vor Yo) + M0) Wen ‘where V(0) and V(=) are intial and final values of voltage respectively. From the capacitor waveform, we get vo) ‘Substituting these values in the expression for capacitor voltage, we get = BV att = 1/2 BV ys Wes) = Vn, AN Ve BV ag" Vag * Vg Ved CE Aim ‘To design and set up a monostable multivibrator using op: amp fora pulse-width of 1 ms. Components and equipment required ‘Op-amp, diode, resistors, capacitors, de voltage source signal generator, breadboard, connecting wires and CRO.ELECTRONICS LAB MANUAL (VOLUME 2) Theory -Monostable multivibratorie used as apulse generator (Figure 137) It has a stable state and a quasi-stable state. The circuit remains in stable state until triggering signal causes 1 transition to quasi-stable state, After a time interval, it retums to the stable state and a single pulse is generated ‘when a trigger is applied. Consider the instant at which the output V, = Vy Now the diode D, clamps the capacitor voltage Vc at 0.7 \, Feedback voltage available at non-inverting terminal is *BViqy When the negative going trigger is applied such that the potential at non-inverting terminal becomes less than 0.7 V, the output switches to -V,,.. Now the capacitor charges through R towards -V,, because the diode becomes reverse biased. When the capacitor voltage becomes more negative than -AV,,y the comparator switches back to *Vx, and capacitor C starts charging to +V,q, through R until Ve reaches 0.7 V and C becomes clamped to 0.7 V. The pulse ‘width is given by "8 approximately. 1f f= 05, T = 0.69RC. The time period of the trigger must be larger than the output pulse-width T: The circuit does not respond to a trigger that appears before the specified ‘output pulse-width and hence itis called non-retriggerable monoshot Circuit diagram Figure 1.37 Monostable multiibrator Design: We have, TB. Let 6 be0.5.Then T= 0.6980ELECTRONICS LAB MANUAL (VOLUME 2) ‘Take T= 1msand C= 0.1 pF. Then R= 14.5 KO. Use 15 kAvas standard. Since =R,/(R, +R,),R, = R,* 100. For the differentiating circuit, RC, << 0.0167, ‘Trigger time period should be greater than output pulse- ‘width ofthe multivibrator. Take trigger time period: and, 0.01 uF, then R, = 8.29. Procedure 1. Verify whether the op-amp is in good condition by Wiring tas 2CD or voltage follower. 2.Set up the monostable multvibrator and apply 20 ‘Vjp» 200 Hz square wave atthe trigger input 3. Observe the waveforms at pins numbered 6 and 2 of op-amp and note down its amplitude and frequency. Waveforms Figure1.38 Result ‘A monostable multivibrator was set up and its functioning ‘was verified. Viva voce questions (with answers) 1.What are the applications of a monostable multivibrator? ‘Thiscircuitcan be used to trigger SCRorto generates single pulse fora specified time periodELECTRONICS LAB MANUAL (VOLUME 2) 2. Derive the expression forthe time period of quasi stable state of monostable multivibrator. General expression for capacitor voltages given by Ve= Meo) + 1Mo)-venewte From the apacitor waveform, we get 10) =0, Vo) Substituting these values in the expression for Vg Dd Ve" BV gat t= capacitor voltage, we get “Hae Hence, 7 « ReIn 1/018) Vagg* (04 Vee 7 1.7 Half Wave Rectifier Using Op-amp Aim ‘To set up and seudy a half wave rectifier using op-amp. Components and equipment required p-amp, diode, resistors, de voltage source, signal generator, breadboard, connecting wires and CRO, Theory ‘An inverting voltage follower can be converted into an ideal half wave rectifier by adding two diodes as shown in Figure 1.39, When Vis positive, V, Becomes negative and the diode _D, gets forward biased. At this moment, diode D, is reverse biased, When V; becomes negative, V, becomes positive and diode D, gets forward biased. Ifa sinusoidal wave is applied at V, positive going ripples appear at output point V, and negative going ripples appear at output point V, ‘Op-amp rectifier is also called precision rectifier because it is able to rectify very low amplitude signals. Ordinary diode rectifiers need minimum input voltage of the order of cut in voltage ofthe diode. Op-amp rectifiers also provide gain, ‘circuit diagramELECTRONICS LAB MANUAL (VOLUME 2) Figure 1.39 Half wave rectifer. Procedure 1. Verify whether the op-amp is in good condition by wiring tas 2CD or voltage follower. 2. Set up half wave rectifier and apply 100 mVyp sine waveat the input 3. Observe the negative going and positive going half cyeles atthe outputs V, and V, (Figure 1.40) Waveforms Figure 1.40 Negative going and positive going half cycles. Result ‘Atal wave rectifier was setup and its functioning verified. Examination question (with answer) Set up anon-inverting half wave rectifier. 1.8 Full Wave Rectifier Using Op-ampELECTRONICS LAB MANUAL (VOLUME 2) Aim ‘To sot up and study full wave rectifier using op-amp. Components and equipment required Op-amp, diodes, resistors, de voltage source, signal generator, breadboard, connecting wires and CRO. Theory ‘A full wave rectifier circuits also called absolute value circuit. Refer tothe circuit diagram shown in Figure 1.41. Amplifier ‘A, works as an inverting amplifier always and A, works in ‘two modes depending upon the polarity of input voltage; one {in inverting mode and other in the non-inverting mode. ‘When V; is positive, diode D, conducts and diode D, does not conduct. Both amplifies are functioning in inverting ‘mode. When V, becomes negative, D, does not conduct and D, conducts. The equivalent circuit diagram will show ‘that A, works as inverting amplifier and A, works as non: inverting amplifier. So irrespective of the polarity of input voltage, output V, turns tobe positive always, The limitation of this circuits that it does not have high input impedance. Circuit diagram Figure 1.41 Full wave rectifier. Procedure 1. Verify whether the op-amp is in good condition by wiring itas 20D or voltage follower. 2. Setup the full wave rectifier and apply 100 Vy sine ‘wave tthe input. 3.Observe the input and output waveformsELECTRONICS LAB MANUAL (VOLUME 2) simultaneously on CRO sereen (Figure 1.42) Waveforms laascen, Figure 1.42 input and output waveforms of fll wave ectife. Result ‘A full wave rectifier was et up and its functioning verified. 1.9 Triangular Wave Generator im ‘To set up and study a triangular waveform generator using cop-amp for 1 itz frequency. Components and equipment required Op-amp, capacitor, resistors, de voltage source, signal ‘generator, breadboard, connecting wires and CRO. Theory ‘This circuit uses two operational amplifiers. Op-amp A, functions as a comparator and the op-amp A, as an integrator. Comparator compares the voltage at point P continuously with respect to the voltage at the inverting input; which is at ground potential. When the voltage at P goes slightly below zero, the output of A, will switch to negative saturation, ‘Suppose that the output of A, isat positive saturation * Vx, ‘Since this voltages the input ofthe integrator, the output of ‘A, is anegative going ramp (Figure 1.43) Thusone end of the voltage divider R,~R iat +V,, and the other atthe negative ‘going ramp. at time f= ¢,, when the negative going ramp attains value of -Vesnp the effective voltage at point P becomes slightly less than (0 V. This switches output of 4, from positive saturation toELECTRONICS LAB MANUAL (VOLUME 2) negative saturation level -V,.. During the time when the output of A, is at-V,. the output ofA; increases in positive direction. At the instant ¢= t,,the voltage at point P becomes just above 0 V, thereby switching the output of A, from ~ Vig tO Vag The cycle repeats and generates a triangular ‘waveform ‘The frequency of triangular waveform is given by ether of the following expressions. Peak to peakamplitude ofthe ramp voltage is. ‘Triangular waveform can also be generated by integrating the output of symmetrical square wave generated by an stable multivibrator Gireit diagram = lig: teste mae ap pt ta Yay = 2 Let V, 9p be 5 Vand Vi = 13.V ‘Assume, R, = 1k9. Then R, = 180.0. Also, take C= 0.1 uh ‘Substituting these values, we get R, = 13 kO, Use 12 kas standard, Procedure 1. Verify whether the op-amp isin good condition bywiring tas 2CD or voltage follower. 2, Setup the triangular wave generator and observe the waveforms at V,, and V,y. Vary the values of R, Ry and R, and observe the variation in the frequency of the waveform. Waveforms Figure 1.44 Result ‘A triangular wave generator was set up and its functioning verified. ELECTRONICS LAB MANUAL (VOLUME 2) Viva voce questions (with answers) 1. Derive the expression forthe frequency. ‘Assume that the comparator output is +V,,.. Then the voltage atthe point P is Vjq,Rg/R;, During this ‘time, integrator output steadily falls, When the ramp voltage at point P equals with Vx, Ry/R,, comparator ‘switches to opposite saturation level > BUgy where f= 2, Peak to peak amplitude ofELECTRONICS LAB MANUAL (VOLUME 2) ramp voltage V, yy = 2VjqRy/R,. The expression for the integrator outputis "~~! "rime taken to swing fF0M Vay t® Ven when input is-Vjyi6 7/2 Substituting, “~~ REI” "=~ ake Fromthis, | Substituting the value of Vp in the above equation, weg, ‘Therefore, 7 oS 2. Derive aan General expression for capacitor voltage is given by Ve = Wo) + 1V(0) ~ V(elle “, From the capacitor waveform, we get ve) ‘amg We) = Vee aR Ve = *V gay 88 = 1/2 Substituting these values in the expression for capacitor voltage, we get Mame Vie Vag Vee sence, 206 tn ‘Therefore, % 1.10 Sawtooth Wave Generator Using Op-amp aim Design and set up a sawtooth wave generator using op-amp fora frequency of 1 kz ‘Components and equipment required ‘Op-amp, potentiometer, capacitor, resistors, de voltageELECTRONICS LAB MANUAL (VOLUME 2) source, breadboard, connecting wires and CRO. Theory ‘The difference between the triangular and sawtooth ‘waveform is that the rise time of the triangular wave is equal to its fall time while in sawtooth wave generator, rise time may be much larger than its fall time, or vice versa, The triangular wave generator can be converted into «sawtooth wave generator by applying a variable de voltage into the non-inverting terminal of the integrator. This ean bbe done by using a potentiometer as shown in Figure 1.45. When the wiper of the potentiometer is at the centre, the output is a triangular wave since the duty cycle is 50%. If the wiper moves towards -V, the rise time of the sawtooth ‘wave becomes longer than the fall time. Ifthe wiper moves towards +V, the fall time becomes more than the rise time, Reason for increasing the rise time of the triangular wave ‘when the wiper of the potentiometer moves towards ~ Vis the following. Consider when the comparator output is at negative saturation. When variable terminal of potentiometer R, moves to negative supply, a negative voltage is added to the inverting terminal. This causes the potential difference across the resistor R, to decrease and hence the current through the resistor and capacitor decreases. Then slope of the output, 1/C decreases and in ‘tur, rise time increases. When the comparator output goes positive, due to the presence of negative voltage at the inverting terminal, potential difference across the resistor R, increases and hence current increases. Then slope increases ‘and fall time decreases, Sawtooth waveform can also be generated by an asymmetrical (duty cycle much smaller or much larger than 50%) astable multivibrator followed by an integrator. The sawtooth wave generators have wide applications in time- base generators and pulse-width modulation circuits. Circuit diagramELECTRONICS LAB MANUAL (VOLUME 2) Procedure 4.Set up the circuit after testing the components Observe the output waveform and note down the rise ‘ime and fll time, Figure 1.45 Sawtooth wave generator 2.Move the wiper of the potentiometer in both Design directions and observe the changes taking place in a, the waveforms t= ggg - 1m Frequency |” Hl Waveforms > Peak to peak output of ramp wave, Let Vyppbe5 Vand Vy." 13V ‘Take Ry = 1kO. Then , = 180.0. Also, take C= 0.1 uF Substituting these values, we ge, R, * 13 kA. Use 12 kA as standard. Select R, 7 ka inesr potentiometerELECTRONICS LAB MANUAL (VOLUME 2) R,£ TOand CR, > 107. ‘Taking diode forward resistance R,= 300, we get,c=1yr Result and, = 10k0. ‘An amplitude peak detector was set up and its functioning verified, Procedure 1.17 Instrumentation Amplifier 1. Verify whether the op-amp isin good condition and setup the circuit Aim 2. Apply 8 2 Vpp square wave at the input and observe To design and set up an instrumentation amplifier using ‘the output waveform. three op-amps. WaveformELECTRONICS LAB MANUAL (VOLUME 2) amplifiers provide very high input impedance which is essential for an instrumentation amplifier. Amplifier A, isa Op-amp, potentiometer, resistors, de voltage source, standard differential amplifier. The potentiometer R, is used breadboard, connecting wires and CRO. to vary gain of the instrumentation amplifier. Components and equipment required ‘Theory Circuit diagram Instrumentation amplifiers are widely used in data acquisition systems, remote sensing applications and instrumentation systems to measure temperature, ‘humidity, light intensity, weight, ete (Pigure 1.61), Most of the instrumentation systems use a transducer in a bridge circuit and the transducer output should be amplified Instrumentation amplifier facilitates the amplification of 5 potential difference taking place due to the imbalance of a bridge circuit proportional toa change in physical quantity. ‘The main features of instrumentation amplifies are high Design: We have, ain, high input resistance, low ousput impedance, high oo (CMR, ete ce ‘The amplifiers A, and A, are input buffer amplifies. These Figure 1.61 Instrumentation amplifier.ELECTRONICS LAB MANUAL (VOLUME 2) {k0. Usea linear potentiometer to vary the gain. Take, ‘Therefore, = 2500. Use 220 kf. as standard Take, Ry = 3.3 KO, 5 Tie, = B= Procedure 1.Set up the cireuit and apply V, = 0.5 V de and V, = 0.4 V de. Measure output voltage on CRO or using ‘multimeter, This is the difference mode gain Ay 2. Apply V, = V; = 0.5 V and observe the gain. This is common mode gain A,. 43. Calculate CMRRusing the elation CMRR = 20 0g(4,/ AD. Result Difference mode gain A, common mode gain A, cMRR = 1.18 Logarithmic Amplifier im ‘To design and set up a log amplifer and to plot its input ‘versus output characteristics, Components and equipment required Ic 741, LEDs, potentiometers, resistors, de power sources; ‘breadboard, connecting wires and CRO. Theory ‘A log amplifier is an amplifier for which the output voltageELECTRONICS LAB MANUAL (VOLUME 2) a ORR ‘where Vy is the base-emitter potential of transistor and Vp is the potential across Ry ‘Take Voc 15, V_p=10V and, = 10KA. Then R, = $k. Use 4.7 ka. Let fc be 1 mA, Substituting in Eq (1.4), we get R= 4:3 KO, Use 4.7 ko. Prom Eq.(1.3),C = 0.2 UF Use 0.22 HF as standard, ‘Take C, = 0.001 yF to ground the noisein the control pin 5. Procedure 1. Setup the circuit and apply the input trigger having 10V peakto peak square wave 2. Observe the output waveform (Figure 1.112). Waveforms alee Figure 1.113 Output waveform. Result ‘A saw-tooth generator using IC 555 was set up and its functioning verified 1.34 Examination Questions 1. Determine offset voltage, slew rate and bias current of the given op.amp experimentally. 2. Set up an instrumentation amplifier using three op:4 s. ELECTRONICS LAB MANUAL (VOLUME 2) amps for again of 1000 and find its CMRR Set up a Wien bridge oscillator using op-amp for fa frequency of 500 Hz. The amplitude should be varlable continuously upto 10. Design and set up a4-bit 82 ladder DAC and obtain ‘the outputs for inputs 0101 and 1010. Set up a 4-bit counter ramp ADC and measure the outputs for 1 V, 2 V and 3 V inputs. Determine its resolution Design a band pass filter using gyrator for Q= 10 and bandwidth = 500 He, Design a Schmitt trigger in inverting mode for UTP = 4Vand LTP =-2, Generate triangular waveform of5 Vamplitude and 1750 He frequency. Generate sawtooth wave fora sweep amplitude of 6 Vand sweep duration of 2ms 10. 2 a 15, 16 W. 18 Using IC 723, design a regulator for V, = 100mA. 1oVandl, UsingIC 725, design a regulator to get V, = 6Vand1, = 150 mA. Provide foldback protection Designa cireuttodetecta signal when its amplitude is between 2 Vand 4¥. Design a monostable multivibretor using op-amp fora pulse-width of 1.5 ms, Design a second order band pass filter for a centre frequency of 3 kHz and bandwidth of 100 Hz Set up a circuit to obtain the modulus of the input signal. Design a 2-bit flash type ADC and verify its output for inputs 1 Vand 1.5 V. Design a second order narrow band elimination filter fora centre frequency of 5 kHizand Q factor «15. Design a rectifier to rectify an input signal of 1001s. 20 a 22, 23, 24 25, 26 ELECTRONICS LAB MANUAL (VOLUME 2) mV and frequency 1 kHz Design an astable multivibrator to get +5 V output with 7, * 2msand 7, « 1.6ms. Design a band stop filter using gyrator filter. Design and set up a6 V regulator using IC 723 with short-circuit current of 60 mA. Design and set up a circuit to generate two sine ‘waves at 1 iz with 90° phase shift between them. Design and set up a voltage regulator with foldback protection forthe following specifications; V, = 12V, 00mA andl, ty =50ma. Design and set up a cizcult to generate 500 He, 5 V unipolar sawtooth waveform. Design and set up a circuit which tums on an LED ‘when the inputis between, 1s Vand 3, Design a circuit to convert a square wave of 1 kHz 27, 28, 29, 30, 31 32. with 2 duty ratio of 5096 into a rectangular wave witha duty ratio of 30%, Design and set up an instrumentation amplifier ‘whose gain can be linearly varied from 1 to 100. ‘Minimum CMRR should be 90 dB, Design and set up a second order inverting Butterworth low pass filter for a cut off frequency of 1 kHz and Q = 10. Find the rol off rate from the frequency response. Design and setup an instrumentation amplifier fora gainof 20, Set up a circuit which gives an indication that the {input is within the range 4 V0 6V. Design a 10 V regulator using IC 723 for 500 mA. output current Design and set up a one-shot multivibrator using 741 op-amp whose output will deliver a postive pulse lasting for 1 ms with recovery time less than3 34 35, a6. 31, 38. 29, 40. a 42. ELECTRONICS LAB MANUAL (VOLUME 2) about 0.1 ms. Design and set up an op-amp circuit to find average oftwo de voltages V, and V, Design and set up a 3-bit R-2R ladder DAC. Design and set up afiltergyrator for 1 kHz, Design and set up a2-bit flash ADC. Design and set up an instrumentation amplifier for gainof 10, Design and set up a voltage regulator for an output of Vata. Design and set up a triangular waveform generator for Skis Design an LPF with f, = 2 kHz and gain of 5. Obtain the frequency response and bandwidth (40 aB/decade) Obtain the following output, V,=2V, + 3V, + 4V, Generate triangular waveform of frequency 3 kHz. 43, Generate a waveform described by the expression ¥ = 6 sin 188408 Design and set up a circuit to detect the window 2.V 1035. 45, 46, Design and set up a4-bit counter ramp ADC. Design and set up an active high pass filter withthe following specifications. Cutoff frequency = 5 kis, rolloffrate = +12 dB/octave. Design and set up an active BPF using low pass and high pass filter. Bandwidth: 1 kHz and center frequency = 15 kHz, Design an op-amp difference amplifier to provide a differential mode gain of 100 and measure its common mode rejection ratio. 47 48, 49, Generate a waveform described by the expression Z = 9 sin 18840. 50. Design and set up a circuit to detect the window 2 V t03¥.53, 54 55, 56. se 58. 60, ELECTRONICS LAB MANUAL (VOLUME 2) Design and set up a3-bit counter ramp ADC. obtain Design an LPF with f, = 2 kHz and gain the frequency response and bandwidth (40 €B/ decade). Obtain the following output, V,=0.5V, + V, + 3V. Generate a triangular waveform of frequency 1 kHz. Design and set up a square wave generator of duty ratio, 0.35, Simulate a 0.5 mH inductor using operational amplifiers. Generate a sine wave of 2 kHz where the amplitude is continuously varying between 1vt012¥, Design and set up an instrumentation amplifier fora gainof 15, Design and set up a voltage regulator with 15 V at 150mA. Generate triangular waveform of frequency 2 kHz. 61. Design and set up a voltage regulator with foldback short cireuit protection using 1€ 723, Output voltage = +12. Design and set up a circuit to obtain a pulse of width oft ms, 62, (63, Design and set up a Schmit trigger circuit in non: inverting mode for UTP » SV,LTP=2V. (64. Design and set up a 5 V voltage regulator using IC 1723, Provide short citeuit protection, 65, 66, Obtain the following output, V, = 2V, + AV, + 6V, Design and setupa square wave generator for aduty. ratio of 0.75. Simulate 1 mH induetor using op-amp. Generate a sine wave for 3 kite where the amplitude is continuously varying between 1 Vto 8. Design and setup an instrumentation amplifier fora gain of 12 or 668 69,ELECTRONICS LAB MANUAL (VOLUME 2) Design and set up a voltage regulator with 13 V at 150mA, Generate a triangular waveform of frequency 0.5 tt, Design and set up a3-bit R-2R adder DAC. Design and set up after gyrator for 1 KE Design and set up a2-bit lash ADC. Design and set up an instrumentation amplifier for gainof 10, n n. B. 4. 15, 76. Design and set up a voltage regulator with 12 V at 100™mA. Generate a sine wave for 3 kHz where the amplitude {s continuously varying between 1 Vto 10 V. Design and set up an active BPF using low pass and hhigh pass filters. Required bandwidth = 1 kHz and center frequency = 10 kHz 79, Design an op-amp difference amplifier to provide a differential mode gain of, 7, 78. to. 1. 12, 13, 120 and measure its common mode rejection ratio, 1.35 Viva Voce Questions Define conversion time applied toa data converter. Define resolution ofa data converter Define accuracy of a data converter. ‘Whats settling time? ‘What is meantby linearity applied to ADC? ‘What isa sample and hold circuit? Where it is used? State the ideal characteristics of op-amp. > Draw the internal block diagram of op-amp IC ‘What is the purpose of level shifter in opamp internal circuit? ‘what causes slew rate? whatis input bias current? Why do we Use Rgggp FE5stO%? ‘Why is IC 741 op-amp not used for high frequency14. 15. 16 17 18 18. 20, a 22, 23, 24, ELECTRONICS LAB MANUAL (VOLUME 2) applications? How do you differentiate between linesr and digital ies? How does an op-amp integrator provide linear output wave? ‘What isthe integrating type data converter? Mention a few applications of monostable multivibrator ‘Why is differential amplifier used as an input stage of op-amp? ‘Mention some of the non-linear applications of op- amps. ‘Whatis the need for an instrumentation amplifier? List afew applications oflog amplifier. ‘what are the imitations of the basic differentiator Mention any two audio frequency oscillators. ‘What isa precision rectifier?ELECTRONICS LAB MANUAL (VOLUME 2) fold rise in frequency. dB/octave is the change in 4B for a two fold rise in frequency. For instance, ~ 20 dBdecade means that the gain falls by 20 a8 when frequency increases from 10 kHz to 100 KH, 20 aBldecade is equivalent to 6 dB/octave. -6 dB/ octave means a decrease in gain by 6 4Bif frequency Increases from 2 kHzto 4 kHz What are the advantages of active filters over passive filters? In active filters, inductances which are bulky can be eliminated, Also they provide gain, ‘Whatis frequency scaling? It is the process of converting the original cut off frequency to a new value by changing the values of resistances by multiplying or dividing by a factor instead of redesigning the circuit. Viva voce questions 1. Whatis the damping coefficient? How is itrelated to the quality factor? 2.What are the values of damping coeficient of Chebyshev filter, Butterworth filter and Bessel filter? 2.31 Second-order Low Pass Filter Aim ‘To design and set up a second-order low-pass Butterworth filter fora higher cutoff frequency of 1 kHz. Components and equipment required ‘Op-amp, resistors, capacitors, dual de source or two de sources, signal generator, breadboard, connecting wires and CRO, Theory ‘The roll off rate of the second-order filer is 40 dB/decade.ELECTRONICS LAB MANUAL (VOLUME 2) A first-order low pass filter can be converted into a second- order type simply by using an additional RC network. The again of the second-order filter is set by R, and &,, while the higher cut off frequency f, is determined by R,,C,,Ry, and as given by the expression Refer to the circuit diagram shown in Figure 2.121. At low frequencies, both capacitors appear open, and circuit ‘becomes a voltage follower. As the frequency increases, the gain eventually starts to decrease, iret diagram Figure 2.121 Active second der tw pass filter Design: Required cut off frequency f= 1 kHz Wehave ‘TakeC, =C, =0.01 uF. Then R, = Ry = 229. For R= 1.586. ‘Thatis, = 0.586 Ry. Take R, Use 15 ka. and C; = C,, the pass-band gain Ay = 1+ RyRy = 17 KA. Then Ry = 15.82 kA, Procedure 1.Set up the circuit and apply a 2 Vjq sine wave from the signal generator. 2. Vary the frequency of sine wave in steps and note down corresponding output voltage (Table 2.11).Plot the frequency response on a semilog graph sheetELECTRONICS LAB MANUAL (VOLUME 2) (igure 2.122). 3. Mark higher et off frequency on the graph sheet and calculate the roll off rate in dB/ecade from the graph sheet. Tabular column Graph Figure 2.122 Frequency esponse of second-order for LPF Result Designed and set up a second-order LPP and studied its functioning. tl a= tere = Be Examination questions (with answers) 1. Setup an LPF fora roll off rate of - 60 dB/decade. Use a second-order LPF cascaded with another fst order LPE 2.Setup a4-pole active filter, ‘A‘-pole iter is nothing but a fourth order filter > Viva voce question (with answer) Prove that the gain of second-order Butterworth filter is 1.586. Laplace transform analysis ofthe second-order filter gives its transfer function,ELECTRONICS LAB MANUAL (VOLUME 2) na Aa a wherea,=1+ RR, Fora second-order system, ‘here kis damping ratio and w, = R2R,C,C For Butterworth filter gain at cut of frequency a, is Equating above two expressions IER, Ry» Rand C, » C,» C,then 2K» 3A,» 1.414. Then, Apa 1586, 2.32 First-order High Pass Filter Aim ‘Todesign and set upa first-order high pass Butterworth filter for alower cut off frequency of 1 kHz with a pass-band gain of Components and equipment required ‘Op-amp, resistors, capacitors, dual de source, signal ‘generator, breadboard, connecting wires and CRO. Theory ‘A High Pass Filter (HPF) has a pass-band at f> f, and a stop band at 0 < f < f, where f, isthe lower cut off frequency ‘and fis operating frequency. The amplitude response M(w) of Butterworth HPFis given by the expression rar where n is the order of the filter and f; is the lower cut off frequency, High pass filters canbe constructed simply. by interchanging frequency-determining resistors andELECTRONICS LAB MANUAL (VOLUME 2) capacitors in low pass filters. That is, a firstorder high ass filter is formed from a first-order low pass fer by interchanging components R and C (Figure 2.123) Cireit diagram Figure 2.125 Active fist-order high pass filter, Design: Required cut off frequency f, 1 kits, We have, Let C= 0.01 uf. Then R = 15.9 kA. Use 15 kA. Since pass-band gain =2,4¢,1+R/R, Take R, = Rp= R, = 100. Procedure 1. Set up the circuit and apply a 2 Vpp sine wave from the signal generator. 2.Vary the frequency of sine wave in steps and note down corresponding output voltage (Table 2.12)-Plot the frequency response on a semilog graph sheet igure 2.124) 43. Mark lower cutoff frequency on the graph sheet and calculate the roll off rate in 4B/decade from the graph sheet. Tabular column 7 GrophELECTRONICS LAB MANUAL (VOLUME 2) Figure 2.124 Frequency response of first-order HPF Result Designed and set up a second order HPF and studied its functioning, Teor = he rt = 2.33 Second-order High Pass Fitter im Design and set up a second-order high pass Butterworth filter fora lower cut off frequency of 1 kHz. Components and equipment required Op-amp, resistors, capacitors, dual de source, signal ‘generator, breadboard, connecting wites and CRO. Theory A second-order high pass filter can be constructed from 2 second-order low pass filter by interchanging the frequency deciding resistors and capacitors. Consider the circuit diagram as shown in Figure 2.125. At low frequencies, the capacitors appear open and voltage gain approaches zero. At high frequencies, the capacitors appear short-circuited and cireuit becomes a non-inverting amplifier. The cut of frequency ofthe fiter is given by the expression ireuit diagramELECTRONICS LAB MANUAL (VOLUME 2) oO Tn Teh ae? Fhe fia Figure 2.125 Active second-order highpass iter Design: Required cut off frequency f, = 1 kHz. ‘Assume C= 0.01 uf. Then Ry = 1S kas % mmust be 1.586 for standard. The pass-band gain” Butterworth iter, ‘That is, R, = 0.586R,, Take R= 27 KA. Then Ry = 15.82 KO, Use 15 ka. Procedure 1. Set up the cireuit and apply a 2 Vjp sine wave from the signal generator. 2.Vary the frequency of sine wave in steps and note down corresponding output voltage (Table 2.13)-Plot the frequency response on a semilog graph sheet (gure 2.126) ‘Mark lower cut of frequency on the graph sheet and calculate the rol ff rate in dB/decade from the graph sheet. Tabular columnELECTRONICS LAB MANUAL (VOLUME 2) Graph fam ¢ f L 1) Figure 2.126 Frequency response of second-order HPF Result Designed and set up a second order HPF and studied its functioning. 2.34 Band Pass Filter Aim ‘To design and set up a band pass filter having, = 1 ki, = 3,and gain A, = 10. Components and equipment required ‘Op-amp, resistors, capacitors, dual de source, signal generator, breadboard, connecting wires and CRO. Theory ‘A Band Pass Filter (BPF) passes a particular band of frequencies with zero attenuation and attenuates all other frequencies. It is widely used in analog and digital ‘communication applications (Figure 2.127). ‘The clasifcation of narrow band and wide-band filters are made based on the quality factor Q, Ifthe quality factor Q < 0.5, tis called as wide-band filter and if Q> 05, itis narrow bband filter. fan LPP having cutoff frequency fis cascaded with HPFELECTRONICS LAB MANUAL (VOLUME 2) having cut off frequency f, sch that fi,» fi forms 3 BPE ‘with Bandwidth fy ~ fi Narrow band filters are constructed with single stage. where fy = upper cut off frequency, f, = lower eut off frequeney,f, = centre frequency and BW = bandwidth. This filter uses only one op-amp in the inverting mode. It hasewo feedback paths. To simplify design calculations, ake cy2e,6. Multiple feedback method is used in the narrow band BPF for ‘ich the following relationships are important. ee 2 should satisfy the where A, is the gain atfy ie,” condition A, «202 ‘One advantage of the multiple feedback fier is that its centre fequency J, can be changed to a new frequency {fg without changing the gain or bandwidth, This is accomplished by changing RtoR,'sothat R= R/T Greve diagram am wa] Sele ' ys > Figure 2.127 Active band pass fit, Design: Given, f, = 1 kHz, Q~3,and A, 10. TakeC, =C, = 0.01 uF Substituting the values in the design expressions forELECTRONICS LAB MANUAL (VOLUME 2) resistors, we get ee Use 6.2 ki as standard UseR, = 100. Procedure 1. Set up the circuit and apply a 2 Vyp sine wave at the input. 2. Vary the frequency of sine wave in steps and note own corresponding output voltage (Table 2.14) 3. Plot the frequency response on a semilog graph sheet (Figure 2.128). Mark the pass-band on it Groph ona Zu Sai Lo yy > Figure 2.128 Frequency response of BPF Result Designed and set up a BPF and studied its functioning. Bandwidth =... He Examination questions (with answers)ELECTRONICS LAB MANUAL (VOLUME 2) 1. Set upa second-order wide-band pass filter. AA second-order HPF followed by second-order LPF with fy f, itforms a BEF with bandwidth fy “fe Narrow band reject filter is also known as notch iter (Figure 2.129). Notch filter provides maximum attenuation at the frequency ‘~ 286. this is achieved by a twin-T RC network. Passive twin-T network has relatively low figure of ‘merit Q. The Qcan be increased by associating witha voltage follower using op-amp. Notch filter has wide application in communication fleld It is used to eliminate undesired frequencies. The very ‘common application is to remove power supply hum ‘occurring at 50 Hz