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 Principles of

LINEAR SYSTEMS
and
SIGNALS
 Principles of
LINEAR SYSTEMS
and
SIGNALS
SECOND EDITION
International Version

B.P. LATHI

OXFORD
UNiVERSITY PRESS
 OXFORD
VNIVED.SITY Plll!SS

Oxford University Press is a department of the University of Oxford.

It fi.trthers the University's objective of excellence in research, scholarship,
and education by publishing worldwide. Oxford is a registered trademark of
Oxford University Press in the UK and in certain. other countries.

Published in India by
Oxford University Press
YMCA Library Building, 1, Jai Singh Road, New Delhi 1.10001, India

Adapted from a work originally published by Oxford University Press Inc.,

Copyright © 2009 by Oxford University Press

The moral rights of the authors have been asserted.

Second Edition published in 2005

This International version 2009
Fourth impression 2011

Aµ rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in

a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, without the
prior permission in writing of Oxford University Press, or as expressly pern1itted
by law, or under terms agreed with the appropriate reprographics
rights organization. Enquiries concerning reproduction outside the scope of the
above should be sent to the Rights Department, Oxford University.Press, at the
address above.

You must not cirrulate this work in any other form

and you must impose this s.une condition on any acquirer.

This International Version has been cust9mized for South and South-East Asia and
published by arrangement with Oxford University Press, Inc. It may not be sold elsewhere.

ISBN-13: 978-0-19-806227-1
ISBN-10: 0-19-806227-3

Printed in India by Tara Art Printers (P) Ltd. Noida.

CONTENTS

PREFACE xiii

1 SIGNALS AND SYSTEMS

1.1 Size of a Signal I
1.1-1 Signal Energy 2
1.1-2 Signal Power 2
1 .2 Some Useful Signal Operations 8
1.2-1 Time Shifting 8
1.2-2 Time Scaling 10
1.2-3 Time Reversal 13
1.2-4 Combined Operations 14
1 .3 Classification o f Signals 1 5
1.3-1 Continuous-Time and Discrete-Time Signals 1 5
1.3-2 Analog and Digital Signals 1 5
1.3-3 Periodic and Aperiodic Signals 16
1.3-4 Energy and Power Signals 19
1.3-5 Detenninistic and Random Signals 1 9
1 .4 Some Useful Signal Models 19
1.4-1 Unit Step Function u (t) 20
1.4-2 The Unit Impulse Function �(t) 23
1.4-3 The Exponential Function e'' 27
1 .5 Even and Odd Functions 29
1.5-1 Some Properties of Even and Odd Functions 29
1.5-2 Even and Odd Components of a Signal 30
1 .6 Systems 32
1 .7 Classification of Systems 34
1.7-1 Linear and Nonlinear Systems 34
1.7-2 Time-Invariant and Time-Varying Systems 39
1.7-3 ·Instantaneous and Dynamic Systems 40
1.7-4 Causal and Noncausal Systems 41
1.7-5 Continuous-Time and Discrete-Time Systems 43
1.7-6 Analog and Digital Systems 44

v
vi Contents

1.7-7 Invertible and Noninvertible Systems 45

1.7-8 Stable and Unstable Systems 45
1.8 System Model: Input-Output Description 46
1.8-1 Electrical Systems 46
1.8-2 Mechanical Systems 50
1.8-3 Electromechanical Systems 54
1 .9 Internal and External Description of a System 55
1 . 10 Internal Description: The State-Space Description 57
1.1 1 Summary 61
References 64
MATI.AB Session 1: Working with Functions 64
Problems 7 1

2 TIME-DOMAIN ANALYSIS OF CONTINUOUS-TIME SYSTEMS

2.1 Introduction 84
2.2 System Response to Internal Conditions: The Zero-Input Response 85
2.2-1 Some Insights into the Zero-Input Behavior of a System 96
2.3 The Unit Impulse Response h(t) 97
2.4 System Response to External Input: Zero-State Response 102
2.4-1 The Convolution Integral 104
2.4-2 Graphical Understanding of Convolution Operation 1 1 2
2.4-3 Interconnected Systems 125
2.4-4 A Very Special Function for LTIC Systems: The Everlasting Exponential e" 128
2.4-5 Total Response 1 30
2.5 Classical Solution of Differential Equations 1 3 1
2.5-1 Forced Response: The Method o f Undetermined Coefficients 1 32
2.6 System Stability 140
2.6-1 Internal (Asymptotic) Stability 142
2.6-2 Relationship Between BIBO and Asymptotic Stability 144
2.7 Intuitive Insights into System Behavior 148
2.7-1 Dependence of System Behavior on Characteristic Modes 148
2.7-2 Response Time of a System: The System Time Constant 149
2.7-3 Time Constant and Rise Time of a System 1 5 1
2 .7-4 Time Constant and Filtering 151
2.7-5 Time Constant and Pulse Dispersion (Spreading) 153
2.7-6 Time Constant and Rate of Information Transmission 153
2.7-7 The Resonance Phenomenon 1 54
2.8 Appendix 2. 1 : Determining the hnpulse Response 156
2.9 Summary 158
References 1 59
MATI.AB Session 2: M-Files 160
Problems 168
 Contents vii

3 TIME-DOMAIN ANALYSIS OF DISCRETE-TIME SYSTEMS

3 .1 Introduction 178
3.1-1 Size of a Discrete-Time Signal 179
3.2 Useful Signal Operations 1 8 1
3.3 Some Useful Discrete-Time Signal Models 185
3.3-1 Discrete-Time Impulse Function c5 [n] 185
3.3-2 Discrete-Time Unit Step Function u [n] 186
3.3-3 Discrete-Time Exponential y n 187
3.3-4 Discrete-Time Sinusoid cos (On + 8) 190
3.3-5 Discrete-Time Complex Exponential eifln 192
3.4 Examples of Discrete-Time Systems 192
3.4-1 Classification of Discrete-Time Systems 201
3.5 Discrete-Time System Equations 203
3.5-1 Recursive (Iterative) Solution of Difference Equation 204
3.6 System Response to Internal Conditions: The Zero-Input Response 209
3.7 The Unit Impulse Response h[n] 2 15
3.8 System Response t o External Input: The Zero-State Response 2 19
3.8-1 Graphical Procedure for the Convolution Sum 227
3.8-2 Interconnected Systems 233
3.8-3 A Very Special Function for LTID Systems: The Everlasting Exponential z" 235
3.8-4 Total Response 236
3.9 Classical Solution of Linear Difference Equations 237
3.10 System Stability: The External (BIBO) Stability Criterion 244
3.10-1 Internal (Asymptotic) Stability 245
3.10-2 Relationship Between BIBO and Asymptotic Stability 247
3. 1 1 Intuitive Insights into System Behavior 250
3.12 Appendix 3.1: Impulse Response for a Special Case 251
3 .13 Summary 25 1
MATLAB Session 3: Discrete-Time Signals and Systems 253
Problems 259

4CONTINUOUS-TIME SYSTEM ANALYSIS USING

THE LAPLACE 1RANSFORM
4. 1 The Laplace Transform 273
4.1-1 Finding the Inverse Transform 28 1
4.2 Some Properties of the Laplace Transform 293
4.2-1 Time Shifting 293
4.2-2 Frequency Shifting 296
4.2-3 The Time-Differentiation Property 297
4.2-4 The Time-Integration Property 299
4.2-5 Time Convolution and Frequency Convolution 30 1
viii Contents

4.3 Solution of Differential and Integro-Differential Equations 304

4.3-1 Zero-State Response 309
4.3-2 Stability 3 14
4.3-3 Inverse Systems 317
4.4 Analysis of Electrical Networks: The Transformed Network 3 17
4.4-1 Analysis of Active Circuits 326
4.5 Block Diagrams 330
4.6 System Realization 332
4.6-1 Direct Form I Realization 333
4.6-2 Direct Form II Realization 335
4.6-3 Cascade and Parallel Realizations 337
4.6-4 Transposed Realization 340
4.6-5 Using Operational Amplifiers for System Realization 343
4.7 Application to Feedback and Controls 348
4.7-1 Analysis of a Simple Control System 350
4.8 Frequency Response of an LTIC System 356
4.8-1 Steady-State Response to Causal Sinusoidal Inputs 362
4.9 Bode Plots 363
4.9-1 Constantka1a2fb1b3 365
4.9-2 Pole (or Zero) at the Origin 366
4.9-3 First-Order Pole (or Zero) 367
4.9-4 Second-Order Pole (or Zero) 370
4.9-5 The Transfer Function from the Frequency Response 379
4. 10 Filter Design by Placement of Poles and Zeros of H(s) 379
4.10-1 Dependence of Frequency Response on Poles and Zeros of H(s) 380
4.10-2 L owpass Filters 383
4.10-3 Bandpass Filters 384
4.10-4 Notch (Bandstop) Filters 384
4.10-5 Practical Filters and Their Specifications 387
4. 1 1 The Bilateral Laplace Transform 389
4.11-1 Properties of Bilateral Laplace Transform 395
4.11-2 Using the Bilateral Transform for Linear System Analysis 396

4. 1 2 Summary 400
References 401
MATLAB Session 4: Continuous-Time Filters 401
Problems 4 l l

5 DISCRETE-TIME SYSTEM ANALYSIS USING THE z-TRANSFORM

5.1 The z-Transform 427
5.1-1 Finding the Inverse Transform 434
5.2 Some Properties of the z-Transform 439
 Contents ix

5.3 z-Transfonn Solution of Linear Difference Equations 448

5.3- 1 Zero-State Response of LTID Systems: The Transfer Function 452
5.3-2 Stability 456
5.3-3 Inverse Systems 457
5.4 System Realization 458
5 .5 Frequency Response of Discrete-Time Systems 464
5.5- 1 The Periodic Nature of the Frequency Response 470
5.5-2 Aliasing and Sampling Rate 474
5.6 Frequency Response from Pole-Zero Location 477
5.7 Digital Processing of Analog Signals 486
5.8 Connection Between the Laplace Transform and the z-Transform 493
5.9 The Bilateral z-Transfonn 495
5.9- 1 Properties of the Bilateral z-Transform 501
5.9-2 Using the Bilateral z-Transform for Analysis of LTID Systems 502
5. 1 0 Summary 504
References 505
MATLAB Session 5: Discrete-Time llR Filters 505
Problems 514

6 CONTINUOUS-TIME SIGNAL ANALYSIS: THE FOURIER SERIES

6. 1 Periodic Signal Representation by Trigonometric Fourier Series 527
6. 1 - 1 The Fourier Spectrum 533
6. 1 -2 The Effect of Symmetry 542
6. 1 -3 Determining the Fundamental Frequency and Period 544
6.2 Existence and Convergence of the Fourier Series 547
6.2- 1 Convergence of a Series 548
6.2-2 The Role of Amplitude and Phase Spectra in Waveshaping 550
6.3 Exponential Fourier Series 556
6.3- 1 Exponential Fourier Spectra 560
6.3-2 Parseval's Theorem 566
\
6.4 LTIC System Response to EC(riodic Inputs 569
6.5 Generalized Fourier Series: Signals as Vectors 573
6.5-1 Component of a Vector 574
6.5-2 Signal Comparison and Component of a Signal 575
6.5-3 Extension to Complex Signals 578
6.5-4 Signal Representation by an Orthogonal Signal Set 579
6.6 Numerical Computation of Dn 591
6.7 Summary 593
References 594
MATLAB Session 6: Fourier Series Applications 595
Problems 602
x Contents

7 CONTINUOUS-TIME SIGNAL ANALYSIS:

THE FOURIER 1RANSFORM
7. 1 Aperiodic Signal Representation by Fourier Integral 611
7. 1 - 1 Physical Appreciation of the Fourier Transform 61 8
7 .2 Transfonns of Some Useful Functions 620
7 .2- 1 Connection Between the Fourier and Laplace Transforms 630
7 .3 Some Properties of the Fourier Transfonn 631
7.4 Signal Transmission Through LTIC Systems 650
7.4- 1 Signal Distortion During Transmission 652
7.4-2 Bandpass Systems and Group Delay 655
7 .5 Ideal and Practical Filters 659
7 .6 Signal Energy 662
7.7 Application to Communications: Amplitude Modulation 665
7.7- 1 Double-Sideband, Suppressed-Carrier (DSB-SC) Modulation 665
7.7-2 Amplitude Modulation (AM) 670
7.7-3 Single-Sideband Modulation (SSB) 675
7 .7-4 Frequency-Division Multiplexing 678
7 .8 Data Truncation: Window Functions 679
7.8- 1 Using Windows in Filter Design 684
7.9 Summary 686
References 687
MATLAB Session 7: Fourier Transform Topics 687
Problems 693

8 SAMPLING: THE BRIDGE FROM CONTINUOUS TO DISCRETE

8. 1 The Sampling Theorem 703
8.1-1 Practical Sampling 708
8.2 Signal Reconstruction 711
8.2- 1 Practical Difficulties in Signal Reconstruction 714

(AID) Conversion 725

8.2-2 Some Applications of the Sampling Theorem 723
8.3 Analog-to-Digital
8.4 Dual of Time Sampling: Spectral Sampling 728
8.5 Numerical Computation of the Fourier Transfonn: The Discrete
Fourier Transfonn (OFT) 731
8.5- 1 Some Properties of the OFT 744

(FFT) 750
8.5-2 Some Applications of the OFT 746
8.6 The Fast Fourier Transfonn
8.7 Summary 754
References 755
MATLAB Session 8: The Discrete Fourier Transform 755
Problems 762
 Contents xi

9 FOURIER ANALYSIS OF DISCRETE-TIME SIGNALS

9. 1 Discrete-Time Fourier Series (DTFS) 770
9. 1 - 1 Periodic Signal Representation by Discrete-Time Fourier Series 77 1
9. 1 -2 Fourier Spectra of a Periodic Signal x [n] 773
9.2 Aperiodic Signal Representation by Fourier Integral 780
9.2- 1 Nature of Fourier Spectra 783
9.2-2 Connection Between the DTFT and the z-Transform 791
9.3 Properties of the DTFT 792
9.4 LTI Discrete-Time System Analysis by DTFf 803
9 .4- 1 Distortionless Transmission 805
9.4-2 Ideal and Practical Filters 807
9.5 DTFT Connection with the CTFT 808
9.5- 1 Use of DFT and FFT for Numerical Computation of DTFT 809
9.6 Generalization of the DTFT to the z-Transform 8 11
9.7 Summary 8 13
Reference 8 14
MATl.AB Session 9: Working with the DT FS and the DTFT 814
Problems 823

10 STATE-SPACE ANALYSIS
1 0. 1 Introduction 832
1 0.2 A Systematic Procedure for Determining State Equations 834
1 0.2- 1 Electrical Circuits 835
10.2-2 State Equations from a Transfer Function 837
10.3 Solution of State Equations 845
1 0.3-1 Laplace Transform Solution of State Equations 845
1 0.3-2 Time-Domain Solution of State Equations 852
1 0.4 Linear Transformation of State Vector 859
1 0.4-1 Diagonalization of Matrix A 863
1 0.5 Controllability and Observability 867
10.5- 1 Inadequacy of the Transfer Function Description of a System 872
1 0.6 State-Space Analysis of Discrete-Time Systems 873
10.6- 1 Solution in State-Space 875
1 0.6-2 The z-Transform Solution 880
10.7 Summary 881
References 882
MATl.AB Session JO: Toolboxes and State-Space Analysis 882
Problems 890
xii Contents

APPENDIX A
A. l Complex Numbers 895
A.1-1 A Historical Note 895
A. l -2 Algebra of Complex Numbers 899
A.2 Sinusoids 910
A.2-1 Addition of Sinusoids 912
A.2-2 Sinusoids in Terms of Exponentials: Euler's Formula 915
A.3 Sketching Signals 916
A.3-1 Monotonic Exponentials 916
A.3-2 The Exponentially Varying Sinusoid 917
A.4 Partial Fraction Expansion 918
A.4-1 Method of Clearing Fractions 919
A.4-2 The Heaviside "Cover-Up" Method 920
A.4-3 Repeated Factors of Q(x) 924
A.4-4 Mixture of the Heaviside "Cover-Up" and Clearing Fractions 926
A.4-5 Improper F(x) with m = n 927
A.4-6 Modified Partial Fractions 928
A.5 Vectors and Matrices 929
A.5-1 Some Definitions and Properties 930
A.5-2 Matrix Algebra 931
A.5-3 Derivatives and Integrals of a Matrix 935
A.5-4 The Characteristic Equation of a Matrix: The Cayley - Hamilton Theorem 937
A.5-5 Computation of an Exponential and a Power of a Matrix 939
A.6 Miscellaneous 940
A.6- I Complex Numbers 940
A.6-2 Trigonometric Identities 940
References 941
MATLAB Session A: Elementary Operations 941
Problems 952

INDEX 957
PREFACE

This book, Principles of Linear Systems and Signals, presents a comprehensive treatment of sig­
nals and linear systems at an introductory level. Like all my other books, it emphasizes physical
appreciation of concepts through heuristic reasoning, and the use·of metaphors, analogies, and
creative explanations. Such an approach is much different from a purely deductive technique that
uses mere mathematical manipulation of symbols. There is a temptation to treat engineering sub­
jects as a branch of applied mathematics. Such an approach is a perfect match to the public image
of e�gineering as a dry and dull discipline. It ignores the physical meaning behind various deriva­
tions and deprives a student of intuitive grasp and the enjoyable experience of logical uncovering
of the subject matter. Here I have used mathematics not so much to prove axiomatic theory as to
support and enhance physical and intuitive understanding. Wherever possible, theoretical results
are interpreted heuristically and are enhanced by carefully chosen examples and analogies.
This second edition, which closely follows the organization of the first edition, has been
refined by incorporating suggestions and changes provided by various reviewers. The added

Fourier applications to communication systems. A significant and sizable addition in the area of
topics include Bode plots, use of digital filters in an impulse-invariance method of designing

MATLAB® (a registered trademark of The MathWorks, Inc.) has been provided by Dr. Roger
analog systems, convergence of infinite series, bandpass systems, group and phase delay, and

Green of North Dakota State University. Dr. Green discusses his contribution at the conclusion
of this preface.

ORGANIZATION
The book may be conceived as divided into five parts:

1 . Introduction (Chapter 1).

2. Time-domain analysis of linear time-invariant (LTI) systems (Chapters 2 and 3).
3. Frequency-domain (transform) analysis of LTI systems (Chapters 4 and 5).
4. Signal analysis (Chapters 6, 7, 8, and 9).
5. State-space analysis of LTI systems (Chapter 10).

The organization of the book permits much flexibility in teaching the continuous-time and
discrete-time concepts. The natural sequence of chapters is meant to integrate continuous-time
and discrete-time analysis. It is also possible to use a sequential approach in which all the
xiii
xiv Preface

continuous-time analysis is covered first (Chapters 1, 2, 4, 6, 7, and 8), followed by discrete­

time analysis (Chapters 3, 5, and 9).

SUGGESTIONS FOR USING THIS BOOK

The book can be readily tailored for a variety of courses spanning 30 to 45 lecture hours. Most of
the material in the first eight chapters can be covered at a brisk pace in about 45 hours. The book
can also be used for a 30-lecture-hour course by covering only analog material (Chapters 1 , 2, 4,
6, 7, and possibly selected topics in Chapter 8). Alternately, one can also select Chapters 1 to 5
for courses purely devoted to systems analysis or transform techniques. To treat continuous- and
discrete-time systems by using an integrated (or parallel) approach, the appropriate sequence
of Chapters is l , 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, and 8. For a sequential approach, where the continuous-time
analysis is followed by discrete-time analysis, the proper chapter sequence is 1 , 2, 4, 6, 7, 8, 3,
5, and possibly 9 (depending on the time availability).
Logically, the Fourier transform should precede the Laplace transform. I have used such
an approach in the companion volume, Principles of Signal Processing and Linear Systems.
However, a sizable number of instructors feel that it is easier for students to learn Fourier after
Laplace. Such an approach has an appeal because of the gradual progression of difficulty, in the
sense that the relatively more difficult concepts of Fourier are treated after the simpler area of
Laplace. This book is written to accommodate that viewpoint. For those who wish to see Fourier
before Laplace, there is Principles of Signal Processing and Linear Systems.

NOT ABLE FEATURES

The notable features of this book include the following:

1 . Intuitive and heuristic understanding of the concepts and physical meaning of mathe­
matical results are emphasized throughout. Such an approach not only leads to deeper
appreciation and easier comprehension of the concepts, but also makes learning enjoyable
for students.
2. Many students are handicapped by an inadequate background in basic material such
as complex numbers, sinusoids, quick sketching of functions, partial fraction expan­
sion, and matrix-algebra. I have added an appendix that addresses these basic and per­
vasive topics in electrical engineering. Response by students has been unanimously
enthusiastic.
3. There are more than 200 worked examples in addition to exercises (usually with answers)
for students to test their understanding. There is also a large number of selected problems
of varying difficulty at the end of each chapter.
4. For instructors who like to get students involved with computers, several examples are
worked out by means of MATLAB, which is becoming a standard software package in
electrical engineering curricula. There is also a MATLAB session at the end of each chap­
ter. The problem set contains several computer problems. Working computer examples
or problems, though not essential for the use of this book, is highly recommended.
. . • ' !. .
I
 Preface xv

5. The discrete-time and continuous-time systems may be treated in sequence, or they may
be integrated by using a parallel approach.
6. The summary at the end of each chapter proves helpful to students in summing up
essential developments in the chapter.
7. There are several historical notes to enhance student's interest in the subject. This infor­
mation introduces students to the historical background that influenced the development
of electrical engineering.

CREDITS
The portraits of Gauss (p. 897), Laplace (p. 290), Heaviside (p. 290), Fourier (p. 546), and
Michelson (p. 556) have been reprinted courtesy of the Smithsonian Institution Libraries. The
likenesses of Cardano (p. 897) and Gibbs (p. 556) have been reprinted courtesy of the Library of
Congress. The engraving of Napoleon (p. 546) has been reprinted courtesy of Bettmann/Corbis.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
Several individuals have helped me in the preparation of this book. I am grateful for the helpful
suggestions of the several reviewers. I am most grateful to Prof. Yannis Tsividis of Columbia
University, who provided his comprehensively thorough and insightful feedback for the book. I
also appreciate another comprehensive review by Prof. Roger Green. I thank Profs. Joe Anderson
of Tennessee Technological University, Kai S. Yeung of the University of Texas at Arlington, and
Alexander Poularikis of the University of Alabama at Huntsville for very thoughtful reviews.
Thanks for helpful suggestions are also due to Profs. Babajide Familoni of the University of
Memphis, Leslie Collins of Duke University, R. Rajgopalan of the University of Arizona, and
William Edward Pierson from the U.S. Air Force Research Laboratory. Only those who write
a book understand that writing a book such as this is an obsessively time-consuming activity,
which causes much hardship for the family members, where the wife suffers the most. So what
can I say except to thank my wife, Rajani, for enormous but invisible sacrifices.
B. P. Lathi

MATLAB
MATLAB is a sophisticated language that serves as a powerful tool to better understand a
myriad of topics, including control theory, filter design, and, of course, linear systems and
signals. MATLAB 's flexible programming structure promotes rapid development and analysis.
Outstanding visualization capabilities provide unique insight into system behavior and signal
character. By exploring concepts with MATLAB, you will substantially increase your comfort
with and understanding of coi.lrse topics.
As with any language, learning MATLAB is incremental and requires practice. This book
provides two levels of exposure to MATLAB . First, short computer examples are interspersed
throughout the text to reinforce concepts and perform various computations. These exam­
ples utilize standard MATLAB functions as well as functions from the control system., s 11:alig_
xvi Preface

processing, and symbolic math toolboxes. MATLAB has many more toolboxes available, but
these three are commonly available in many engineering departments.
A second and deeper level of exposure to MATLAB is achieved by concluding each chap­
ter with a separate MATLAB session. Taken together, these eleven sessions provide a self­
contained introduction to the MATLAB environment that allows even novice users to quickly gain
MATLAB proficiency and competence. These sessions provide detailed instruction on how to
use MATLAB to solve problems in linear systems and signals. Except for the very last chapter,
special care has been taken to avoid the use of toolbox functions in the MATLAB sessions.
Rather, readers are shown the process of developing their own code. In this way, those readers
without toolbox access are not at a disadvantage.
All computer code is available online (www.mathworks.com/support/books). Code for the
computer examples in a given chapter, say Chapter xx, is named CExx.m. Program yy from
MATLAB Session xx is named MSxxPyy.m. Additionally, complete code for each individual
MATLAB session is named MSxx.m.
Roger Green
 SIGNALS AND SYSTEMS

In this chapter we shall discuss certain basic aspects of signals. We shall also introduce important
basic concepts and qualitative explanations of the hows and whys of systems theory, thus building
a solid foundation for understanding the quantitative analysis in the remainder of the book.

SIGNALS
A signal is a set of data or information. Examples include a telephone or a television signal,
monthly sales of a corporation, or daily closing prices of a stock market (e.g., the Dow Jones
averages). In all these examples, the signals are functions of the independent variable tim e . This
is not always the case, however. When an electrical charge is distributed over a body, for instance,
the signal is the charge density, a function of space rather than time. In this book we deal almost
exclusively with signals that are functions of time. The discussion, however, applies equally well
to other independent variables.

SYSTEMS
Signals may be processed further by systems, which may modify them or extract additional
information from them. For example, an antiaircraft gun operator may want to know the future
location of a hostile moving target that is being tracked by his radar. Knowing the radar signal,
he knows the past location and velocity of the target. By properly processing the radar signal (the
input), he can approximately estimate the future location of the target. Thus, a system is an entity
that processes a set of signals (inputs) to yield another set of signals (outputs). A system may be
made up of physical components, as in electrical, mechanical, or hydraulic systems (hardware
realization), or it may be an algorithm that computes an output from an input signal (software
realization).

1.1 SIZE OF A SIGNAL

The size of any entity is a number that indicates the largeness or strength of that entity. Generally
speaking, the signal amplitude varies with time. How can a signal that exists over a certain time
interval with varying amplitude be measured by one number that will indicate the signal size
1
2 CHAPTER 1 SIGNALS AND SYSTEMS

or signal strength? Such a measure must consider not only the signal amplitude, but also its
duration. For instance, if we are to devise a single number V as a measure of the size of a human
being, we must consider not only his or her width (girth), but also the height. If we make a
simplifying assumption that the shape of a person is a cylinder of variable radius r (which varies
with the height h) then one possible measure of the size of a person of height H is the person's
volume V, given by

(1.1)

1.1-1 Signal Energy

Arguing in this manner, we may consider the area under a signal x (t) as a possible measure of
its size, because it takes account not only of the amplitude but also of the duration. However,
this will be a defective measure because even for a large signal x (t), its positive and negative
areas could cancel each other, indicating a signal of small size. This difficulty can be corrected
by defining the signal size as the area under x 2 (t), which is always positive. We call this measure
the signal energy Ex, defined (for a real signal) as

(l .2a)

= 1: lx (t)l2 dt
This definition can be generalized to a complex valued signal x (t) as

Ex ( l .2b)

There are also other possible measures of signal size, such as the area under lx (t) I . The energy
measure, however, is not only more tractable mathematically but is also more meaningful (as
shown later) in the sense that it is indicative of the energy that can be extracted from the signal.

1.1-2 Signal Power

The signal energy must be finite for it to be a meaningful measure of the signal size. A necessary
condition for the energy to be finite is that the signal amplitude� 0 as I t! � oo (Fig. l . l a).
Otherwise the integral in Eq. ( l .2a) will not converge.
When the amplitude of x (t) does not� 0 as lt l � oo (Fig. I . l b), the signal energy is
infinite. A more meaningful measure of the signal size in such a case would be the time average
of the energy, if it exists. This measure is called the power of the signal. For a signal x (t), we

1
define its power Px as
1 T/ 2
Px = lim x 2 (t) dt (l .3a)
T -+oo T - T/2
-

We can generalize this definition for a complex signal x (t) as

1 T/ 2
1
Px lim= lx (t) l 2 dt ( l .3b)
T-+oo T - T/2
-
 1.1 Size of a Signal 3

,_

(a)

1.1 Examples of signals: (a) a signal with finite energy and (b) a signal with finite
(b)
Figure
power.

Observe that the signal power Px is the time average (mean) of the signal amplitude squared,
that is, the mean-squared value of x(t). Indeed, the square root of Px is the familiar rms (root­
mean-square) value of x (t).

=
Generally, the mean of an entity averaged over a large time interval approaching infinity
exists if the entity either is periodic or has a statistical regularity. If such a condition is not
satisfied, the average may not exist. For instance, a ramp signal x(t) t increases indefinitely
as l t l � oo , and neither the energy nor the power exists for this signal. However, the unit step

from Eq. (l .3b) by averaging lx(t)l2 over one period.

function, which is not periodic nor has statistical regularity, does have a finite power.
When x (t) is periodic, lx (t) l 2 is also periodic. Hence, the power of x (t) can be computed

Comments. The signal energy as defined in Eqs. (1 .2) does not indicate the actual energy (in the
conventional sense) of the signal because the signal energy depends not only on the signal, but
also on the load. It can, however, be interpreted as the energy dissipated in a normalized load of a
I -ohm resistor if a voltage x (t) were to be applied across the 1 -ohm resistor (or if a current x (t)
were to be passed through the 1-ohm resistor). The measure of "energy" is, therefore indicative
of the energy capability of the signal, not the actual energy. For this reason the concepts of
conservation of energy should not be applied to this "signal energy." Parallel observation applies
to "signal power" defined in Eqs. (1 .3). These measures are but convenient indicators of the
signal size, which prove useful in many applications. For instance, if we approximate a signal
x (t) by another signal g(t), the error in the approximation is e(t) = x(t) - g(t). The energy (or
power) of e(t) is a convenient indicator of the goodness of the approximation. It provides us with
a quantitative measure of determining the closeness of the approximation. In communication
systems, during transmission over a channel, message signals are corrupted by unwanted signals
(noise). The quality of the received signal is judged by the relative sizes of the desired signal
and the unwanted signal (noise). In this case the ratio of the message signal and noise signal
powers (signal to noise power ratio) is a good indication of the received signal quality.
4 CHAPTER 1 SIGNALS AND SYSTEMS

Units of Energy and Power. Equations ( 1 .2) are not correct dimensionally. This is because
here we are using the term ene rgy not in its conventional sense, but to indicate the signal

defined here, depend on the nature of the signal x (t ) . If x(t) is a voltage signal, its energy Ex
size. The same observation applies to Eqs. ( 1 .3) for power. The units of energy and power, as

has units of volts squared-seconds (V2 s), and its power P, has units of volts squared. If x (t)
is a current signal, these units will be amperes squared-seconds (A 2 s) and amperes squared,
respectively.

EXAMPL E 1.1

Determine the suitable measures of the signals in Fig. 1 .2.

-I 0
2 4 ,_
(a)

74 �v2 �C?l�I v2 v4,_

{b)
Figure 1.2

signal is its energy Ex given by

In Fig. l .2a, the signal amplitude � 0 as l tl � oo. Therefore the suitable measure for this

Ex = 1
-oo
00
x 2 (t) dt = lo (2) 2dt + 1 00 4e -1 dt
-I 0
= 4+4 = 8

In Fig. 1 .2b, the signal amplitude does not � 0 as l t l � oo. However, it is periodic, and
therefore its power exists. We can use Eq. ( l .3a) to determine its power. We can simplify
the procedure for periodic signals by observing that a periodic signal repeats regularly each
period (2 seconds in this case). Therefore, averaging x 2 (t) over an infinitely large interval is
 1.1 Size o f a Signal 5

identical to averaging this quantity over one period (2 seconds in this case). Thus

Recall that the signal power is the square of its rms value. Therefore, the rms value of this
signal is I / J3.

EXAM P L E 1.2

C cos (w0t + 8)
Determine the power and the rms value of

C1 cos (w1t + Bi ) + C2 cos ( 2t + 02)

(a) x (t ) =
(b) x (t) = w

(c) x (t) = D e jwot

(a) This is a periodic signal with period T0 = 2rr / w0 . The suitable measure of this
signal is its power. Because it is a periodic signal, we may compute its power by averaging
its energy over one period T0 = 2rr / w0 . However, for the sake of demonstration, we shall

jr12 C2 cos2 (w0t + €J) dt = lim c2 frn [ I + cos (2w0t + 28) ] dt

solve this problem by averaging over an infinitely large time interval using Eq. (l .3a).

P.r
T-+oc T -T/2 T-+oc 2T -T/2
1

c2 jr12 dt + Jim -c2 jr12 cos (2w0t + dt

= Jim - -

T-+oc 2 T --T/2 T-+co 2T -T/2 W)

The first term on the right-hand side is equal to C2/2. The second term, however, is zero
= Jim -

because the integral appearing in this term represents the area under a sinusoid over a very

C2
large time interval T with T ---+ oo This area is at most equal to the area of half the cycle
_

c2
because of cancellations of the positive and negative areas of a sinusoid. The second term is
this area multiplied by /2T with T ---+ oo. Clearly this term is zero, and

C C2
P. = ­ ( l -4a)

C
2
.

C), C2.
This shows that a sinusoid of amplitude has a power /2 regardless of the value of its
frequency w0 (w0 -:j:. 0) and phase e. The rms value is / ../2. If the signal frequency is zero
(de or a constant signal of amplitude the reader can show that the power is
6 CHAPTER 1 SIGNALS AND SYSTEMS

(b) In Chapter 6, we shall show that a sum of two sinusoids may or may not be periodic,

is not known. Hence, its power will be determined by averaging its energy over T seconds
depending on whether the ratio w1/W2 is a rational number. Therefore, the period of this signal

with T --+ oo. Thus,

Px = T-+oo 1-TT/2/2[C1
lim
T
1
cos (wit+ 9i)+ C2 cos (w2t+ 92)]2 dt

= T-+oo 1-TT/2/2 Ci2

-

1T/2 C22 cos2 (w2t+ 92) dt

T T-+oo T -T/2
1 1
lim - cos2 (wit+ 91) dt+ lim -

1T/2 cos (wit+ 9i) cos (W2t+ 92) dt

T
2Ci_
_ C2
+ T-+oo
lim
-T/2
The first and second integrals on the right-hand side are the powers of the two sinusoids,
which are Ci2/2 and C22/2 as found in part (a). The third term, the product of two sinusoids,
can be expressed as a sum of two sinusoids cos [(w1+w2)t+ (91+92)] and cos [(w1 -w2)t+
(91 -92)], respectively. Now, arguing as in part (a), we see that the third term is zero. Hence,
we havet
p _ Ci2 C22
+ ( l .4b)
x- 2 2
and the rms value is J (C12 + Cl)/2.
We can readily extend this result to a sum of any number of sinusoids with distinct

= Ln=i Cn
frequencies. Thus, if
00

x(t) cos (wn t+ 9n )

assuming that none of the two sinusoids have identical frequencies and Wn =F 0, then

!L::c/
00

Px = ( 1 .4c)
i
n=

= Co+ Ln=l Cn
If x(t) also has a de term, as
00

x(t) cos (wn t + 9n )

then

cg + 4 L Cn 2
00

Px = ( 1 .4d)
n =l

t Tuis is true only if w1 ;/: CLJi. If w1 = cvi. the integrand of the third term contains a constant cos (91 - 92), and
the third term -+ 2C1 C2 cos (91 - 92) as T -+ oo.
 1.1 Size of a Signal 7

= T_.oo 1-T/2T/2 De'WO'. 12 dt

(c) In this case the signal is complex, and we use Eq. ( l .3b) to compute the power.

Px
T
1

=
Jim - I

Recall that jeiwo'I 1 so that IDeiwo112 = IDl2, and

( l .4e)

The rms value is I D I .

Comment. In part (b) of Example 1 .2, we have shown that the power of the sum of two sinusoids

is Px, + Pxz· Unfortunately, this conclusion is not true in general. It is true only under a certain
is equal to the sum of the powers of the sinusoids. It may appear that the power of x1 (t) + x2 (t)

condition (orthogonality), discussed later (Section 6.5-3).

EXE RCI S E E1.1

Show that the energies of the signals in Fig. l .3a, l .3b, l .3c, and l .3d are 4, 1, 4/3, and 4/3,
respectively. Observe that doubling a signal quadruples the energy, and time-shifting a signal

i s the nns value of signal in Fig . l .3e?

has no effect on.the energy. Show also that the power of the signal in Fig. 1 .3e is 0.4323. What

x-z(t)
- --.....
2 1--

0 t-+- 1 0 0

(a) (b) (c) (d)

-4 -3 -2 - 1 0 2 3 4 ,_

Fi gure 1.3
(e)
8 CHAPTER 1 SIGNALS AND SYSTEMS

EXE R C I S E El.2
Redo Example l .2a to find the power of a sinusoid C cos (Wot + 8) by averaging the signal

Show also that the power of a de signal x(t) = Co is CJ , and its rms value is C0•
energy over one period T0 = 27r/Wo (rather than averaging over the infinitely large interval).

EXE R C I S E El.3
Show that if w 1 = w2, the power of x(t) = C 1 cos (w 1 t + ll1 ) + C2 cos ( Wit + ll2 ) is [C12 + Ci2 +
2C 1 C2 cos ( ll1 - ll2 )]/2 , which is not equal to (C 1 2 + Ci2 )/2.

1.2 SOME USEFUL SIGNAL OPERATIONS

We discuss here three useful signal operations: shifting, scaling, and inversion. Since the inde­
pendent variable in our signal description is time, these operations are discussed as time shifting,
time scaling , and time reversal (inversion). However, this discussion is valid for functions having
independent variables other than time (e.g., frequency or distance).

1.2-1 Time Shifting

Consider a signal x (t) (Fig. l .4a) and the same signal delayed by T seconds (Fig. l .4b), which
we shall denote by </J (t). Whatever happens in x (t) (Fig. l .4a) at some instant t also happens in

! i
: 0 ,_
i<-T....,
(c) Figure 1.4 Time-shifting a signal.
 1 .2 Some Useful Signal Operations 9

</> (t) (Fig. I .4b) T seconds later at the instant t + T . Therefore

</>(t + T) = x (t) ( 1 .5)

and

x (t - T)
</>(t) = ( 1 .6)
Therefore, to time-shift a signal by T , we replace t with t T. Thus x (t
- -T ) represents x (t)
time-shifted by T seconds. If T is positive, the shift is to the right (delay), as in Fig. l.4b. If
T is negative, the shift is to the left (advance), as in Fig. l .4c. Clearly, x (t - 2) is x (r) delayed
(right-shifted) by 2 seconds, and x(t + 2) is x(t) advanced (left-shifted) by 2 seconds.

EXAM P L E 1.3

x(r)I
A n exponential function x (t) = e -2 1 shown in Fig. l .5a is delayed b y 1 second. Sketch and
mathematically describe the delayed function. Repeat the problem with x (t) advanced by
1 second.

(a)
r-
r-
�x"+I) (b)

r-
e-2(1+1)

Figure 1.5 (a) Signal x (t ) . (b) Signal x (t ) delayed by I second. (c) Signal x (t )
(c)

advanced b y I second.
10 CHAPTER 1 SIGNALS AND SYSTEMS

{ �-21
The function x (t) can be described mathematically as
t �O
x (t) = (1 .7)
t<0
Let xd (t) represent the function x(t) delayed (right-shifted) by l second as illustrated in
Fig. I .Sb. This function is x (t - 1); its mathematical description can be obtained from x (t) ·

= x (t - 1 ) = { �-2(1-1)
by replacing t with t - 1 in Eq. (1 .7). Thus

t - 1 �0 or t � l
Xd(t) (1 .8)
t - l < O or t < l
Let x0 (t) represent the function x (t) advanced (left-shifted) by 1 second as depicted in
Fig. I .Sc. This function is x (t + 1); its mathematical description can be obtained from x (t)

= x (t + 1) = {eO-2c1+tl
by replacing t with + 1 in Eq. (1 .7). Thus
t
t + l �O or t �- 1
x0 (t) (1 .9)
t + l < O or t < - 1

EXERC I S E E1.4

xd(t) = 2(t -2) 2 :::: t ::::

Write a mathematical description of the signalx3(t) in Fig. l .3c. This signal is delayed by
2 seconds. Sketch the delayed signal. Show that this delayed signal can be described
xd(t)
mathe�tically as for 3, and equal to 0 otherwise. Now repeat the

+ 1) for -1
procedure with the signal advanced (left-shifted) by 1 second. Show that this advanced signal
x0(t)can be described as =
x0(t) 2(t :::: :::: t 0, and equal to 0 otherwise.

1.2-2 Time Scaling

The compression or expansion of a signal in time is kno�n as time scaling. Consider the signal
x (t) of Fig. l .6a. The signal </J (t) in Fig. l .6b is x (t) compressed in time by a factor of.2.
Therefore, whatever happens in x (t) at some instant t also happens to </>(t) at the instant t/2,
( & ) = x (t)
so that

( l . 10
.
</> )
and
(l.11)

= = T1 T2, = Ti/2
2 </>(t) = x ( t)
.
Observe that because x (t) 0 at t and we must have </J (t) = 0 at t and
T2/2,as shown in Fig. l .6b. If x (t) were recorded on a tape and played back at twice the normal
 1 .2 Some Useful Signal Operations 11

(a)
1-

i
(b)
T1 T2
2 2 :
1-

</i(I) =
:
x(f)
(c)
0 2T2 1- Figure 1.6 Time scal ing a signal.

recording speed, we would obtain x (2t ) . In general , if x (t ) is compressed in time by a factor a

(a > 1 ), the resulting signal </> (t) is given by

</>(t) = x (at) ( 1 . 1 2)

Using a similar argument, we can show that x (t ) expanded (slowed down) in time by a
factor a (a > 1 ) is given by

( 1 . 1 3)

Figure 1 .6c shows x (t /2), which is x (t ) expanded in time by a factor of 2. Observe that in a
time-scaling operation, the origin t = 0 is the anchor point, which remains unchanged under the
scaling operation because at t = 0, x (t ) = x (at) = x (O) .
In summary, to time-scale a signal by a factor a , we replace t with a t . If a > 1 , the scaling
results in compression, and if a < 1, the scaling results in expansion.

EXA M P L E 1.4

Figure l .7a shows a signal x (t ) . Sketch and describe mathematically this signal time­
compressed by factor 3. Repeat the problem for the same signal time-expanded by factor 2.
12 CHAPTER 1 SIGNALS AND SYSTEMS

- 1.5 0 3 ,_

(a)

-0.5 0 ,_

(b)

----2

-3 0 ,_ 6

nal x (3t), and (c) signal x (t/2).

Figure 1.7 (a) Signal x (t), (b) sig­
(c)

H·-•n
The signal x (t) can be described as
- 1 .5:::: t < 0
x (t) = O :::t < 3 ( 1 . 14)
otherwise

Figure l .7b shows Xc(t), which is x (t) time-compressed by factor 3; consequently, it can be
described mathematically as x (3t), which is obtained by replacing t with 3t in the right-hand

U·-•n
side of Eq. ( 1 . 14). Thus
- 1 .5 :::: 3t < 0 or - 0.5 :::: t < 0
x«t) = x (3t);,, 0 :::: 3t < 3 or 0 :::: t < 1 ( l . 1 5 a)
otherwise
Observe that the instants t = - 1 .5 and 3 in x (t) correspond to the instants t = -0.5, and 1
in the compressed signal x (3t).
 1.2 Some Useful Signal Operations 13

Figure l .7c shows Xe (t), which is x(t) time-expanded by factor 2; consequently, it can
be described mathematically as x (t/2), which is obtained by replacing t with t/2 in x (t).

� <O
Thus
...:.. 1 .s� or - 3 � t <0
t ( l . 1 5b)
0 < - < 3 or O _< t < 6
-2
otherwise
Observe that the instants t = - 1 .5 and 3 in x (t) correspond to the instants t = -3 and 6 in
the expanded signal x (t/2) .

EXERCI S E El.5
Show that the time compression by a factor n (n > 1) of a sinusoid results in a sinusoid of the
same amplitude and phase, but with the frequency increased n-fold. Similarly, the time expansion
by a factor n (n > 1) of a sinusoid results in a sinusoid of the same amplitude and phase, but
with the frequency reduced by a factor n. Verify your conclusion by sketching a sinusoid sin 2t
and the same sinusoid compressed by a factor 3 and expanded by a factor 2.

1.2-3 Time Reversal

Consider the sign al x ( t) in Fig. I .Sa. We can view x (t) as a rigid wire frame hinged at the vertical
axis. To time-reverse x (t), we rotate this frame l S0° about the vertical axis. This time reversal
[the reflection of x (t) about the vertical axis] gives us the signal </J(t) (Fig. I .Sb). Observe that

-2
5 ,_

-1

(a)

2
cp(t) = x( -t)

2
-5 0 ,_

-I

(b) Figure 1.8 Time reversal of a signal.

14 CHAPTER 1 SIGNALS AND SYSTEMS

whatever happens in Fig. I .Sa at some instant t also happens in Fig. I .Sb at the instant - t , and
vice versa. Therefore

</J(t) = x (-t) ( 1 . 1 6)

Thus, to time-reverse a signal we replace t with - t , and the time reversal of signal x (t) results in
a signal x (- t ) . We must remember that the reversal is performed about the vertical axis, which
acts as an anchor or a hinge. Recall also that the reversal of x (t ) about the horizontal axis results
in -x (t ) .

EXA M P L E 1.5

For the signal x (t ) illustrated in Fig. 1 .9a, sketch x ( - t ) , which is time-reversed x (t ) .

-7 MI""'
-5 -3 -I

(a)
,_

I 3 5 7 ,_

(b) Figure 1 .9 Example of time reversal .

The instants - 1 and -5 in x (t) are mapped into instants 1 and 5 in x ( - t ) . Because x (t ) = e112,

{
we have x ( - t ) = e-112• The signal x ( -t) is depicted in Fig. 1 .9b. We can describe x (t ) and
x ( - t ) as

e112 - l� t > - 5
x (t) =
0 otherwise

{. �
and its time reversed version x ( -t) is obtained by replacing t with - t in x (t ) as

- 1 /2 - 1 � -t > -5 or 1 S t < 5
x (-t) =
otherwise

1.2-4 Combined Operations

Certain complex operations require simultaneous use of more than one of the operations just
described. The most general operation involving all the three operations i s x (a t - b), which is
 1.3 Classification of Signals 15

realized in two possible sequences of operation:

l . Time-shift x (t) by b to obtain x(t - b). Now time-scale the shifted signal x (t - b) by a
(i.e., replace t with at) to obtain x (at - b).
2. Time-scale x (t) by a to obtain x (at). Now time-shift x (at) by b/a (i.e., replace t with
t - (b/a)) to obtain x[a(t - b/a)] = x (at - b). In either case, if a is negative, time
scaling involves time reversal.
For example, the signal x (2t - 6) can be obtained in two ways. We can delay x (t) by 6
to obtain x (t - 6), and then time-compress this signal by factor 2 (replace t with 2t) to obtain
x (2t - 6). Alternately, we can first time-compress x (t) by factor 2 to obtain x (2t), then delay
this signal by 3 (replace t with t - 3) to obtain x(2t - 6).

1.3 CLAS SIFICATION OF SIGNALS

There are several classes of signals. Here we shall consider only the following classes, which
are suitable for the scope of this book:
l . Continuous-time and discrete-time signals
2. Analog and digital signals
3. Periodic and aperiodic signals
4. Energy and power signals
5. Deterministic and probabilistic signals

1.3-1 Continuous-Time and Discrete-Time Signals

A signal that is specified for a continuum of values of time t (Fig. l. l Oa) is a continuous-time
signal, and a signal that is specified only at discrete values of t (Fig. l . l Ob) is a discrete-time
signal. Telephone and video camera outputs are continuous-time signals, whereas the quarterly
gross national product (GNP), monthly sales of a corporation, and stock market daily averages
are discrete-time signals.

1.3-2 Analog and Digital Signals

The concept of continuous time is often confused with that of analog. The two are not the same.
The same is true of the concepts of discrete time and digital. A signal whose amplitude can
take on any value in a continuous range is an analog signal. This means that an analog signal
amplitude can take on an infinite number of values. A digital signal, on the other hand, is one
whose amplitude can take on only a finite number of values. Signals associated with a digital
computer are digital because they take on only two values (binary signals). A digital signal
whose amplitudes can take on M values is an M-ary signal of which binary (M = 2) is a special
case. The terms continuous time and discrete time qualify the nature of a signal along the time
(horizontal) axis. The terms analog and digital, on the other hand, qualify the nature of the signal
amplitude (vertical axis). Figure 1 . 1 1 shows examples of signals of various types. It is clear that
analog is not necessarily continuous-time and digital need not be discrete-time. Figure 1 . 1 lc
16 CHAPTER 1 SIGNALS AND SYSTEMS

x(t)

1-

(a)

Quarterly GNP : The return of recession

In percent change; seasonally adjusted annual rates
Source : Commerce Department, news reports

I I _ ii I I Il l I I I I II H H Hn 11 1 1 H I I I
I I I Iii
0
a I 1 • •

I I I I

=�-=tF �·?,' �-+=-==

-4

-8 dunng 198 1-82 recess10n 1 ·

1

198 1 '82 '83 ' 84 ' 85 '86 '87 '88 '89 '90 '9 1 '92 '93 '94

(b)
Figure 1.10 (a) Continuous-time and (b) discrete-time signals.

shows an example of an analog discrete-time signal. An analog signal can be converted into
a digital signal [analog-to-digital (AID) conversion] through quantization (rounding off ), as
explained in Section 8.3.

1.3-3 Periodic and : Aperiodic Signals

= x (t + To)
A signal x (t) is said to be periodic if for some positive constant To
x (t) for all t ( 1 . 1 7)
The smallest value of To that satisfies the periodicity condition of Eq. ( 1 . 1 7) is the fundamental
period of x (t). The signals in Figs. l .2b and l .3e are periodic signals with periods 2 and 1 ,
respectively. A signal i s aperiodic if it is not periodic. Signals in Figs. 1 .2a, l .3a, l .3b, 1 .3c, and
1 .3d are all aperiodic.
 1.3 Classification of Signals 17

x(t)

, _

, _

(a) (b)

x(t) x(t)

, _

, _

(c) (d)

time, (c) analog, discrete time, and (d) digital, discrete time.
Figure 1.11 Examples of signals: (a) analog, continuous time, (b) digital, continuous

x(t)

'.:""1111:1:--
" -- To ---:1)1<.,l

Figure 1.12 A periodic signal of period T0•

= =
By definition, a periodic signal x (t) remains unchanged when time-shifted by one period.
For this reason a periodic signal must start at t - oo : if it started at some finite instant, say
t 0, the time-shifted signal x (t + T0) would start at t = - T0 and x (t + T0) would not be the
forever, as illustrated in Fig. 1. 12.
same as x (t). Therefore a periodic signal, by definition, must start at t = - oo and continue

Another important property ofa periodic signal x (t) is that x (t) can be generated by periodic
exten$ion of any segment of x (t) of duration T0 (the period). As a result we can generate x (t)
from any segment of x (t) having a duration of one period by placing this segment and the
reproduction thereof end to end ad infinitum on either side. Figure 1.13 shows a periodic signal
x (t) of period To = 6. The shaded portion of Fig. l . 1 3a shows a segment of x (t) starting at
t = - 1 and having a duration of one period (6 seconds). This segment, when repeated forever in
either direction, results in the periodic signal x (t ) . Figure 1. 13b shows another shaded segment
18 CHAPTER 1 SIGNALS AND SYSTEMS

(a)

x(t)

-6 0 6 12 r --

(b)
Figure 1 . 1 3 Generation of a periodic signal by periodic extension of its segment
of one-period duration.

of x (t ) of duration T0 starting at t = 0. Again we see that this segment, when repeated forever
on either side, results in x (t) . The reader can verify that this construction is possible with any
segment of x (t) starting at any instant as long as the segment duration is one period.

1a + 1ii x (t) dt = ;,·h+ 7i1 x (t) dt

An additional useful property of a periodic signal x (t) of period T0 is that the area under
x (t) over any interval of duration T0 is the same; that is, for any real numbers a and b

a h
( l . 1 8)

Th is result follows from the fact that a periodic signal takes the same values at the intervals of
T0 . Hence, the values over any segment of duration T0 are repeated in any other interval of the
same duration. For convenience, the area under x (t) over any interval of duration T0 will be
denoted by

}7il i x (t) dt
It is helpful to label signals that start at t = - oo and continue forever as everlasting
signals. Thus, an everlasting signal exists over the entire interval -oo < t < oo. The signals in
Figs. 1 . 1 b and 1 .2b are examples of everlasting signals. Clearly, a periodic signal, by definition,
is an everlasting signal .
A signal that does not start before t = 0 is a causal signal. In other words, x (t ) is a causal
signal if

x (t) = 0 t < 0 ( l . 19)

Signals in Fig. l .3a- 1 .3c are causal signals. A signal that starts before t = 0 is a noncausal
signal. All the signals in Fig. 1 . 1 and 1 .2 are noncausal . Observe that an everlasting signal is
always noncausal but a noncausal signal is not necessarily everlasting. The everlasting signal
in Fig. l .2b is noncausal ; however, the noncausal signal in Fig. l .2a is not everlasting. A signal
that is zero for all t � 0 is called an anticausal signal.
Discovering Diverse Content Through
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in the old Cistercian Abbey, Mrs. Catharine Boevey, the lady of the
abbey, had one of the earliest and pleasantest Sabbath-schools. Her
monument in Flaxley Church, erected after her death in 1726,
records her “clothing and feeding her indigent neighbours, and
teaching their children, some of whom she entertained at her house,
and examined them herself.” Six of the poor children, it is elsewhere
stated, “by turns dined at her residence on Sundays, and were
afterwards heard say the Catechism.”
We read of a humbler labourer, realising, perhaps, more the idea
of a Sabbath-school teacher, in Bolton, in Lancashire, James Hey, or
“Old Jemmy o’ th’ Hey.” Old Jemmy, Mr. Gregory tells us, employed
the working days of the week in winding bobbins for weavers, and
on Sundays he taught the boys and girls of the neighbourhood to
read. His school assembled twice each Sunday, in the cottage of a
neighbour, and the time of commencing was announced, not by the
ringing of a bell, but by an excellent substitute, an old brass pestle
and mortar. After a while, Mr. Adam Compton, a paper manufacturer
in the neighbourhood, began to supply Jemmy with books, and
subscriptions in money were given him; he was thus enabled to form
three branch establishments, the teachers of which were paid one
shilling each Sunday for their services. Besides these there are
several other instances: in 1763 the Rev. Theophilus Lindsey
established something like a Sunday-school at Catterick, in
Yorkshire; at High Wycombe, in 1769, Miss Hannah Ball, a young
Methodist lady, formed a Sunday-school in her town; and at
Macclesfield that admirable and excellent man, the Rev. David
Simpson, originated a similar plan of usefulness; and, contemporary
with Mr. Raikes, in the old Whitefield Tabernacle, at Dursley, in
Gloucestershire, we find Mr. William King, a woollen card-maker,
attempting the work of teaching on a Sunday, and coming into
Gloucester to take counsel with Mr. Raikes as to the best way of
carrying it forward. Such, scattered over the face of the country, at
great distances, and in no way representing a general plan of useful
labour, were the hints and efforts before the idea took what may be
called an apostolic shape in the person of Robert Raikes.
 Notwithstanding the instances we have given, Mr. Raikes must
really be regarded as the founder of Sunday-schools as an extended
organisation. With him they became more than a notion, or a mere
piece of local effort; and his position and profession, and the high
respect in which he was held in the city in which he lived, all alike
enabled him to give publicity to the plan: and before he commenced
this movement, he was known as a philanthropist; indeed, John
Howard himself bears something like the same relation to prison
philanthropy which Raikes bears to Sunday-schools. No one doubts
that Howard was the great apostle of prisons; but it seems that
before he commenced his great prison crusade, Raikes had laboured
diligently to reform the Gloucester gaol. The condition of the
prisoners was most pitiable, and Raikes, nearly twenty years before
he commenced the Sunday-school system, had been working among
them, attempting their material, moral, and spiritual improvement,
by which he had earned for himself the designation of the “Teacher
of the Poor.” Howard visited Raikes in Gloucester, and bears his
testimony to the blessedness and benevolence of his labours in the
prison there; and the gaol appears not unnaturally to have
suggested the idea of the Sunday-school to the benevolent-hearted
man. It was a dreadful state of society. Some idea may be formed of
it from a paragraph in the Gloucester Journal for June, 1783, the
paper of which Raikes was the editor and proprietor: it is mentioned
that no less than sixty-six persons were committed to the Castle in
one week, and Mr. Raikes adds, “The prison is already so full that all
the gaoler’s stock of fetters is occupied, and the smiths are hard at
work casting new ones.” He goes on to say: “The people sent in are
neither disappointed soldiers nor sailors, but chiefly frequenters of
ale-houses and skittle-alleys.” Then, in another paragraph, he goes
on to remark, “The ships about to sail for Botany Bay will carry
about one thousand miserable creatures, who might have lived
perfectly happy in this country had they been early taught good
principles, and to avoid the danger of associating with those who
make sobriety and industry the objects of their ridicule.”
 From sentences like these it is easy to see the direction in which
the mind of the good man was moving, before he commenced the
work which has given such a happy and abiding perpetuity to his
name. He gathered the children; the streets were full of noise and
disturbances every Sunday. In a little while, says the Rev. Dr. Glass,
Mr. Raikes found himself surrounded by such a set of little
ragamuffins as would have disgusted other men less zealous to do
good, and less earnest to disseminate comfort, exhortation, and
benefit to all around him, than the founder of Sunday-schools. He
prevented their running about in wild disorder through the streets.
By and by, he arranged that a number of them should meet him at
seven o’clock on the Sunday morning in the cathedral close, when
he and they all went into the cathedral together to an early service.
The increase of the numbers was rapid; Mr. Raikes was looked up to
as the commander-in-chief of this ragged regiment. It is testified
that a change took place and passed over the streets of the old
Gloucester city on the Sunday. A glance at the features of Mr. Raikes
will assure the reader that he was an amiable and gentle man, but
that by no means implies always a weak one. He appears to have
had plenty of strength, self-possession, and knowledge of the world.
He also belonged to, and moved in, good society; and this is not
without its influence. As he told the King, in the course of a long
interview, when the King and Queen sent for him to Windsor, to talk
over his system with him, in order that they might, in some sense,
be his disciples, and adopt and recommend his plan: it was
“botanising in human nature.” “All that I require,” said Raikes, to the
parents of the children, “are clean hands, clean faces, and their hair
combed.” To many who were barefooted, after they had shown some
regularity of attendance, he gave shoes, and others he clothed. Yes,
it was “botanising in human nature;” and very many anecdotes show
what flowers sprang up out of the black soil in the path of the good
man.
All the stories told of Raikes show that the law of kindness was
usually on his lips. A sulky, stubborn girl had resisted all reproofs and
correction, and had refused to ask forgiveness of her mother. In the
presence of the mother, Raikes said to the girl, “Well, if you have no
regard for yourself, I have much for you. You will be ruined and lost
if you do not become a good girl; and if you will not humble
yourself, I must humble myself on your behalf and make a beginning
for you;” and then, with great solemnity, he entreated the mother to
forgive the girl, using such words that he overcame the girl’s pride.
The stubborn creature actually fell on her knees, and begged her
mother’s forgiveness, and never gave Mr. Raikes or her mother
trouble afterwards. It is a very simple anecdote; but it shows the
Divine spirit in the method of the man; and the more closely we
come into a personal knowledge of his character, the more admirable
and lovable it seems. Thus literally true and beautiful are the words
of the hymn:
“Like a lone husbandman, forlorn,
The man of Gloucester went,
Bearing his seeds of precious corn;
And God the blessing sent.

Now, watered long by faith and prayer,

From year to year it grows,
Till heath, and hill, and desert bare,
Do blossom as the rose.”

Mr. Raikes was a Churchman; he was so happy as to have, near to

his own parish of St. Mary-le-Crypt, in Gloucester, an intimate friend,
the Rector of St. Aldate’s—a neighbouring parish in the same city—
the Rev. Thomas Stock, whose monument in the church truly
testifies that “to him, in conjunction with Robert Raikes, Esquire, is
justly attributed the honour of having planned and instituted the first
Sunday-school in the kingdom.” Mr. Stock was but a young man in
1780, for he died in 1803, then only fifty-four years of age; he must
have been, at the time of the first institution of Sunday-schools, a
young man of fine and tender instincts. He appears, simultaneously
with Mr. Raikes’s movement, to have formed a Sunday-school in his
own parish, taking upon himself the superintendence of it, and the
responsibility of such expenses as it involved. But Mr. Stock says, in
a letter written in 1788, “The progress of the institution through the
kingdom is justly attributed to the constant representations which
Mr. Raikes made in his own paper of the benefits which he saw
would probably arise from it.” At the time Mr. Raikes began the work,
he was about forty-four years of age; it was a great thing in that day
to possess a respectable journal, a newspaper of acknowledged
character and influence; to this, very likely, we owe it, in some
considerable measure, that the work in Gloucester became
extensively known and spread, and expanded into a great
movement. But he does not appear to have used the columns of his
newspaper for the purpose of calling attention to the usefulness and
desirability of the work until after it had been in operation about
three years; in 1783 and 1784, very modestly he commends the
system to general adoption.
 Robert Raikes.

It is remarkable that in the course of two or three years, several

bishops—the Bishop of Gloucester, in the cathedral, the Bishops of
Chester and Salisbury, in their charges to the clergy of their dioceses
—strongly commended the plan. All orders of mind poured around
the movement their commendation; even Adam Smith, whom no
one will think likely to have fallen into exaggerated expressions
where Christian activity is concerned, said, “No plan has promised to
effect a change of manners with equal ease and simplicity, since the
days of the apostles.” The poet Cowper declared that he knew of no
nobler means by which a reformation of the lower classes could be
effected. Some attempts have been made to claim for John Wesley
the honour of inaugurating the Sunday-school system; considering
the intensely practical character of that venerated man, and how
much he was in advance of his times in most of his activities, it is a
wonder that he did not; but his venerable memory has honours,
certainly, in all sufficiency. He wrote his first commendation of
Sunday-schools in the Arminian Magazine of 1784. He says, “I find
these schools spring up wherever I go; perhaps God may have a
deeper end therein than men are aware of; who knows but that
some of these schools may become nurseries for Christians?”
Prophetic as these words are, this is fainter and tardier praise than
we should have expected from him; but in 1787 he writes more
warmly, expresses his belief that these schools will be one great
means of reviving religion throughout the kingdom, and expresses
“wonder that Satan has not sent out some able champion against
them.” In 1788 he says: “I verily think that these schools are one of
the noblest specimens of charity which have been set on foot in
England since the days of William the Conqueror.”
Some estimate may be formed of the rapidity with which the
movement spread, when we find that in this year, 1787, the number
of children taught in Sunday-schools in Manchester alone, on the
testimony of the very eminent John Nichols, the great printer and
anecdotist, was no fewer than five thousand. It was in this year also,
1787, that Mr. Raikes was visiting some relatives in the
neighbourhood of Windsor. He must have attained to the dignity of a
celebrity; nor is this wonderful, when we remember the universal
acceptance with which his great idea of Sunday-schools had been
honoured. The Queen invited him to visit her, and inquired of him,
he says, “by what accident a thought which promised so much
benefit to the lower order of people as the institution of Sunday-
schools, was suggested to his mind?” The visit was a long one; he
spent two hours with the Queen—the King also, we believe, being
present most of the time—not so much in expounding the system,
for that was simple enough, but they were curious as to what he
had observed in the change and improvement of the characters
among whom he worked; and we believe that it was then he told
the King, in the words we have already quoted, that he regarded his
work as a kind of “botanising in human nature;” this was a favourite
phrase of his in describing the work. The result of this visit was, that
the Queen established a Sunday-school in Windsor, and also a school
of industry at Brentford, which the King and Queen occasionally
visited. It may be taken as an illustration of the native modesty of
Mr. Raikes’s own character that he never referred in his paper to this
distinguished notice of royalty.
Do our readers know anything of Mrs. Sarah Trimmer? A hundred
years ago, there was, probably, not a better-known woman in
England; and although her works have long ceased to exercise any
influence, we suppose none, in her time, were more eminently
useful. Pious, devoted, earnestly evangelical, if we speak of her as a
kind of lesser Hannah More, the remark must apply to her
intellectual character rather than to her reputation or her usefulness.
Almost as soon as the Sunday-school idea was announced, she
stepped forward as its most able and intrepid advocate; her
Economy of Charity exercised a large influence, and she published a
number of books, which, at that time, were admirably suited to the
level of the capacity which the Sunday-school teacher desired to
reach; she was also a great favourite with the King and Queen, and
appears to have visited them on the easy terms of friendship. The
intense interest she felt in Sunday-schools is manifest in innumerable
pages of the two volumes which record her life; certainly, she was
often at the ear of the royal pair, to whisper any good and pleasant
thing connected with the progress of her favourite thought. She
repeatedly expresses her obligation to Mr. Raikes; but her biographer
only expresses the simple truth when he says: “To Mr. Raikes, of
Gloucester, the nation is, in the first place, indebted for the happy
idea of collecting the children of the poor together on the Sabbath,
and giving them instruction suited to the sacredness of the day; but,
perhaps, no publication on this subject was of more utility than the
Economy of Charity. The influence of the work was very visible when
it first made its appearance, and proved a source of unspeakable
gratification to the author.”
It is not consistent with the aim of this book to enter at greater
length into the life of Robert Raikes; we have said sufficient to show
that the term which has been applied to him of “founder of Sunday-
schools,” is not misapplied. He was a simple and good man, on
whose heart, as into a fruitful soil, an idea fell, and it became a
realised conviction. Look at his portrait, and instantly there comes to
your mind Cowper’s well-known description of one of his friends,
“An honest man, close-buttoned to the chin,
Broadcloth without, and a warm heart within.”

No words can better describe him—not a tint of fanaticism seems to

shade his character; he had a warm enthusiasm for ends and aims
which commended themselves to his judgment. It is pleasant to
know that, as he lived when the agitation for the abolition of the
slave trade was commencing, he gave to the movement his hearty
blessings and best wishes. At sixty-seven years of age he retired
from business; no doubt a very well-to-do man, for he was the
owner of two freehold estates near Gloucester, and he received an
annuity of three hundred pounds from the Gloucester Journal. He
died at his house in Bell Lane, in the city of Gloucester, where he
had taken up his residence when he retired from active life; he died
suddenly, in his seventy-sixth year, in 1811. Then the family vault in
St. Mary-le-Crypt, which sixty years before had received his father’s
ashes, received the body of the gentle philanthropist. He had kept
up his Sunday-school work and interest to the close; and he left
instructions that his Sunday-school children should be invited to
follow him to the grave, and that each of them should receive a
shilling and a plum cake. On the tablet over the place where he
sleeps an appropriate verse of Scripture well describes him: “When
the ear heard me, then it blessed me; and when the eye saw me, it
gave witness to me: because I delivered the poor that cried, and the
fatherless, and him that had none to help him. The blessing of him
that was ready to perish came upon me: and I caused the widow’s
heart to sing for joy.”
It seems very questionable whether the slightest shade can cross
the memory of this plain, simply useful, and unostentatious man.
And it ought to be said that Anne Raikes, who rests in the same
grave, appears to have been every way the worthy companion of her
husband. She was the daughter of Thomas Trigg, Esq., of Newnham,
in Gloucestershire; the sister of Sir Thomas Trigg and Admiral John
Trigg. They were married in 1767. She shared in all her husband’s
large and charitable intentions, and when he died he left the whole
of his property to her. She survived him seventeen years, and died in
1828, at the age of eighty-five.
 RAIKES’S HOUSE, GLOUCESTER.

The visitor to Gloucester will be surely struck by a quaint old

house in Southgate Street—still standing almost unaltered, save that
the basement is now divided into two shops. A few years since the
old oak timbers were braced, stained, and varnished. It is a fine
specimen of the better class of English residences of a hundred and
fifty years since, and is still remarkable in the old city, owing very
much to the good taste which governed their renovation. This was
the printing-office of Robert Raikes, a notice in the Gloucester
Journal, dated August 19, 1758, announcing his removal from
Blackfriars Square to this house in Southgate Street. The house now
is in the occupation of Mrs. Watson. The house where Raikes lived
and died is nearly opposite. It will not be difficult for the spectator to
realise the pleasant image of the old gentleman, dressed, after the
fashion of the day, in his blue coat with gold buttons, buff waistcoat,
drab kerseymere breeches, white stockings, and low shoes, passing
beneath those ancient gables, and engaged in those various public
and private duties which we have attempted to record. A century
has passed away since then, and the simple lessons the
philanthropist attempted to impart to the young waifs and strays he
gathered about him have expanded into more comprehensive
departments of knowledge. The originator of Sunday-schools would
be astonished were he to step into almost any of those which have
branched out from his leading idea. It is still expanding; it is one of
the most real and intense activities of the Universal Church; but
among the immense crowds of those who, in England and America,
are conducting Sunday-school classes, it is, perhaps, not too much
to say, that in not one is there a more simple and earnest desire to
do good than that which illuminated the life, and lends a sweet and
charming interest to the memory, of Robert Raikes.
 CHAPTER XI

THE ROMANTIC STORY OF SILAS TOLD.

Dr. Abel Stevens, in his History of Methodism, says, “I congratulate

myself on the opportunity of reviving the memory of Silas Told;” and
speaks of the little biography in which Silas himself records his
adventures as “a record told with frank and affecting simplicity, in a
style of terse and flowing English Defoe might have envied.”
Such a testimony is well calculated to excite the curiosity of an
interested reader, especially as the two or three incidents mentioned
only serve to whet the appetite for more of the like description. The
little volume to which he refers has been for some years in the
possession of the author of this volume. It is indeed an astonishing
book; its alleged likeness to Defoe’s charmingly various style of
recital of adventures by sea and by land is no exaggeration, whilst
as a piece of real biography it may claim, and quite sustain, a place
side by side with the romantic and adventurous career of John
Newton; but the wild wonderfulness of the story of Silas seems to
leave Newton’s in the shade. Like Newton, Told was also a seer of
visions and a dreamer of dreams, and a believer, in special
providences; and well might he believe in such who was led certainly
along as singular a path as any mortal could tread. The only other
memorial besides his own which has, we believe, been penned of
him—a brief recapitulations-well describes him as honest, simple,
and tender. Silas Told accompanied, in that awful day, numbers of
persons to the gallows, and attempted to console sufferers and
victims in circumstances of most harrowing and tragic solemnity: he
certainly furnished comfortable help and light when no others were
willing or able to sympathise or to help. John Wesley loved him, and
when Silas died he buried him, and says of him in his Journal: “On
the 20th of December, 1778, I buried what was mortal of honest
Silas Told. For many years he attended the malefactors in Newgate
without fee or reward; and I suppose no man, for this hundred
years, has been so successful in that melancholy office. God had
given him peculiar talents for it, and he had amazing success
therein; the greatest part of those whom he attended died in peace,
and many of them in the triumph of faith.” Such was Silas Told.
But before we come to those characteristic circumstances to which
Wesley refers, we must follow him through some of the wild scenes
of his sailor life. He was born in Bristol in 1711; his parents were
respectable and creditable people, but of somewhat faded families.
His grandfather had been an eminent physician in Bunhill Row,
London; his mother was from Exeter. * * *
Silas was educated in the noble foundation school of Edward
Colston in Bristol. The life of this excellent philanthropist was so
remarkable, and in many particulars so like his own, that we cannot
wonder that he stops for some pages in his early story to recite
some of the remarkable phenomena in Colston’s life. Silas’s
childhood was singular, and the stories he tells are especially
noticeable, because in after-life the turn of his character seems to
have been especially real and practical. Thus he tells how, when a
child, wandering with his sister in the King’s Wood, near Bristol, they
lost their way, and were filled with the utmost consternation, when
suddenly, although no house was in view, nor, as they thought, near,
a dog came up behind them, and drove them clear out of the wood
into a path with which they were acquainted; especially it was
remarkable that the dog never barked at them, but when they
looked round about for the dog he was nowhere to be seen.
Careless children out for their own pleasure, they sauntered on their
way again, and again lost their way in the wood—were again
bewildered, and in greater perplexity than before, when, on a
sudden looking up, they saw the same dog making towards them;
they ran from him in fright, but he followed them, drove them out of
the labyrinths, and did not leave them until they could not possibly
lose their way again. Simple Silas says, “I then turned about to look
for the dog, but saw no more of him, although we were now upon
an open common. This was the Lord’s doings, and marvellous in our
eyes.”
When he was twelve years of age, he appears to have been quite
singularly influenced by the reading of the Pilgrim’s Progress; and
late in life, when writing his biography, he briefly, but significantly,
attempts to reproduce the intense enjoyment he received—the book
evidently caught and coloured his whole imagination. At this time,
too, he was very nearly drowned, and while drowning, so far from
having any sense of terror, he had no sense nor idea of the things of
this world, but that it appeared to him he rushingly emerged out of
thick darkness into what appeared to him a glorious city, lustrous
and brilliant, the light of which seemed to illuminate the darkness
through which he had urged his way. It was as if the city had a floor
like glass, and yet he was sure that neither city nor floor had any
substance; also he saw people there; the inhabitants arrayed in
robes of what seemed the finest substance, but flowing from their
necks to their feet; and yet he was sensible too that they had no
material substance; they moved, but did not labour as in walking,
but glided as if carried along by the wind; and he testifies how he
felt a wonderful joy and peace, and he never forgot the impression
through life, although soon recalled to the world in which he was to
sorrow and suffer so much. It is quite easy to see John Bunyan in all
this; but while he was thus pleasantly happy in his visionary or intro-
visionary state, a benevolent and tender-hearted Dutchman, who
had been among some haymakers in a field on the banks of the
river, was striking out after him among the willow-bushes and
sedges of the stream, from whence he was brought, body and soul,
back to the world again. Such are the glimpses of the childhood of
Silas.
Then shortly comes a dismal transition from strange providences
in the wood, and enchanting visions beneath the waves, to the
singularly severe sufferings of a seafaring life. The ships in that day
have left a grim and ugly reputation surviving still. The term “sea-
devil” has often been used as descriptive of the masters of ships in
that time. Silas seems to have sailed under some of the worst
specimens of this order. About the age of fourteen he was bound
apprentice to Captain Moses Lilly, and started for his first voyage
from Bristol to Jamaica. “Here,” he says, “I may date my first
sufferings.” He says the first of his afflictions “was sea-sickness,
which held me till my arrival in Jamaica;” and considering that it was
a voyage of fourteen weeks, it was a fair spell of entertainment from
that pleasant companion. They were short of water, they were put
on short allowance of food, and when having obtained their freight,
while lying in Kingston harbour, their vessel, and seventy-six sail of
ships, many of them very large, but all riding with three anchors
ahead, were all scattered by an astonishing hurricane, and all the
vessels in Port Royal shared the same fate. He tells how the corpses
of the drowned sailors strewed the shores, and how, immediately
after the subsidence of the hurricane, a pestilential sickness swept
away thousands of the natives. “Every morning,” he says, “I have
observed between thirty and forty corpses carried past my window;
being very near death myself, I expected every day to approach with
the messenger of my dissolution.”
During this time he appears to have been lying in a warehouse,
with no person to take care of him except a negro, who every day
brought to him, where he was laid in his hammock, Jesuit’s bark.
“At length,” he says, “my master gave me up, and I wandered up
and down the town, almost parched with the insufferable blaze of
the sun, till I resolved to lay me down and die, as I had neither
money nor friend; accordingly, I fixed upon a dunghill in the east
end of the town of Kingston, and being in such a weak condition, I
pondered much upon Job’s case, and considered mine similar to that
of his; however, I was fully resigned to death, nor had I the slightest
expectation of relief from any quarter; yet the kind providence of
God was over me, and raised me up a friend in an entire stranger. A
London captain coming by was struck with the sordid object, came
up to me, and, in a very compassionate manner, asked me if I was
sensible of any friend upon the island from whom I could obtain
relief; he likewise asked me to whom I belonged. I answered, to
Captain Moses Lilly, and had been cast away in the late hurricane.
This captain appeared to have some knowledge of my master, and,
cursing him for a barbarous villain, told me he would compel him to
take proper care of me. About a quarter of an hour after this, my
master arrived, whom I had not seen before for six weeks, and took
me to a public-house kept by, a Mrs. Hutchinson, and there ordered
me to be taken proper care of. However, he soon quitted the island,
and directed his course for England, leaving me behind at his sick
quarters; and, if it should please God to permit my recovery, I was
commanded to take my passage to England in the Montserrat,
Captain David Jones, a very fatherly, tender-hearted man: this was
the first alleviation of my misery. Now the captain sent his son on
shore, in order to receive me on board. When I came alongside,
Captain Jones, standing on the ship’s gunwale, addressed me after a
very humane and compassionate manner, with expressions to the
following effect: ‘Come, poor child, into the cabin, and you shall
want nothing that the ship affords; go, and my son shall prepare for
you, in the first place, a basin of good egg-flip, and anything else
that maybe conducive to your relief.’ But I, being very bad with my
fever and ague, could neither eat nor drink.”
A very pleasant captain, this seems, to have sailed with; but poor
Silas had very little of his company. However, the good captain and
his boatswain put their experiences together, and the poor boy was
restored to health, and after some singular adventures he reached
Bristol. Arriving there, however, Captain Lilly transferred him to a
Captain Timothy Tucker, of whom Silas bears the pleasing testimony,
“A greater villain, I firmly believe, never existed, although at home
he assumed the character and temper of a saint.” The wretch
actually stole a white woman from her own country to sell her to the
black prince of Bonny, on the African coast. They had not been long
at sea before this delightful person gave Silas a taste of his temper.
Thinking the boy had taken too much bread from the cask, he went
to the cabin and brought back with him his large horsewhip, “and
exercised it,” says Silas, “about my body in so unmerciful a manner,
that not only the clothes on my back were cut to pieces, but every
sailor declared they could see my bones; and then he threw me all
along the deck, and jumped many times upon the pit of my
stomach, in order to endanger my life; and had not the people laid
hold of my two legs, and thrown me under the windlass, after the
manner they throw dead cats or dogs, he would have ended his
despotic cruelty in murder.” This free and easy mode of recreation
was much indulged in by seafaring officers in that time, but this
Tucker appears to have been really what Silas calls him, “a blood-
thirsty devil;” and stories of murder, and the incredible cruelties of
the slave-trade lend their horrible fascination to the narrative of Silas
Told. How would it be possible to work the commerce of the slave-
trade without such characters as this Tucker, who presents much
more the appearance of a lawless pirate than of the noble character
we call a sailor?
Those readers who would like to follow poor Silas through the
entire details of his miseries on ship-board, his hairbreadth escapes
from peril and shipwreck, must read them in Silas’s own book, if
they can find it; but we may attempt to give some little account of
his wreck upon the American coast, in New England. Few stories can
be more charming than the picture he gives of his wanderings with
his companions after their escape from the wreck, not because he
and they were destitute, and all but naked, but because of the
pleasant glimpses we have of the simple, hospitable, home life in
those beautiful old New England days—hospitality of the most
romantic and free-handed description.
We will select two pictures, as illustrating something of the
character of New England settlements in those very early days of
their history. Silas and his companions were cast on shore, and had
found refuge in a tavern seven miles from the beach; he had no
clothing; but the landlord of the tavern gave him a pair of red
breeches, the last he had after supplying the rest. Silas goes on:
“Ebenezer Allen, Governor of the island, and who dwelt about six
miles from the tavern, hearing of our distress, made all possible
haste to relieve us; and when he arrived at the tavern, accompanied
by his two eldest sons, he took Captain Seaborn, his black servant,
Joseph and myself through partiality, and escorted us home to his
own house. Between eleven and twelve at night we reached the
Governor’s mansion, all of us ashamed to be seen; we would fain
have hid ourselves in any dark hole or corner, as it was a truly
magnificent building, with wings on each side thereof, but, to our
astonishment, we were received into the great parlour, where were
sitting by the fireside two fine, portly ladies, attending the spit,
which was burdened with a very heavy quarter of house-lamb.
Observing a large mahogany table to be spread with a fine damask
cloth, and every knife, fork, and plate to be laid in a genteel mode, I
was apprehensive that it was intended for the entertainment of
some persons of note or distinction, or, at least, for a family supper.
In a short time the joint was taken up, and laid on the table, yet
nobody sat down to eat; and as we were almost hid in one corner of
the room, the ladies turned round and said, ‘Poor men, why don’t
you come to supper?’ I replied, ‘Madam, we had no idea it was
prepared for us.’ The ladies then entreated us to eat without any
fear of them, assuring us that it was prepared for none others; and
none of us having eaten anything for near six and thirty hours
before, we picked the bones of the whole quarter, to which we had
plenty of rich old cider to drink: after supper we went to bed, and
enjoyed so profound a sleep that the next morning it was difficult for
the old gentleman to awake us. The following day I became the
partaker of several second-hand garments, and, as I was happily
possessed of a little learning, it caused me to be more abundantly
caressed by the whole family, and therefore I fared sumptuously
every day.
“This unexpected change of circumstances and diet I undoubtedly
experienced in a very uncommon manner; but as I was strictly
trained up a Churchman, I could not support the idea of a Dissenter,
although, God knows, I had well-nigh by this time dissented from all
that is truly good. This proved a bar to my promotion, and my strong
propensity to sail for England to see my mother prevented my
acceptance of the greatest offer I ever received in my life before; for
when the day came that we were to quit the island, and to cross the
sound over to a town called Sandwich, on the main continent, the
young esquire took me apart from my associates, and earnestly
entreated me to tarry with them, saying that if I would accede to
their proposals nothing should be lacking to render my situation
equivalent to the rest of the family. As there were very few white
men on the island, I was fixed upon, if willing, to espouse one of the
Governor’s daughters. I had been informed that the Governor was
immensely rich, having on the island two thousand head of cattle
and twenty thousand sheep, and every acre of land thereon
belonging to himself. However, I could not be prevailed upon to
accept the offer; therefore the Governor furnished us with forty
shillings each, and gave us a pass over to the town of Sandwich.”
Such passages as this show the severe experiences through which
Silas passed; they illustrate the education he was receiving for that
life of singular earnestness and tenderness which was to close and
crown his career; but we have made the extract here for the
purpose of giving some idea of that cheerful, hospitable, home life of
New England in those then almost wild regions which are now
covered with the population of towns.
Here is another instance, which occurred at Hanover, in the United
States, through which district Silas and his companions appear to
have been wending their way, seeking a return to England. “One
Sunday, as my companions and self were crossing the churchyard at
the time of Divine service, a well-dressed gentleman came out of the
church and said, ‘Gentlemen, we do not suffer any person in this
country to travel on the Lord’s day.’ We gave him to understand that
it was necessity which constrained us to walk that way, as we had all
been shipwrecked on St. Martin’s [Martha’s (?)] Vineyard, and were
journeying to Boston. The gentleman was still dissatisfied, but
quitted our company and went into church. When we had gone a
little farther, a large white house proved the object of our attention.
The door being wide open, we reasonably imagined it was not in an
unguarded state, without servants or others; but as we all went into
the kitchen, nobody appeared to be within, nor was there an
individual either above or below. However, I advised my companions
to tarry in the house until some person or other should arrive. They
did so, and in a short time afterwards two ladies, richly dressed, with
a footman following them, came in through the kitchen; and,
notwithstanding they turned round and saw us, who in so dirty and
disagreeable a garb and appearance might have terrified them
exceedingly, yet neither of them was observed to take any notice of
us, nor did either of them ask us any questions touching the cause
of so great an intrusion.
“About a quarter of an hour afterwards, a footman entered the
kitchen with a cloth and a large two-quart silver tankard full of rich
cider, also a loaf and cheese; but we, not knowing it was prepared
for us, did not attempt to partake thereof. At length the ladies
coming into the kitchen, and viewing us in our former position,
desired to know the reason of our malady, seeing we were not
refreshing ourselves; whereupon I urged the others to join with me
in the acceptance of so hospitable a proposal. After this the ladies
commenced a similar inquiry into our situation. I gave them as
particular an account of every recent vicissitude that befell us as I
was capable of, with a genuine, relation of our being shipwrecked,
and the sole reasons of our travelling into that country; likewise
begged that they would excuse our impertinence, as they were
already informed of the cause; we were then emboldened to ask the
ladies if they could furnish us with a lodging that evening. They
replied it was uncertain whether our wishes could be accomplished
there, but that if we proceeded somewhat farther we should
doubtless be entertained and genteelly accommodated by their
brother—a Quaker—whose house was not more than a distance of
seven miles. We thanked the ladies, and set forward, and at about
eight o’clock arrived at their brother’s house. Fatigued with our
journey, we hastened into the parlour and delivered our message;
whereupon a gentleman gave us to understand, by his free and
liberal conduct, that he was the Quaker referred to by the aforesaid
ladies, who, total strangers as we were, used us with a degree of
hospitality impossible to be exceeded; indeed, I could venture to say
that the accommodations we met with at the Quaker’s house, seeing
they were imparted to us with such affectionate sympathy, greatly
outweighed those we formerly experienced.
“After our banquet, the gentleman took us up into a fine spacious
bed-chamber, with desirable bedding and very costly chintz curtains.
We enjoyed a sound night’s rest, and arose between seven and eight
the next morning, and were entertained with a good breakfast;
returned many thanks for the unrestrained friendship and liberality,
and departed therefrom, fully purposed to direct our course for
Boston, which was not more than seven miles farther. Here all the
land was strewed with plenty, the orchards were replete with apple-
trees and pears; they had cider-presses in the centre of their
orchards, and great quantities of fine cider, and any person might
become a partaker thereof for the mere trouble of asking. We soon
entered Boston, a commodious, beautiful city, with seventeen spired
meetings, the dissenting religion being then established in that part
of the world. I resided here for the space of four months, and
lodged with Captain Seaborn at Deacon Townshend’s; deacon of the
North Meeting, and by trade a blacksmith.” He gives a glowing and
beautiful description of the high moral and religious character of
Boston; here also he met with a stroke of good fortune in receiving
some arrears of salvage for a vessel he had assisted in saving before
his last wreck. Such are specimens of the interest and entertainment
afforded in the earlier parts of this pleasant piece of autobiography.
But we must hasten past his adventures, both in the island of
Antigua and among the islands of the Mediterranean.
It is not wonderful that the great sufferings and toils of Silas
should, even at a very early period of life, prostrate his health, and
subject him to repeated vehement attacks of illness. He was but
twenty-three when he married; still, however, a sailor, and destined
yet for some wild experiences on the seas. Not long, however. A
married life disposed him for a home life, and he accepted, while still
a very young man, the position of a schoolmaster, beneath the
patronage of a Lady Luther, in the county of Essex. He was not in
this position very long. Silas, although an unconverted man, must
have had strong religious feelings; and the clergyman of the parish,
fond of smoking and drinking with him—and it may well be
conceived what an entertaining companion Silas must have been in
those days, with his budget of adventures—ridiculed him for his faith
in the Scriptures and his belief in Bible theology. This so shocked
Silas, that, making no special profession of religion, he yet separated
himself from the clergyman’s company, and shortly after he left that
neighbourhood, and again sought his fortune, but without any very
cheerful prospects, in London.
It was in 1740 that a young blacksmith introduced him to the
people whom he had hitherto hated and despised—the Methodists.
He heard John Wesley preach at the Foundry in the Moor Fields from
the text, “I write unto you, little children, for your sins are forgiven
you.” This set his soul on fire; he became a Methodist,
notwithstanding the very vehement opposition of his wife, to whom
he appears to have been very tenderly attached, and who herself
was a very motherly and virtuous woman, but altogether indisposed
to the new notions, as many people considered them. He improved
in circumstances, and became a responsible managing clerk on a
wharf at Wapping. While there Mr. Wesley repeatedly and earnestly
pressed him to take charge of the charity school he had established
at the Foundry. After long hesitation he did so; and it was here that
while attending a service at five o’clock in the morning, he heard Mr.
Wesley preach from the text, “I was sick, and in prison, and ye
visited me not.” By a most remarkable application of this charge to
himself, Silas testifies that his mind was stirred with a strange
compunction, as he thought that he had never cared for, or
attempted to ameliorate the condition, or to minister to the souls of
the crowds of those unhappy malefactors who then almost weekly
expiated their offences, very often of the most trivial description, on
the gallows. It seems that the hearing that sermon proved to be a
most remarkable turning-point in the life of Silas. Through it he
became most eminently useful during a very remarkable and painful
career; and his after-life is surrounded by such a succession of
romantic incidents that they at once equal, if they do not transcend,
and strangely contrast with his wild adventures on the seas.
And here we may pause a moment to reflect how every man’s
work derives its character from what he was before. What thousands
of sailors, in that day, passed through all the trials which Silas
passed, leaving them still only rough sailor men! In him all the
roughness seemed only to strike down to depths of wonderful
compassion and tenderness. Singular was the university in which he
graduated to become so great and powerful a preacher! How he
preached we do not know, but his words must have been warm and
touching, faithful and loving, judging from their results; and as to his
pulpit, we do not hear that it was in chapels or churches—his
audience was very much confined to the condemned cell, and to the
cart from whence the poor victims were “turned off,” as it was called
in those days. In this work he found his singular niche. How long it
often takes for a man to find his place in the work that is given him
to do; and when the place is found, sometimes, how long it takes to
fit nicely and admirably into the work itself! what sharp angles have,
to be rubbed away, what difficulties to be overcome! It is wonderful,
with all the horrible experiences through which this man had passed,
and spectacles of cruelty so revolting that they seem almost to
shake our faith, not merely in man, but even in a just and overruling
God, that every sentiment of religion and tenderness had not been
eradicated from his nature; but it would appear that the old gracious
influences of childhood—the days of the Pilgrim’s Progress, and the
wonderful vision when drowning beneath the waters, had never
been effaced through all his strange and chequered career, although
certainly not untainted by the sins of the ordinary sailor’s life. The
work in which he was now to be engaged needed a very tender and
affectionate nature; but ordinary tenderness starts back and is
repelled by cruel and repulsive scenes. Told’s education on the seas,
like that of a surgeon in a hospital, enabled him to look on
harrowing sights of suffering without wincing, or losing in his tender
interest his own self-possession.
 It ought not to be forgotten that John Howard, the great prison
philanthropist, belongs to the epoch of the Great Revival. Of him
Edmund Burke said, “He had visited all Europe in a circumnavigation
of charity, not to survey the sumptuousness of palaces, or the
stateliness of temples; not to collect medals or to collate
manuscripts, but to dive into the depths of dungeons and to plunge
into the infections of hospitals.” About the year 1760,[13] when he
began his consecrated work, Silas Told, as a prison philanthropist
upon a smaller, but equally earnest scale, attempted to console the
prisoners of Newgate.
13. See Appendix.
Shortly after hearing that sermon to which we have alluded, a
messenger came to him at the school to tell him that there were ten
malefactors lying under sentence of death in Newgate, some of
them in a state of considerable terror and alarm, and imploring him
to find some one to visit them. Here was the call to the work. The
coincidences were remarkable: John Wesley’s sermon, his own
aroused and tender state of mind produced by the sermon, and the
occasion for the active and practical exercise of his feeling. So
opportunities would meet us of turning suggestions into usefulness,
if we watched for them.
The English laws were barbarous in those days; truly it has been
said that a fearfully heavyweight of blood rests upon the conscience
of England for the state of the law in those times. Few of those who
have given such honour to the noble labours of John Howard and
the loving ministrations of Elizabeth Fry ever heard of Silas Told. In a
smaller sphere than the first of these, and in a much more intensely
painful manner than the second, he anticipated the labours of both.
He instantly responded to this first call to Newgate. Two of the ten
malefactors were reprieved; he attended the remaining eight to the
gallows. He had so influenced the hearts of all of them in their cell
that their obduracy was broken down and softened—so great had
been his power over them, that locked up together in one cell the
night before their execution, they had spent it in prayer and solemn
conversation. “At length they were ordered into the cart, and I was
prevailed upon to go with them. When we were in the cart I
addressed myself to each of them separately. The first was Mr.
Atkins, the son of a glazier in the city, a youth nineteen years of age.
I said to him, ‘My dear, are you afraid to die?’ He said, ‘No, sir; really
I am not.’ I asked him wherefore he was not afraid to die? and he
said, ‘I have laid my soul at the feet of Jesus, therefore I am not
afraid to die.’ I then spake to Mr. Gardner, a journeyman carpenter;
he made a very comfortable report of the true peace of God which
he found reigning in his heart. The last person to whom I spoke was
one Thompson, a very illiterate young man; but he assured me he
was perfectly happy in his Saviour, and continued so until his last
moments. This was the first time of my visiting the malefactors in
Newgate, and then it was not without much shame and fear,
because I clearly perceived the greater part of the populace
considered me as one of the sufferers.”
The most remarkable of this cluster was one John Lancaster—for
what offence he was sentenced to death does not appear; but the
entire account Silas gives of him, both in the prison and at the place
of execution, exhibits a fine, tender, and really holy character. The
attendant sheriff himself burst into tears before the beautiful
demeanour of this young man. However, so it was, that he was
without any friend in London to procure for his body a proper
interment; and the story of Silas admits us into a pretty spectacle of
the times. After the poor bodies were cut down, Lancaster’s was
seized by a surgeons’ mob, who intended to carry it over to
Paddington. It was Silas’s first experience, as we have seen; and he
describes the whole scene as rather like a great fair than an awful
execution. In this confusion the body of Lancaster had been seized,
the crowd dispersed—all save some old woman, who sold gin, and
Silas himself, very likely smitten into extraordinary meditation by a
spectacle so new to him—when a company of eight sailors appeared
on the scene, with truncheons in their hands, who said they had
come to see the execution, and gazed with very menacing faces on
the vacated gallows from whence the bodies had been cut down.
“Gentlemen,” said the old woman, “I suppose you want the man that
the surgeons have got?” “Ay,” said the sailors, “where is he?” The old
woman gave them to understand that the body had been carried
away to Paddington, and she pointed them to the direct road. Away
the sailors hastened—it may be presumed that Lancaster was a
sailor, and some old comrade of these men. They demanded his
body from the surgeons’ mob, and obtained it. What they intended
to do with it scarcely transpires; it is most likely that they had
intended a rescue at the foot of the gallows, and arrived too late.
However, hoisting it on their shoulders, away they marched with it
off to Islington, and thence round to Shoreditch; thence to a place
called Coventry’s Fields. By this time they were getting fairly wearied
out with their burden, and by unanimous consent they agreed to lay
it on the step of the first door they came to: this done, they started
off. It created some stir in the street, which brought down an old
woman who lived in the house to the step of the door, and who
exclaimed, as she saw the body, in a loud, agitated voice, “Lord! this
is my son John Lancaster!” It is probable that the old woman was a
Methodist, for to Silas Told and the Methodists she was indebted for
a decent and respectable burial for her son in a good strong coffin
and decent shroud. Silas and his wife went to see him whilst he was
lying so, previous to his burial. There was no alteration of his visage,
no marks of violence, and says Told, “A pleasant smile appeared on
his countenance, and he lay as in sweet sleep.” A singularly romantic
story, for it seems the sailors did not know at all to whom he
belonged; and what an insight into the social condition of London at
that time!
Told did not give up his connection with his school at the Foundry,
but he devoted himself, sanctioned by John Wesley and his Church
fellowship, to the preaching and ministering to all the poor felons
and malefactors in London, including also, in this exercise of love,
the work-houses for twelve miles round London; he believed he had
a message of tender sympathy for those who were of this order,
“sick and in prison.” It seems strange to us, who know how much he
had suffered himself, that the old sailor possessed such a loving,
tender, and affectionate heart; and yet he tells how, in the earlier
part of these very years, he was haunted by irritating doubts and
alarms: then came to him old mystical revelations, such as those he
had known when drowning, reminding us of similar instances in the
lives of John Howe and John Flavel; and the noble man was
strengthened.
He went on for twenty years in the way we have described; and
the interest of his autobiography compels the wish that it were much
longer; for, of course, the largest amount of his precious life of
labour was not set down, and cannot be recalled; and readers who
are fond of romance will find his name in connection with some of
the most remarkable executions of his time.
A singular circumstance was this: Four gentlemen—Mr. Brett, the
son of an eminent divine in Dublin; Whalley, a gentleman of
considerable fortune, possessed of three country-seats of his own;
Dupree, “in every particular,” says Silas, “a complete gentleman;”
and Morgan, an officer on board one of His Majesty’s ships of war—
after dinner, upon the occasion of their being at an election for the
members for Chelmsford, proposed to start forth, and, by way of
recreation, rob somebody on the highway. Away they went, and
chanced upon a farmer, whom they eased of a considerable sum of
money. The farmer followed them into Chelmsford; they were all
secured, and next day removed to London; they took their trials, and
were sentenced, and left for execution. Told visited them all in
prison. Morgan was engaged to be married to Lady Elizabeth
Hamilton, the sister of the Duke of Hamilton. She repeatedly visited
her affianced husband in the cell, and Told was with them at most of
their interviews. It was supposed that, from the rank of the
prisoners, and the character of their offence, there would be no
difficulty in obtaining a reprieve; but the King was quite inexorable;
he said, “his subjects were not to be in bodily fear in order that men
might gratify their drunken whims.” Lady Elizabeth Hamilton,
however, thrust herself several times before the King; wept, threw
herself on her knees, and behaved altogether in such a manner that
the King said, “Lady Betsy, there is no standing your importunity any
further; I will spare his life, but on one condition—that he is not
acquainted therewith until he arrives at the place of execution;” and
it was so. The other three unfortunates were executed, and Lady
Elizabeth, in her coach, received her lover into it as he stepped from
the cart. It is a sad story, but it must have been a sweet satisfaction
to the lady.
Far more dreadful were some cases which engaged the tender
heart of Silas. A young man, named Coleman, was tried for an
aggravated assault on a young woman. The young woman herself
declared that Coleman was not the man; but he had enemies who
pressed apparent circumstances against him, and urged them on the
young woman, to induce her to change her opinion. She never
wavered; yet, singular to say, he was convicted and executed. A
short time after the real criminal was discovered, by his own
confession; he was also tried, condemned, and executed, and the
perjured witnesses against poor Coleman sentenced to stand in the
pillory.
But one of the most pitiful and dreadful cases in Silas Told’s
experience was that of Mary Edmondson, a sweet young girl, tried
upon mere circumstantial evidence, and executed on Kennington
Common, for the supposed murder of her aunt at Rotherhithe. She
appears to have been most brutally treated; the mob believed her to
be guilty, and received her with shocking execrations. Whether Silas
had a prejudice against her or not, we cannot say; it is not likely that
he had a prejudice against any suffering soul; but it so happened, he
says, as he had not visited her in her imprisonment, so he
entertained no idea of seeing her suffer. But as he was passing
through the Borough, a pious cheesemonger, named Skinner, called
him into his shop, tenderly expressed deep interest in her present
and future state, and besought him to see her; so his first interview
with her was only just as she was going forth to her sad end.
Silas shall tell the story himself: “When she was brought into the
room, she stood with her back against the wainscot, but appeared
perfectly resigned to the will of God. I then addressed myself to her,