Problems 113

• “Large-signal operation” occurs when a circuit or device experiences arbitrarily large

voltage or current excursions. The exponential, constant-voltage, or ideal diode mod-
els are used in this case.
• If the changes in voltages and currents are sufficiently small, then nonlinear devices
and circuits can be approximated by linear couterparts, greatly simplifying the anal-
ysis. This is called “small-signal operation.”
• The small-signal model of a diode consists of an “incremental resistance” given by
VT /IID .
• Diodes find application in many circuits, including rectifiers, limiting circuits, voltage
doublers, and level shifters.
• Half-wave rectifiers pass the positive (negative) half cycles of the input wave-
from and block the negative (positive) half cycles. If followed by a capaci-
tor, a rectifier can produce a dc level nearly equal to the peak of the input
swing.
• A half-wave rectifier with a smoothing capacitor of value C 1 and load resistor RL
exhibits an output ripple equal to (V VP − VD ,on )/(RLC 1 fin ).
D,on
• Full-wave rectifiers convert both positive and negative input cycles to the
same polarity at the output. If followed by a smoothing capacitor and a load
resistor, these rectifiers exhibit an output ripple given by 0.5(V VP − 2V VD ,on )/
D,on
(RLC 1 fin ).
• Diodes can operate as limiting devices, i.e., limit the output swing even if the input
swing continues to increase.

PROBLEMS

In the following problems, assume VD ,on =

D,on 3.4. For the circuit depicted in Fig. 3.64, plot IX
800 mV for the constant-voltage diode model. as a function of VX for two cases: VB = −1 V
and VB = +1 V.
Section 3.2 pn Junction as a Diode IX
3.1. Plot the I/V characteristic of the circuit
shown in Fig. 3.63. R1
VX D1 Ideal
VB
IX

R1 Figure 3.64
VX
D1 Ideal 3.5. If in Fig. 3.65, VX = V0 cos ωt, plot IX as a
function of time for two cases: VB = −1 V
and VB = +1 V.
Figure 3.63
IX

3.2. If the input in Fig. 3.63 is expressed as

R1
VX = V0 cos ωt, plot the current flowing
through the circuit as a function of time. D1 Ideal
VX
3.3. Plot IX as a function of VX for the circuit
shown in Fig. 3.65 for two cases: VB = −1 V VB
and VB = +1 V.
Figure 3.65
114 Chapter 3 Diode Models and C
C Circuits

3.6. Plot IX and ID

D11 as a function of VX for the IX
circuit shown in Fig. 3.66. Assume VB > 0.
R2
IX I R1
VX R1 D1 Ideal

R1
VB
VX
D1 Ideal Figure 3.68
VB

I D1 *3.9. Plot the input/output characteristics of the

Figure 3.66 circuits depicted in Fig. 3.69 using an ideal
model for the diodes. Assume VB = 2 V.
3.7. In the circuit of Fig. 3.67, plot IX and IR1 as *3.10. Repeat Problem 3.9 with a constant-voltage
R1
a function of VX for two cases: VB = −1 V diode model.
and VB = +1 V. *3.11. If the input is given by Vin = V0 cos ωt,
plot the output of each circuit in
IX Fig. 3.69 as a function of time. Assume an
ideal diode model.
R2 **3.12. Plot the input/output characteristics of the
I R1 R1 VB circuits shown in Fig. 3.70 using an ideal
VX model for the diodes.
D1 Ideal **3.13. Repeat Problem 3.12 with a constant-
voltage diode model.
Figure 3.67
**3.14. Assuming the input is expressed as
3.8. For the circuit depicted in Fig. 3.68, plot IX Vin = V0 cos ωt, plot the output of each cir-
and IR
R11 as a function of VX for two cases: cuit in Fig. 3.70 as a function of time. Use an
VB = −1 V and VB = +1 V. ideal diode model.

VB
R1 VB
D1

V in R1
D1 Voout
V in Voout V in R1 Voout
D1
VB

(a) (b) (c)

D1 VB
R1

V in R1 V in
Voout D1 Voout
VB

(d) (e)

Figure 3.69
 Problems 115

VB R1 VB
R1 D1

D1
V in D1 Voout V in Voout V in R1 Voout
VB

(a) (b) (c)

VB D1

V in R1 V in R1
Voout Voout
D1 VB

(d) (e)

Figure 3.70

**3.15. Assuming a constant-voltage diode model, **3.17. For the circuits illustrated in Fig. 3.71, plot
plot Vout as a function of Iin for the circuits Vout as a function of time if Iin = I0 cos ωt.
shown in Fig. 3.71. Assume a constant-voltage model and a rel-
**3.16. In the circuits of Fig. 3.71, plot the current ativelyy large I0 .
flowing through R1 as a function of Vin . As- **3.18. Plott Vout as a function of Iinn for the cir-
sume a constant-voltage diode model. cuits shown
sho in Fig. 3.72. Assume a constant-
voltage diode model.

I in D1
R1 D1 Voout I in R1 Voout
VB

(a) (b)

R1 VB
I in D1 Voout I in Voout
VB
D1 R1

(c) (d
Figure 3.71

D1 R1 VB
I in R1 Voout I in D1 Voout I in Voout
VB VB
D1 R1

(a) (b) (c)

Figure 3.72
 116 Chapter 3 Diode Models and C
C Circuits

*3.19. Plot the current flowing through R1 in the **3.21. For the circuits shown in Fig. 3.73, plot Vout
circuits of Fig. 3.72 as a function of Iin . As- as a function of Iin assuming a constant-
sume a constant-voltage diode model. voltage model for the diodes.
*3.20. In the circuits depicted in Fig. 3.72, as- **3.22. Plot the current flowing through R1 as a
sume Iin = I0 cos ωt, where I0 is relatively function of Iin for the circuits of Fig. 3.73.
large. Plot Vout as a function of time using a Assume a constant-voltage diode model.
constant-voltage diode model.

D1
R1 R1
I in R1 Voout I in Voout I in Voout
D2 D2 D2
D1 D1

(a) (b) (c)

D1
R1 R1
I in Voout I in Voout
D2 D2 I in D2
D1 D1
R1 Vout
o

(d) (e) (f)

D1 D1

I in D2 I in D2
R1 Vout
o R1 Vout
o

(g) (h)
Figure 3.73

D1
R1

R1
R2 D1
V in Voout V in R2 Voout

(a) (b)
Figure 3.74

*3.23. Plot thee input/output

input/o characteristic of the **3.25. Plot the input/output characteristic of the
circuitss illustrated
illustrate in Fig. 3.74 assuming a circuits illustrated in Fig. 3.75 assuming a
constant-voltage
nt-voltage model. constant-voltage model.
*3.24. Plot the currents flowing through R1 and **3.26. Plot the currents flowing through R1 and
D1 as a function of Vin for the circuits of D1 as a function of Vin for the circuits of
Fig. 3.74. Assume a constant-voltage diode Fig. 3.75. Assume a constant-voltage diode
model. model.
 Problems 117

D1
D 1 VB
V in
i Voout
V iin Voout
R1
R2 R1
R2
VB

(a) (b)

D1 VB
R1
VB
V iin Voout V iin Voout
R1 D1
R2 R2

(c) (d)
Figure 3.75
**3.27. Plot the input/output characteristic of the *3.31. Beginning with VD ,on ≈ 800 mV for each
D,on
circuits illustrated in Fig. 3.76 assuming a diode, determine the change in Vout if Vin
constant-voltage model and VB = 2 V. changes from +2.4 V to +2.5 V for the cir-
**3.28.. P
Plot the currents flowing through R and cuits shown in Fig. 3.78.
1
D1 as a function of Vin for the circuits of *3.32. Beginning with VD ,on ≈ 800 mV for each
D,on
Fig. 3.76. Assume a constant-voltage diode diode, calculate the change in Vout if Iin
model anand VB = 2 V. changes from 3 mA to 3.1 mA in the circuits
**3.29. Plot the input/output characteristic of the of Fig. 3.79.
circuits illustrated in Fig. 3.77 assuming a 3.33. In Problem 3.32, determine the change in
constant-voltage model. the current flowing through the 1-k resis-
**3.30. Plot the currents flowing through
hrough R and tor ach circuit.
in each circui
1
D1 as a function of Vin for
fo thee circu
circuits of 3.34. Assuming Vin = Vp sin ωt, plot
p the output
outp
Fig. 3.77. Assume
me cconstant-voltage
constant
nstant-voltage diode waveform of the circuitit depicted
dep cted in Fig. 3.80
model. for an initial condition of +0.5
0 5 V across
ac C1 .
Assume Vp = 5 V.
R1 D1 R1

V iin Voout V iin Vout

o
D1 D2 D1 R2
VB VB
R2

(a) (b)

R1
D1 R1
V iin Voout V iin Vout
o
D1 R2 D2 D2 R2
VB VB

Figure 3.76 (c) (d)

118 Chapter 3 Diode Models and C
C Circuits

D1
D1 R1
V iin Voout
V iin Voout
D2 R2 R1
D2 R2

(a) (b)

D1 D1 D1
V iin
V iin Voout V iin
R1 D2 R1 R1
D2 D2
Voout
Voout
R2
R2 R2

(c) (d) (e)

Figure 3.77

D1 D1
V iin Voout V iin Voout

R 1 = 1 kΩ R 1 = 1 kΩ
D2

(a) (b)

D1 R1 R1
V iin Voout V iin Voout
1 kΩ 1 kΩ
D2 R2 2kΩ D2

(c) (d)
Figure 3.78

D1 D1
Voout Voout
I in R 1 = 1 kΩ I in R 1 = 1 kΩ
D2

(a) (b)

D1 R1 R1
Voout Voout
1 kΩ 1 kΩ
I in D2 I in R2 2kΩ D2

(c) (d)

Figure 3.79
 Problems 119

D1
V iin Voout

C1 0.5 V

Figure 3.80

3.35. Repeat Problem 3.34 for the circuit shown 3.40. Assume the input and output grounds in
in Fig. 3.81. a full-wave rectifier are shorted together.
Draw the output waveform with and with-
D1
V iin Voout
out the load capacitor and explain why the
circuit does not operate as a rectifier.
C1 0.5 V
3.41. A full-wave rectifier is driven by a sinusoidal
input Vin = V0 cos ωt, where V0 = 3 V and
Figure 3.81 ω = 2π (60 Hz). Assuming VD
2π(60 ,on = 800 mV,
D,on
determine the ripple amplitude with a
Section 3.5 Applications of Diodes 1000-μF smoothing capacitor and a load
resistance of 30 .
3.36. Suppose the rectifier of Fig. 3.32 drives a
100- load with a peak voltage of 3.5 V. For a 3.42. Suppose the negative terminals of Vin and
1000-μF smoothing capacitor, calculate the Vout in Fig. 3.38(b) are shorted together.
ripple amplitude if the frequency is 60 Hz. Plot the input-output characteristic assum-
ing an ideal diode model and explaining why
3.37. A 3-V adaptor using a half-wave rectifier the circuit does not operate as a full-wave
must supply a current of 0.5 A with a max- rectifier.
imum ripple of 300 mV. For a frequency
of 60 Hz, compute the minimum required 3.43. Suppose in Fig. 3.43, the diodes carry a
smoothing capacitor. current of 5 mA and the load, a current
of 20 mA. If the load current increases to
*3.38. While constructing a full-wave rectifier, a 21 mA, what is the change in the total volt-
student mistakenly has swapped the termi- age across the three diodes? Assume R1 is
nals of D3 as depicted in Fig. 3.82. Explain much greater than 3rd .
what happens.
3.44. In this problem, we estimate the ripple seen
by the load in Fig. 3.43 so as to appreciate the
D2 D3 regulation provided by the diodes. For sim-
Vout plicity, neglect the load. Also, fin = 60 Hz,
Vin
C1 = 100 μF, R1 = 1000 , and the peak
RL
D1
voltage produced by the transformer is
D4
equal to 5 V.
(a) Assuming R1 carries a relatively con-
Figure 3.82
stant current and VD ,on ≈ 800 mV, esti-
D,on
3.39. Plot the voltage across each diode in mate the ripple amplitude across C1 .
Fig. 3.38(b) as a function of time if (b) Using the small-signal model of the
Vin = V0 cos ωt. Assume a constant-voltage diodes, determine the ripple amplitude
diode model and VD > VD ,on .
D,on across the load.
 120 Chapter 3 Diode Models and C
C Circuits

3.45. Design the limiting circuit of Fig. 3.51 for Voout

a negative threshold of −1.9 V and a posi-
tive threshold of +2.2 V. Assume the input +2V 0.5
peak voltage is equal to 5 V, the maximum
allowable current through each diode is 2 –4 V –2 V
+2V +4V
,on ≈ 800 mV.
mA, and VD D,on
V in

*3.46. In the limiting circuit of Fig. 3.51, plot –2 V

the currents flowing through D1 and D2 0.5
as a function of time if the input is given
Figure 3.84
by V0 cos ωt and V0 > VD ,on + VB
D,on 1 and
B1
−VV0 > −V VD,on − VB
D,on 2.
B2 **3.49. Suppose a triangular waveform is applied
3.47. We wish to design a circuit that exhibits to the characteristic of Fig. 3.84 as shown
the input/output characteristic shown in Fig. in Fig. 3.85. Plot the output waveform and
3.83. Using 1-k resistors, ideal diodes, and note that it is a rough approximation of a si-
other components, construct the circuit. nusoid. How should the input-output char-
acteristic be modified so that the output be-
Voout
comes a better approximation of a sinusoid?

+2V 0.5 Voout

–2 V
+2V V in +2V 0.5
–2 V –4 V –2 V
+2V +4V V in
0.5
–2 V
Figure 3.83
0.5
V in
*3.48. “Wave-shaping” applications require the
input/output characteristic illustrated in Fig.
3.84. Using ideal diodes and other compo-
nents, construct a circuit that provides such
a characteristic. (The value of resistors is not
t
unique.)
Figure 3.85

SPICE PROBLEMS

In the following problems, assume IS = 5× (b) Verify the result by SPICE.

10−16 A.
D1
3.50. The half-wave rectifier of Fig. 3.86 must de-
Voout
liver a current of 5 mA to R1 for a peak input
level of 2 V. V in R1
(a) Using hand calculations, determine the
required value of R1 .
Figure 3.86
 SPICE
S C Problems 121

3.51. In the circuit of Fig. 3.87, R1 = 500  3.53. The circuit of Fig. 3.89 is used in some
and R2 = 1 k. Use SPICE to con- analog circuits. Plot the input/output char-
struct the input/output characteristic for acteristic for −2 V < Vin < +2 V and de-
−2 V < Vin < +2 V. Also, plot the current termine the maximum input range across
flowing through R1 as a function of Vin . which |VVin − Vout | < 5 mV.

R1 D1
VCC = +2.5 V

D2 R2 1 kΩ
V in Voout

D2 D3
Figure 3.87
V iin Voout
3.52. The rectifier shown in Fig. 3.88 is driven by
a 60-Hz sinusoid input with a peak ampli- D4 D1
tude of 5 V. Using the transient analysis in
SPICE, 1 kΩ
(a) Determine the peak-to-peak ripple at
the output. VEE = –2.5 V
(b) Determine the peak current flowing Figure 3.89
through D1 .
(c) Compute the heaviest load (smallest
RL ) that the circuit can drive while 3.54. The circuit shown in Fig. 3.90 can provide an
maintaining a ripple less than 200 mV
Vpp . approximation of a sinusoid at the output
in response to a triangular input waveform.
D1 Using the dc analysis in SPICE to plot the in-
Voout put/output characteristic for 0 < Vin < 4 V,
determine the values of VB 1 and VB
B1 B22 such
V in 1 μF 100 Ω
that the characteristic closely resembles a
sinusoid.
Figure 3.88

2 kΩ
Voout

D1 D2
V in Voout
V B1 V B2
4V V
in
(a) (b)
Figure 3.90