Principles and Applications of Electrical

Engineering
Seventh Edition

Chapter 7

AC Power

R𝐢𝐢𝐢𝐢𝐢𝐢𝐢𝐢𝐢𝐢𝐢𝐢 ∎ Kearns © 2015 McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved.

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 7.1 Instantaneous and Average Power

• Voltage and current delivered to an arbitrary load

• Instantaneous power

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 Current and Voltage Waveforms and their Instantaneous
and Average Power

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 Instantaneous and Average Power (cont’d.)

• Time averaged power

where

• In North America, AC power signals operate at 60 Hz,

which corresponds to

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 Effective Values

• Effective, or root-mean-square (rms) value of an AC

source
– DC value that produces the same average power to be
dissipated by a common resistor

• Voltage and current phasors represented with effective

amplitudes

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 Impedance Triangle

• R is the resistance
• X is the reactance

• Both R and Pavg are

proportional to cos Θz
• Cos Θz known as the
power factor (pf)

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 Power Factor

• For purely resistive loads:

• For purely inductive loads:

• For purely capacitive loads:

• For loads with non-zero resistive (real) and reactive

(imaginary) parts
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 Power Factor (cont’d.)

• Average power dissipated by a resistor

• Average power dissipated by a capacitor or inductor

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 7.2 Complex Power

• Define S as complex power

– * indicates the complex conjugate

– Real part is the real power
– Imaginary part is the reactive power
• Due to inductance and capacitance in a circuit

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 Complex Power (cont’d.)

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 Computation of Complex Power

• Steps to compute complex power

– Use AC circuit analysis methods to compute (as phasors) the
voltage across and current through the load
• Convert peak amplitudes to effective (rms) values

– Compute θZ = θV − θI and the power factor pf = cos(θZ )

– Draw the impedance triangle

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 Computation of Complex Power (cont’d.)

• Use one of the two following methods to compute Pavg

and Q:
– Compute the complex power S = ˜V˜I such that P = Pavg =
Re(S), Q = Im(S), and S = |S|
• The effect of taking the complex conjugate of a phasor is to multiply its
phase angle by −1, such that ∠S = ∠˜V − ∠˜I = θZ
– Compute the apparent power S = |S| = ˜V ˜I such that P = Pavg =
Spf and Q = S sin(θZ )

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 Computation of Complex Power (cont’d.)

• Draw the power triangle

– Confirm S2 = P2 + Q2 and that tan(θZ ) = Q/P
• If Q is negative, the load is capacitive and the power
factor is leading
• If Q is positive, the load is inductive and the power factor
is lagging

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 7.3 Power Factor Correction

• Power factor close to 1

– Efficient energy transfer from source to load
• Small power factor indicates inefficient use of energy
• Loads are often inductive because of presence of electric
motors
– Power factor of an inductive load can be corrected by adding
capacitance in parallel with the load

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 The Wattmeter

• Instrument used to measure power

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 7.4 Transformers

• Act as magnetic couplings

• Match the high-voltage, low-current output of one circuit to
the low-voltage, high current input of another
• Ideal transformer
– Turns ratio N

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 Transformers (cont’d.)

• Each coil experiences self-induction

– Time-varying current produces time-varying magnetic flux
– Defined as inductance L
• Coils experience mutual induction
– Some of the time-varying magnetic flux due to one coil passes
through the other coil
• Induces an opposing potential difference
– Defined as mutual inductance M

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 Transformers (cont’d.)

• For an ideal transformer:

– Step-up transformer: N > 1

– Step-down transformer: N < 1
– Isolation transformer: N = 1
• Ideal transformers conserve power

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 Impedance Reflection

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 Maximum Power Transfer

• Impedance matching
– Maximum power is transferred to the load when its impedance
equals the complex conjugate of the Thévenin equivalent
impedance of the source

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 Maximum Power Transfer (cont’d.)

• When load and source

impedance can not be
matched for practical
reasons:
– Transformer can be used
as an interface to achieve
maximum power transfer

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 7.5 Three-Phase Power

• Most AC power distributed today is three-phase

– Three sinusoidal sources out of phase with each other
– Benefits
• Efficiency
• Steady, constant supply of power
– Wye configuration

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 Three-Phase Power (cont’d.)

• Three balanced voltages

– Equal amplitude and frequency
– 120 degrees out of phase with each other
– Deliver constant instantaneous power

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 Three-Phase Power (cont’d.)

• Balanced three-phase source

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 Three-Phase Power (cont’d.)

• Line voltage related to the phase voltage

• Also possible to connect in delta configuration

– Rarely used in practice

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 7.6 Residential Wiring: Grounding and Safety

• Residential electric power

– Three wires originate from utility pole
• Neutral wire connected to earth ground (white)
• Two “hot” wires (black and red)
– 240 V rms used for appliances that require significant power
– 120 V rms used for lighting
• Power loss in lines directly related to current required by
the load

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 Residential Wiring: Grounding and Safety (cont’d.)

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 Grounding

• Ground connection
– Used to connect appliance chassis to earth ground
– Without this, appliance chassis could be at any potential with
respect to ground
• Poorly grounded appliances a significant hazard
– Could cause death from electric shock
– GFCI: special safety circuit used outdoors and in bathrooms

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 Grounding (cont’d.)

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 7.7 Power Generation and Distribution

• Sources of electric power

– Electric generators
– Hydroelectric
– Thermoelectric
– Wind, solar, and nuclear
• Typical electric generator
– 18 kV rms
– Output processed through a step-up transformer to achieve
high line voltages
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 Structure of an AC Power Distribution Network

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 Power Generation and Distribution (cont’d.)

• Electric power network delivers energy to substations

– Network called the power grid
– Voltage stepped-down at the substations
– Some very large loads may be served directly from the grid
– Local substations distribute energy to commercial and
residential customers
• Voltage stepped-down further

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