CARIBBEAN EXAMINATION COUNCIL

Title of Assignment: Cancer

Date: 24th October 2024

Subject: Electronic Document and Preparation Management

Name of School: Charlestown Secondary School

Name of Teacher: Miss George

Group Members
Rihanna Hamilton
Tashanna Lynch
Nicholas Simon
Zareke Batson
Feyaz Razack
Aqueba Nedd
Introduction
Cancer is a large group of diseases that can start in almost any organ or tissue of the body when
abnormal cells grow uncontrollably, go beyond their usual boundaries to invade adjoining parts
of the body, and/or spread to other organs. The latter process is called metastasizing and is a
major cause of death from cancer. Neoplasm and malignant tumor are other common names for
cancer
Cancer is the second leading cause of death globally, accounting for estimated 9.6 million deaths,
or 1 in 6 deaths, in 2018. Lung, prostate, colorectal, stomach and liver cancer are the most
common types of cancer in men, while breast, colorectal, lung, cervical and thyroid cancer are
the most common among women.
The cancer burden continues to grow globally, exerting tremendous physical, emotional, and
financial strain on individuals, families, communities, health systems. Many health systems in
low- and middle-income countries are prepared least to manage this burden, and large numbers
of cancer patients globally do not have access to timely quality diagnosis and treatment. In
countries where health systems are strong, survival rates of many types of cancers are improving
thanks to accessible early detection, quality treatment and survivorship care.
Definition of Cancer
According to the World Health Organization in 2023 they stated that cancer is a disease in which
some of the body’s cells grow uncontrollably and spread to other parts of the body.
Cancer can start anywhere in the human body, which is made up of trillions of cells. Normally,
human cells grow and multiply (through a process called cell division) to form new cells as the
body needs. When cells grow old or become damaged, they die, and new cells take their place.
Sometimes this orderly process breaks down, and abnormal or damaged cells grow and multiply
when they should not. These cells may form tumors, which are lumps of tissue. Tumors can be
cancerous or not cancerous (benign).
Cancer tumors spread into, or invade, nearby tissues and can travel to distant places in the body
to form new tumors (a process called metastasis). Cancerous tumors may also be called
malignant tumors. Many cancers form solid tumors, but cancers of the blood, such as leukemias,
generally do not.
Benign tumors do not spread into, or invade, nearby tissues. When removed, benign tumors
usually do not grow back whereas cancerous tumors sometimes do. Benign tumors can
sometimes be quite large, however. Some can cause serious symptoms or be life threatening,
such as benign tumors in the brain.
Brief history of Cancer
The very first sign of ambulatory as cancer was recorded beginning from the ancient Egyptian
civilization in about 3000 BCE, breast tumors which were treated by hot iron made incisions to
erase the tumor. Egyptians could discriminate the malignant tumors (cancer) for the benign
tumor. This can be said to be one of the earliest conceptions of cancer as a separate disease
encouraged subsequent further medical investigation.
Cancer research has received somewhat of a dozen momentous advancements in the twentieth
century. In 1915, katsuaburo Yamagiwa and koich Ichikawa of Japan found that coal tar could
cause cancer; that one chemical is carcinogenic. Other breakthroughs included determination of
the chemical make-up of DNA by Watson and Crick in 1962, providing knowledge on cancer
and genetics. The identification of cancer promoting genes (oncogenes) and tumor inhibiting
genes in the 1970s later progressed the analysis of how genetic mutations cause malignancies. In
the subsequent decades, gene therapy and the research of development of vaccines such as the
hepatitis B and HPV provided the long sought after chance for prevention and secondary
treatment.
Currently, the emphasis is placed on molecular and individualized therapy, immunotherapy in the
treatment of cancer. After the Human Papillomavirus (HPV) vaccine in 2006, Cancer has been
prevented and treated by discoveries such as the CAR T-cell treatment that use enhanced immune
cells to contain specific cancers. New ones are low dose CT for lung cancer screening and the
OmcoKB FDA approved genetic variant list for assisting physicians to select treatments. The
optimization of system solutions and specification of targeted treatment methods embody a new
era of many-sided, efficient anticancer therapy focused on CUR of patents.
Types of Cancer
1. Bladder Cancer
2. Breast Cancer
3. Colorectal Cancer
4. Kidney (Renal Cell) Cancer
5. Lung Cancer
Definition of Breast Cancer
Breast cancer is a disease in which abnormal breast cells grow out of control and form tumors. It
left unchecked, the tumors can spread throughout the body and become fatal.
Breast cancer cells begin inside the milk ducts and/or the milk producing lobules of the breast.
The earliest form (in situ) is not life threatening and can be detected in early stages. Cancer cells
can spread into the nearby breast tissue(invasion). This creates tumors that cause lumps or
thickening.
Invasion cancer can spread to nearby lymph nodes or other organs (metastasize). Metastasis can
be life threatening and fatal.
Treatment is based on the person, the type of cancer and its spread. Treatment combines surgery,
radiation therapy and medications.
Causes of Breast Cancer
Experts know breast cancer happens when breast cells mutate and become cancerous cells that
divide and multiply to create tumors. They are not sure what triggers that change. However,
research shows there are several risk factors that may increase your chances of developing breast
cancer. These include:
 Age: Beig 55 or older.
 Sex: Women and people AFAB are much more likely to develop the condition than men
and people AMAB.
 Family history: If your parents, siblings, children, or other close relatives have breast
cancer, you’re at risk of developing disease.
 Genetics: Up to 15% of people with breast cancer develop the disease because they have
inherited genetics mutations. The most common genetic mutations involve the BRCA1
and BRCA2 genes.
 Smoking: Tobacco use has been linked to many different types of cancer, including
breast cancer.
 Drinking beverages containing alcohol: Research shows that drinking beverages
containing alcohol may increase breast cancer risk.
 Having obesity
 Radiation exposure: If you’ve had prior radiation therapy especially to your head, neck
or chest you’re more likely to develop breast cancer.
 Hormone replacement therapy: People who use hormone replacement therapy (HRT)
have a higher risk of being diagnosed with the condition.
Effects of breast cancer
In most cases, the biggest life changing effects of breast cancer come from the treatment and not
from the disease. The effects of breast cancer vary from person to person and the types of cancer.
Some common effects of breast cancer are:

Tiredness
It is a common symptom of breast cancer and a side effect of its treatment. Your doctor might
call it fatigue. It might last for months after treatment, sometimes even longer.
Your tiredness may ease if you:
 Eat a well-balanced diet.
 Keep a healthy weight.
 Get enough sleep.
 Stay physically active.

Hair and Skin Changes

Chemotherapy, or “chemo,” can make your hair fall out, not only on your head but also all over
your body. Chemo also can turn you skin dry and itchy, and flaky. Radiation might cause your
skin to look and feel like there’s sunburn around the treatment spot.
These effects may change how you feel about yourself. Some people might react visibly.
Consider telling your loved ones and others beforehand about what you are going through.
Sometimes, it may help to talk to a mental health counselor. The good news is that after
treatment, your skin returns to normal, and you usually grow back. It is possible that your hair
could grow back with a slightly different feeling and texture

Swelling
Surgeons sometimes remove your lymph nodes from the arm near the breast with the tumor. This
can cause a fluid buildup (lymphedema) that makes your arm, chest, and belly feel swollen, stiff,
and sore. A physical therapist can help lessen these effects.

Bone Thinning, Bone Pain, and Joint Pain

A group of estrogen blocking breast cancer drugs called aromatase inhibitors (anastrozole,
exemestane, letrozole) may make your bones more brittle. That may cause bone and joint pain.
Certain types of chemotherapy can also cause bone thinning. If you aren’t already in menopause,
it may start prematurely.
Breast cancer itself can cause pain if it spreads to your bones. A specialized radiation treatment
called radiotherapy can sometimes help. Ask your doctor about other treatment options like pain
medications
Scarring
If you have had surgery for your cancer, the tissue around the cuts in your skin may scar and
harden. The shape of your breast also may change. Some surgical cuts, like those used for
lumpectomy, can leave scars that fade but may not go away completely.
Your doctor can help prepare you for what to expect. You also might find it helpful to look at
pictures of women who’ve been through this, so you know what to expect.
It may help to talk to your sexual partner about the coming changes to your body and let them
look at and touch the scars. If your body’s changes take a toll on you or your relationship, it can
help to talk with a mental health specialist.

Sex and Fertility

Your sex drive may slow as your body changes from breast cancer or its treatment. Part of this
could be body image, but tiredness, pain, and anxiety also might play s part.
You may have intercourse less often. Also, chemo and hormone therapy can lower your chances
of getting pregnant when you do have sex.
Talk to your doctor about a fertility specialist or mental health counselor if you need support.

Lungs, Liver, and Other Organs

Sometimes, breast cancer spreads, or metastasizes, through the bloodstream or lymphatic system
to other parts of the body. It can lead to tumors in your brain, bones, liver, lungs, and elsewhere.
Complications may include blocked blood vessels, bone fractures, and pressure on the spinal
cord.

Treatment for Breast Cancer

Treatment for breast cancer depends on the subtype of cancer and how much it has spread
outside of the breast to lymph nodes (stages II OR III) or to other parts of the body (stage IV).
Doctors combine treatments to minimize the chances of the cancer coming back (recurrence).
 Surgery to remove the breast tumor
 Radiation therapy to reduce recurrence risk in the breast and surrounding tissues.
 Medications to kill cancer cells and prevent spread, including hormonal therapies,
chemotherapy, or targeted biological therapies.
Treatments for breast cancer are more effective and are better tolerated when standing early and
taken to completion.
Surgery may remove just the cancerous tissue (called a lumpectomy) or the whole breast
(mastectomy). Surgery may also remove lymph nodes to assess the cancer’s ability to spread.
Radiation therapy treats residual microscopic cancer left behind in the breast tissue and/or
lymph nodes and minimizes the chances of cancer recurring on the chest wall.
Advanced cancers can erode through the skin to cause open sores (ulceration) but are not
necessarily painful. Women with breast wounds that do not heal should seek medical care to have
a biopsy performed.
Medicines to treat breast cancers are selected based on the biological properties of the cancer as
determined by special tests (tumor market determination). Most drugs used for breast cancer are
already on the WHO Essential Medicines List (EML).
Lymph nodes are removed at the time of cancer surgery for invasive cancers. Complete removal
of the lymph node bed under the arm (complete axillary dissection) in the past was thought to be
necessary to prevent the spread of cancer. A smaller lymph node procedure called “sentinel node
biopsy” is now preferred as it has fewer complications.
Medical treatments for breast cancers, which may be given before (“neoadjuvant”) or after
(“adjuvant”) surgery, is based on the biological subtyping of the cancers. Certain subtypes of
breast cancer are more aggressive than others such as triple negative (those that do not express
the estrogen receptor (ER), progesterone receptor (PR) or HER-2 receptor). Cancer that
expresses the estrogen receptor (ER) and/or progesterone receptor (PR) are likely to respond to
endocrine (hormone) therapies such as tamoxifen or aromatase inhibitors. These medicines are
taken orally for 5-10 years and reduce the chance of recurrence of these “hormone-positive”
cancers by half. Endocrine therapies can cause symptoms of menopause but are well tolerated.
Cancer that does not express ER or PR are “hormone receptor negative” and need to be treated
with chemotherapy unless that cancer is very small. The chemotherapy regimen available today
are highly effective in reducing the chances of cancer spread or recurrence and are given as
outpatient therapy. Chemotherapy for breast cancer does not require hospital admission I the
absence of complications.
Breast cancers that independently express a molecule called the HER-2/neu oncogene (HER-2
positive) are amenable to treatment with targeted biological agents such as trastuzumab. When
targeted biological therapies are given, they are combined with chemotherapy to make them
effective at killing cancer cells.
Radiotherapy plays a particularly significant role in treating breast cancer. With early-stage
breast cancers, radiation can prevent a woman having to undergo a mastectomy. With later stage
cancers, radiotherapy can reduce cancer recurrence risk even when a mastectomy has been
performed. For advanced stages of breast cancer, in some circumstances, radiation therapy may
reduce the likelihood of dying of the disease.
The effectiveness of the breast cancer therapies depends on the full course of treatment. Partial
treatment is less likely to lead to positive.

Prevention Methods
Between 30% and 50% of cancer deaths could be prevented by modifying or avoiding key risk
factors and implementing existing evidence-based prevention strategies. The cancer burden can
also be reduced through early detection of cancer and management of patients who develop
cancer. Prevention also offers the most cost-effective long-term strategy for the control of cancer.
Modifying or avoiding the following key risk factors can help prevent cancer:
 Avoid tobacco use, including cigarettes and smokeless tobacco.
 Maintain a healthy weight.
 Eat a healthy diet with plenty of fruit and vegetables.
 Exercise regularly.
 Limit alcohol use.
 Practice safe sex.
 Get vaccinated against hepatitis B and human papillomavirus (HPV).
 Reduce exposure to ultraviolet radiation.
 Prevent unnecessary ionizing radiation exposure (e.g., minimizing occupational exposure,
ensure safe and appropriate medical use of radiation in diagnosis and treatment).
 Avoid urban air pollution and indoor smoke from household use of solid fuels.
 Get regular medical care
 Some chronic infections are also risk factors for cancer. People in low- and middle-
income countries are more likely to develop cancer through chronic infections

Conclusion
In conclusion we the researcher learned the breast cancer is most common among women over
the age of forty, once they reach menopause, and if they have kids at an older age. We also
learned about its symptoms, preventions, and medications, but we found it most surprising that it
is the second leading cause of death among women in the United States. Luckily, there are ways
to prevent breast cancer. Some ways include limiting drinking, performing physical activity
weekly, not smoking, managing your weight, not being exposed to radiation or pollution.
Ultimately, an increase in technology and medicine has increased the lifespan of cancer patients
and helped them through their journey.

References:
https://www.who.int/health-topics/cancer
https://www.verywellhealth.com/the-history-of-cancer-514101
https://my.clevelandclinic.org/health/diseases/12194-cancer
https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/breast-cancer
https://www.webmd.com/breast-cancer/breast-cancer-effects-body