PHYS-801J

Report 3: Magnetic Resonance Imaging

Pritam Singh (E622U564)

Introduction
Magnetic Resonance Imaging or MRI is a technology that is generally used in healthcare to produce detailed
images of the human body. It basically uses the concepts of quantum mechanics and electromagnetism for
its functioning. Strong magnetic fields and radio waves are used for the purpose of imaging several soft
tissues of the human body. It is different from other technologies like X-rays and CT scans as it does not use
ionizing radiation. Due to their significant biological abundance, hydrogen atoms are targeted for imaging.
The quality of these images largely depends upon the design of MRI coil, which transmits and receives
radiofrequency (RF) signals. MRI uses nuclear spin of the hydrogen atoms, which specifically comes from
the proton present in the nucleus.[1] [2]

Theory and Working

MRI works on the principle of Nuclear Magnetic Resonance (NMR), where nuclei aligned in a strong magnetic
field (due to nuclear spin which work as magnetic dipoles) interact with electromagnetic radiation which
creates perturbation in the alignment of nuclear spins. When nuclei re-emit the radiation, those signals are
detected by MRI coils for imaging.[2]

Magnetic field and RF pulses: The main components of an MRI system include a powerful magnet, RF
coils and gradient coils. The magnet is used to create a strong uniform magnetic field which results in
precession of the proton spin about the magnetic field direction. To explain, the interaction of proton spin with
magnetic field produces torque, causing it to follow a circular path around the magnetic field, which acts as a
fixed axis as shown in Figure 1. The angular frequency of proton spin, 𝜔𝜔0 around the external magnetic field
𝐵𝐵0 , also known as Larmor frequency is given by [4]

𝜔𝜔0 = 𝛾𝛾𝐵𝐵0
Where 𝛾𝛾 is called gyromagnetic ratio, which depends upon the material. For the hydrogen proton in a water
molecule, 𝛾𝛾 ≈ 2.68 × 108 𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟/𝑠𝑠/𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 .[4]

Figure 1

The nuclear spins can align either parallel or anti-parallel to the external field creating two energy states. In
thermal equilibrium, slightly more spins are in lower energy state which creates net longitudinal magnetization
in the direction of external magnetic field. By applying RF pulse perpendicular to ����⃗𝐵𝐵0 , the direction of
longitudinal magnetization can be changed if the frequency of the pulse resonates with Larmor frequency.
The strength and duration of the pulse can be decided to rotate the magnetization vector by a specific amount.
When the pulse is applied, some low energy protons flip to high energy state, which decreases longitudinal
magnetization and results in protons precessing in phase, eventually shifting the magnetization vector to
transverse plane, that is, the plane perpendicular to applied magnetic field ����⃗
𝐵𝐵0 . [4] [5]
When the radio-frequency signal is stopped, protons start to realign themselves. Protons exchange energy
with surroundings to return to low energy states, i.e. thermal equilibrium, restoring longitudinal magnetization.
𝑇𝑇1 is the time taken for 63% of the longitudinal magnetization to be restored. This relaxation time known as
longitudinal relaxation is different for different molecules largely depending upon how tightly the hydrogen
atom is bound to the molecule. The relaxation time in this case can be calculated to determine the type of
molecule present, contributing to the image contrast.[5]
𝑇𝑇2 relaxation or transverse relaxation occurs when transverse magnetization starts to disappear and protons
experience dephasing. 𝑇𝑇2 is the time when only 37% of original transverse magnetization is present. The loss
of coherence can occur due to spin-spin interaction, magnetic field inhomogeneity, magnetic susceptibility
etc. that contribute to 𝑇𝑇2∗ relaxation. 𝑇𝑇2 relaxation is basically spin-spin relaxation due to inhomogeneity within
the local tissue, that is significant in basic MRI that is used for tissue scanning. 𝑇𝑇2∗ is mostly used in more
specific scanning techniques. 𝑇𝑇2 decay produces RF signal which can be detected to effectively differentiate
between tissues and is very useful for imaging.[5]

Signal detection and image formation: The RF coils are an important component of MRI system that can
transmit as well as receive RF signals. The quality of these signals can be determined by signal-to-noise
ratio. The received signals are processed using Fourier transform to generate detailed images.[1]
For successful 3D image generation, it is important to locate the source of received RF signals, for which
gradient coils are used. These are three sets of coils for spatial directions x, y and z. The main function of
gradient coils is to create a secondary magnetic field that slightly distorts the main magnetic field predictably
throughout the space. Due to this, it becomes possible to detect the position of the source of each RF signal
to generate 3D image of the tissues.[2]

Structure and Materials

Modern MRI coils are designed to maximize signal-to-noise ratio (SNR) and spatial resolution to improve
image quality. Phased array coils, that are composed of multiple small coil elements, are used to cover a
larger area. Each element in phased array coil can be tuned separately to optimize SNR and minimize mutual
inductance between elements.[2] [6] Also, ultra-flexible coils are designed to make wearable receive coils which
provide improved SNR and comfort for the patient.[6]
The coil is made of copper wire mounted on a rigid acrylic housing or flexible substrate. It is usually circular,
oval or rectangular.[6] High-temperature superconductors are also being explored to reduce resistive losses
and increase SNR.[7]

Sensitivity and Issues

Sensitivity of MRI coils is measured as signal-to-noise ratio (SNR) which can be improved by using better
coil structure and materials. Current technology offers high sensitivity, however, further increasing the
sensitivity involves several challenges. As the number of elements increase, thermal noise becomes
significant reducing overall SNR. It is crucial to manage it to maintain high image quality. Also, the coil
elements can lead to mutual inductance and tuning each element separately to increase sensitivity and
reduce mutual inductance increases the complexity of the design.[2] [6]

Best Possible MRI Coil

RF coils are the most important component of MRI that impacts SNR, uniformity and resolution. Proper
selection of RF coils is important to ensure better image quality. Phased array coil is considered to be one of
the best receiver coil as it provides very good SNR because of the use of small surface coil elements. For
the transmitter coil, volume coils like birdcage coils work the best as it provides the most homogeneous
radiofrequency field. Use of high-temperature superconductors in coils can increase the sensitivity even
further.[6] [7]
Types of MRI coils [6]
1. Surface coils: It is the basic form of RF coil that is typically a single conductive loop. These receive
less noise, therefore have higher SNR than volume coils. The signal intensity in surface coils
decreases rapidly with distance providing low penetration. So, these are generally used for
musculoskeletal imaging. Surface coils can only be used to receive RF signal because it produces
inhomogeneous magnetic field if used as a transmit coil, leading to spatial variation.
2. Volume coils: These include transmit-receive coils for imaging. Initially, volume coils were birdcage
coils in design. Volume coils are used to generate homogeneous magnetic field and uniform signal
reception. These can be used for imaging larger volume but have relatively lower SNR.
3. Phased-array coil: It is a receive only coil that consists of multiple coil elements, typically small
surface coils. The high SNR of surface coils can be used to our advantage by using multiple coils to
increase the area of coverage. For some specific application like head coils, elements having
volumetric geometry can also be used in phased-array coil.
These are the three major types of RF coils in MRI, however, different coils can be used for specific body
parts for which the structure is made accordingly. Although the structure may change, the basic idea can be
understood by the above three types. Different combinations of these coils can be used for transmitting and
receiving the signal. For example, birdcage design coils can be used for both transmitting and receiving the
signal or many times, birdcage design is used for transmitting and phased-array coil can be used for receiving
the signal.

References
[1] Odaibo, S. G. (2012). A quantum mechanical review of magnetic resonance imaging. In arXiv
[physics.med-ph]. https://doi.org/10.48550/ARXIV.1210.0946
[2] Sporrer, B., Wu, L., Bettini, L., Vogt, C., Reber, J., Marjanovic, J., Burger, T., Brunner, D. O., Pruessmann,
K. P., Troster, G., & Huang, Q. (2017). A fully integrated dual-channel on-coil CMOS receiver for array coils
in 1.5-10.5 T MRI. IEEE Transactions on Biomedical Circuits and Systems, 11(6), 1245–1255.
https://doi.org/10.1109/TBCAS.2017.2764443
[3] Fantasia, M., Galante, A., Maggiorelli, F., Retico, A., Fontana, N., Monorchio, A., & Alecci, M. (2020).
Numerical and workbench design of 2.35 T Double-Tuned (1H/23Na) nested RF birdcage coils suitable for
animal size MRI. IEEE Transactions on Medical Imaging, 39(10), 3175–3186.
https://doi.org/10.1109/TMI.2020.2988599
[4] Brown, R. W., C. Norman Cheng, Y., Haacke, E. M., Thompson, M. R., & Venkatesan, R. (2014). Magnetic
resonance imaging: Physical principles and sequence design (R. W. Brown, Y.-C. N. Cheng, E. M. Haacke,
M. R. Thompson, & R. Venkatesan, Eds.; 2nd ed.). Wiley-Blackwell.
[5] Pai, A., Shetty, R., Hodis, B., & Chowdhury, Y. S. (2024). Magnetic resonance imaging physics.
In StatPearls. StatPearls Publishing.
[6] Kwok, W. E. (2022). Basic principles of and practical guide to clinical MRI radiofrequency
coils. Radiographics: A Review Publication of the Radiological Society of North America, Inc, 42(3), 898–918.
https://doi.org/10.1148/rg.210110
[7] Labbé, A., Authelet, G., Baudouy, B., van der Beek, C. J., Briatico, J., Darrasse, L., & Poirier-Quinot, M.
(2021). Recent advances and challenges in the development of radiofrequency HTS coil for MRI. Frontiers
in Physics, 9. https://doi.org/10.3389/fphy.2021.705438