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Date of Experiment:
Experiment No 1

AIM:

Determination of the volume of the material of a hollow

cylinder by using slide calipers.

Theory:

Vernier constant of the slide calipers (V. C)

= 1 division of main scale – 1 division of vernier scale.

Measured Length
= reading of main scale (m) + Reading of vernier Scale (n) × Vernier
Constant (V. C)
= m + n × v cm

Suppose length of the hollow cylinder is L cm , external diameter is

𝐷2 𝑐𝑚2 and internal diameter is 𝐷1 𝑐𝑚2 .
Therefore volume of the hollow cylinder is𝑉 = 𝜋4 𝐿 𝐷2 2 − 𝐷1 2 𝑐𝑚3

Apparatus:

1. Slide Calipers.
2. Given Cylinder.
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Procedure:

1. Before the reading first Vernier Constant of the slide calipers

has to be determined.

2. Now zero error if any in vernier caliper is calculated. There are

two types of zero error – 1. Positive zero error & 2. Negative
Zero error.
To find positive zero error, both the jaws are closed. If the zero
mark of the vernier scale is on the right of the zero mark of the
main scale, the zero error is said to positive. Now note the
division of the vernier scale which coincides with any division
of the main scale. The number of this vernier division when
multiplied by Vernier Constant (V. C) gives the positive zero
error. In the final result, this positive error is subtracted.
Similarly f the zero mark of the vernier scale is on the left of the
zero mark of the main scale; the zero error is said to Negative.
In final result the negative error is added.

3. Place the Cylinder between the jaws of the slide calipers. The
value of the main scale reading will be the value which is just
crossed by the vernier Zero mark and vernier reading will be
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that value of vernier scale which just coincide with any division
of main scale. Now vernier division will be the product of V.C
and the number of vernier scale division.

4. Five or six number of observation are taken at different position

by rotating the cylinder about its own axis.

Results:
1. Determination of Vernier Constants:

1 division of main scale = 1 mm = 0.1 cm

Number of Vernier divisions = 10
10 Divisions of Vernier = 9 divisions of main scale = 9 mm = 0.9 cm
1 division of Vernier = 9/10 mm
Vernier Constant (v) = 1 division of main scale – 1 division of vernier scale.
= 1 mm – ( 9/10) mm = 1/10 mm = 0.01 cm

2. Determination of Zero Error:

When the two jaws of the slide calipers are in contact with each other , the reading of the main
scale 𝑚0 = …… cm and reading of Vernier, 𝑛0 = ……
Zero error = e = 𝑚0 + 𝑛0 × 𝑣 = …….cm.

3. Table 1 for measurement for length:

No of Main Scale Vernier Total Reading Average Zero Corrected

Obs. Reading m Reading (m + n v) cm Reading Error Value
cm (n) (e) Cm L = (l – e)
cm
1 3.5 2 3.52
2 3.5 5 3.55
3 3.5 4 3.54 3.54 0 3.54
4 3.5 7 3.57
5 3.5 3 3.53
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4. Table 2 for measurement of External Diameter

No. Direction Main Vernier Total Average Zero Corrected

of of Scale Scale Reading Reading Error value
obs. measurement Reading Reading (m + n v) d cm (e) Cm 𝐷2 = 𝑑 − 𝑒
cm cm
1 First 1.9 4 1.94
Perpendicular
2 First 1.9 6 1.96 1.95 0 1.95
Perpendicular

5. Table 3 for measurement of Internal Diameter

No. Direction Main Vernier Total Average Zero Corrected

of of Scale Scale Reading Reading Error value
obs. measurement Reading Reading (m + n v) d cm (e) Cm 𝐷2 = 𝑑 − 𝑒
cm cm
1 First 1.8 2 1.82
Perpendicular
2 First 1.8 4 1.84 1.83 0 1.83
Perpendicular

Calculations:

𝝅
Volume of the material of the cylinder 𝑽 = 𝑳 𝑫𝟐 𝟐 − 𝑫𝟏 𝟐 𝒄𝒎𝟑
𝟒
𝟑.𝟏𝟒
𝑽 = 𝟒 𝑳 𝑫𝟐 𝟐 − 𝑫𝟏 𝟐 𝒄𝒎𝟑
𝟑.𝟏𝟒
𝑽 = 𝟒 𝟑. 𝟓𝟒 𝟏. 𝟗𝟓𝟐 − 𝟏. 𝟖𝟑𝟐 𝒄𝒎𝟑 = 𝒄𝒎𝟑

Precautions:

1. The cylinder should not be pressed tightly or loosely between the jaws of the Slide
Calipers.
2. Parallax error should be avoided.
3. If the instrument has instrumental error, it should be determined and necessary correction
of the reading is to be done.
4. Diameter is to be measured at different places of the cylinder.
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Experiment No. 2 Date:

AIM:
Determination of area of cross section of a wire or thin solid
rod by screw gauge.
Theory:
In Screw gauge Rotational motion of the screw is proportional to the
linear motion i.e. for every complete rotation of the circular scale screw
head move equal linear distance.
A screw pitch (p) = the linear distance move by the screw head in one
complete rotation i.e. 360 degree.

𝐒𝐜𝐫𝐞𝐰 𝐩𝐢𝐭𝐜𝐡 (𝐩)

Least count of Screw gauge (c) =
𝐍𝐨.𝐨𝐟 𝐝𝐢𝐯𝐢𝐬𝐢𝐨𝐧 𝐨𝐟 𝐜𝐢𝐫𝐜𝐮𝐥𝐚𝐫 𝐬𝐜𝐚𝐥𝐞 (𝐧)
The measurement in screw gauge = main scale reading (m) + circular
scale reading (n) × least count (c)

Zero error = the reading of screw gauge when the screw head touches
the fixed surface

Corrected reading = reading of screw gauge – instrumental error.

𝑑
If d be the diameter of the given wire its radius (r) is equal to cm
2
𝟐 𝝅𝒅𝟐
Area of the cross section of the wire, 𝑨 = 𝝅𝒓 = 𝒄𝒎𝟐 .
𝟒

Apparatus:

1. Screw Gauge
2. Given Wire
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Figure: Screw Gauge

Procedure:

Step 1: Determine the pitch and least count of the screw gauge.

Step 2: Bring the anvil and screw in contact with each other and find the zero error. Do it
three times and record them. If there is no zero error, then record ‘zero error nil’.

Step 3: Move the screw away from the anvil and place the thin wire and move the screw
towards the anvil using the ratchet head. Stop when the ratchet slips without moving the
screw.

Step 4: Note the number of divisions on the pitch scale that is visible and uncovered by the
edge of the cap. The reading N is called the pitch scale reading.

Step 5: Note the number (n) of the division of the circular scale lying over the reference
line.

Step 6: Repeat steps 3 to 5 for measuring the diameter in a perpendicular direction. Record
the observations in the tabular column.

Step 7: Repeat the steps 3 to 6 to measure the diameter of the wire at different places.
Record the data in a tabular form.

Step 7: Find total reading using the formula and apply zero correction in each case.

Step 8: Take the mean of different values.

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Results:
Determination of least count

1 division of linear scale = 1 mm

Number of divisions of circular scale (N) = 100
Screw Pitch = 1 mm
𝐒𝐜𝐫𝐞𝐰 𝐩𝐢𝐭𝐜𝐡
Least Count (c) = =1/100 mm = 0.01mm= 0.001 cm
𝐍

Determination of the instrumental error (e)

Instrumental error = e = ± y divisions

= ± y × (least count) = ± 0 mm

Table for measurement of diameter (d) and area of cross section (A)
of the given wire.
Table No 1

No Direction of Liner scale Circular Diameter Mean Mean Corrected Area

of diameter reading Scale of the wire of first Diameter diameter of
Obs. (m) mm reading (m+ n c) and (𝒅′ ) d=𝒅′ -e cross
(n) mm perpendicular cm cm section
reading in cm 𝒄𝒎𝟐
1 First 0.1 62 0.162 0.162
Perpendicular
2 First 0.1 68 0.168 0.168 0.165 0.165 0.0214
Perpendicular
3 First 0.1 65 0.165 0.165
Perpendicular

Precautions:

1. Diameter of the wire is to be measure at various places.

2. The wire should not be placed tightly within the plane surface of the screw gauge and the
fixed plane surface of the screw gauge.
3. Backlash error should be avoided by moving the screw only in one direction.
4. If there is zero error, it is to be found out and necessary correction is to be made.
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Experiment No 3 Date:
Aim
To determine radius of curvature of a given convex and concave
mirror/ surface using a spherometer.

Theory

It works on the principle of micrometer screw. It is used to measure either very small thickness
or the radius of curvature of a spherical surface that is why it is called a spherometer.

Parts of a Spherometer
A spherometer consists of a metallic tripod framework supported on three fixed legs of equal
lengths. A screw passes through the centre of the tripod frame, parallel to the three legs. A large
(D) circular disc graduated with 100 equal parts is attached to the top of the screw. A small
vertical scale known as the Pitch scale (P) with the scale reading divided into millimeters is fixed
at one end of the tripod frame.
Thickness of a Glass Strip
The thickness of a glass strip can be represented by;
𝐭 = 𝐧 × 𝐩𝐢𝐭𝐜𝐡 𝐏 + 𝐂 × 𝐋. 𝐂
Where, 'n' is the number of complete rotation made by the circular disc.
'P' is the pitch, which is the distance moved by the middle screw per revolution.
'C' is the number of additional circular scale divisions in excess of complete rotations.
'L.C' is the least count of spherometer.
Least Count of the Spherometer
The pitch of the screw needs to be measured first. Find the value of 1 division on the pitch scale.
Then bring the zero of the circular scale opposite to the pitch scale and rotate the screw by 'n'
complete rotations. Note the distance ‘d’ moved by the screw on the pitch scale. The pitch of the
screw is given by;

If there are N divisions in the circular scale on the circumference of the disc then;
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Measuring the Radius of Curvature of the Concave Surface

Where l is the average distance between the two legs and h is the height.

Apparatus
1. Spherometer,
2. convex surface (it may be unpolished convex mirror),
3. a big size plane glass slab or plane mirror.

Diagram

Procedure

 Raise the central screw of the spherometer and press the spherometer gently on the
practical note-book so as to get pricks of the three legs. Mark these pricks as A, B and C.
 Measure the distance between the pricks (points) by joining the points as to form a
triangle ABC.
 Note these distances (AB, BC, AC) on notebook and take their mean.
 P a g e | 10

 Find the value of one vertical pitch scale division.

 Determine the pitch and the least count of the spherometer and record it step wise.
 Raise the screw sufficiently upwards.
 Place the spherometer on the convex surface so that its three legs rest on it.
 Gently, turn the screw downwards till the screw tip just touches the convex surface. (The
tip of the screw will just touch its image in the convex glass surface).
 Note the reading of the circular (disc) scale which is in line with the vertical (pitch) scale.
Let it be a (It will act as reference).
 Remove the spherometer from over the convex surface and place over a large size plane
glass slab.
 Turn the screw downwards and count the number of complete rotations (n) made by the
disc (one rotation becomes complete when the reference reading crosses past the pitch
scale).
 Continue till the tip of the screw just touches the plane surface of the glass slab.
 Note the reading of the circular scale which is finally in line with the vertical (pitch)
scale. Let it be b.
 Find the number of circular (disc) scale division in last incomplete rotation.
 Repeat steps five times. Record the observation in tabular form.

Observations
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Table 1
No.
Initial reading When the Screw Value of Additional Value of Value of Mean
Of of circular scale touches the plate complete circular additional h Value
when the screw rotation scale circular (M+N) of h
touches the reading scale mm mm
𝑴 = 𝒏 × 𝒑𝒊𝒕𝒄𝒉
Obs spherical No of full Final C=(b-a) reading
surface rotation reading nm 𝑵 = 𝑪 × 𝒍. 𝒄
(a) of the of the mm
circular circular
scale scale
(n) (b)

Calculations:
1. Find value of h in each observation and record it.
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2. Find mean of value of h from table

Result
The radius of curvature of the given convex surface is ……………….. cm.

Precautions:

 The screw should move freely without friction.

 The screw should be moved in same direction to avoid back-lash error of the screw.
 Excess rotation & Parallax error should be avoided.
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Experiment No 4 Date:
Aim:

To determine the force constant of spring using Hooke’s law.

Theory:

When a load F suspended from lower free end of a spring hanging from a rigid
support, increases its length by amount l,

𝐅∝𝐥

Or, 𝐅 = 𝐊𝐥

K is proportionality constant. It is called the force constant or the spring

constant of the spring

From above if l = 1thenF = K

Hence, force constant (or spring constant) of a spring may be defined as the force
required to produce unit extension in the spring.

Apparatus:
1. Spring
2. A rigid support,
3. Weight hanger,
4. Slotted weights,
5. A vertical wooden scale,
6. A fine pointer,
7. A hook.
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Diagram

Procedure:

Step 1: Suspend the spring from a rigid support. Attach a pointer and a hook
from its lower free end.
Step 2: Hang hanger from the hook.
Step 3: Set the vertical wooden scale such that the tip of the pointer comes
over the divisions on the scale but does not touch the scale.
Step 4: Note the reading of the position of the tip of the pointer on the scale.
Record it in loading column against zero load.
Step 5: Gently add suitable load (20 gm, 50gm, 100 gm or 200 gm) slotted
weight to the hanger. The pointer tip moves down.
Step 6: Wait for few minutes till the pointer tip comes to rest. Repeat step 4.
Step 7: Repeat steps 5 and 6 till six slotted weights have been added.
Step 8: Now remove one slotted weight. The pointer tip moves up. Repeat
step 6.Record the reading in unloading column.
Step 9:Repeat step 8 till only hanger is left.
Step 10: Record your observations as given below.
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Observations:

Least count of vertical scale = 0.1 cm.

Table for load and extension

Load on Reading of pointer tip

No. hanger (W) Extension
l
of = Applied cm
Obs. Force F gm Loading Unloading Mean
x+y
wt x cm y cm z=
2
cm

1 0 1.5 1.5 1.5

2 50 2.9 2.9 2.9 2.9 -1.5= 1.4

3 100 4.3 4.3 4.3 4.3 – 1.5 = 2.8

4 150 5.7 5.7 5.7 5.7 – 1.5 = 4.2

5 200 7.1 7.1 7.1 7.1 – 1.5 = 5.6

If mass in hanger = m kg then load in the hanger (w) = m kg wt =

mg Newton.
Where g= acceleration due to gravity = 𝟗. 𝟖 𝐦 𝐬−𝟐
 P a g e | 16

Graph: (Sample Graph)

Data for Graph Plotting

Applied Force (N) 0.050 × 9.8= 0.49 0.98 1.47 1.96

Extension l (m) 1.4 /100 = 0.014 0.028 0.042 0.056

Plot a graph between F and l taking F along X-axis and l along Y-axis. The graph
comes to be a straight line as shown below.
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Calculation from Graph:

From graph,
,
𝐀𝐁 𝟐𝟑 × 𝟎. 𝟎𝟐𝟓 𝟎. 𝟎𝟕𝟓
𝐤= = = = 𝟑𝟑. 𝟖𝟐 = 𝟑𝟒 𝐍/𝐦
𝐁𝐂 𝟏𝟕 × 𝟎. 𝟎𝟎𝟏 𝟎. 𝟎𝟏𝟕

Result

The force constant of the given spring is 34 N/m.

Precautions

1. Loading and unloading of weight must be done gently.

2. Reading should be noted only when tip of pointer comes to rest.
3. Pointer tip should not touch the scale surface.
4. Loading should not be beyond elastic limit.
 P a g e | 18

Experiment No. 5 Date:

Determination of coefficient of viscosity of a highly viscous liquid by
Stoke’s method.
Theory:
When a small spherical body of radius r falls freely thorough a
liquid of coefficient of viscosity 𝜼 with the terminal velocity v, the
opposing viscous force on the spherical body is given by
𝑭 = 𝟔𝝅𝜼𝒓𝒗
If 𝝆 be the density of the material of the spherical body, the weight
𝟒
of the spherical body = 𝝅𝒓𝟑 𝝆𝒈.
𝟑
If 𝝇 be the density of the medium, then the upward thrust on the
𝟒
body due to buoyancy = 𝝅𝒓𝟑 𝝇𝒈.
𝟑
Resultant downward force on the sphere
𝟒 𝟒 𝟒
= 𝝅𝒓𝟑 𝝆𝒈 − 𝝅𝒓𝟑 𝝇𝒈 = 𝝅𝒓𝟑 (𝝆 − 𝝇)𝒈
𝟑 𝟑 𝟑
If the spherical body attains the terminal velocity, then
𝟒
𝟔𝝅𝜼𝒓𝒗 = 𝝅𝒓𝟑 (𝝆 − 𝝇)𝒈
𝟑
𝟐 (𝝆 − 𝝇)𝒈
𝒗 = 𝒓𝟐
𝟗 𝜼

𝟐 𝟐 (𝝆 − 𝝇)𝒈
𝜼= 𝒓
𝟗 𝒗
Apparatus:
1. A long glass tube with large diameter.
2. Stand with clamp
3. Viscous liquid (Glycerin)
4. Small metal balls with different radii
5. Screw gauge 6. Thermometer 7. Stopwatch 8. Scale.
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Diagram:

Procedure:

1. Radius of the each ball measured by Screw Gauge.

2. A glass tube is attached vertically with a stand, with the help of
clamp.
3. The glass tube is filled with the given transparent viscous
liquid.
4. The temperature of the liquid is measured by a thermometer.
5. At the lower end of the tube two loops of thread are tide
parallel to each other (min 20 cm separation).
6. A spherical ball is placed gently on the surface of the liquid
and is dropped very carefully.
7. When the ball just crosses the first loop (Point A) the stop
watch is started and when the ball crosses the second loop the
stop watch is stopped.
8. Calculate terminal velocity by dividing the distance between
the two loops by the time obtained from strop watch.
9. Similarly for each ball step 6 to 8 of the experiment is repeated.
 P a g e | 20

Results:

Density of the material of the ball (𝝆) = 7.86 𝒈𝒎 𝒄𝒎−𝟑 and of liquid (𝝇) = 1.26 𝒈𝒎 𝒄𝒎−𝟑
Temperature of the liquid (𝜽) = 25 ℃
Distance between the two loops between the thread (l) = 60 cm
Acceleration due to gravity g = 981 𝒄𝒎 𝒔−𝟐

1. Table for determination of radius (r) of the balls:

𝐒𝐜𝐫𝐞𝐰 𝐩𝐢𝐭𝐜𝐡 (𝐩) 𝟏

Least count of Screw gauge (c) = = 𝟏𝟎𝟎 = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟏 𝒎𝒎
𝐍𝐨.𝐨𝐟 𝐝𝐢𝐯𝐢𝐬𝐢𝐨𝐧 𝐨𝐟 𝐜𝐢𝐫𝐜𝐮𝐥𝐚𝐫 𝐬𝐜𝐚𝐥𝐞 (𝐧)
Zero error of screw gauge = 0 mm

Table No. 1
No
of Direction of Liner scale Circular Diameter Mean Corrected Radius of balls
Obs. diameter reading Scale of the wire Diameter diameter (r= D/2) cm
(m) mm reading (m+ n c) (d) D=d-e
(n) mm mm

First
6 5 6.05
1 6.08 6.08 𝟎. 𝟔𝟎𝟖
𝒓𝟏 =
𝟐
Perpendicular
6 10 6.10 = 𝟎. 𝟑𝟎𝟒𝒄𝒎

4 68 4.68
First
4.67 4.67
4 65 4.65 𝒓𝟐 = 𝟎. 𝟐𝟑𝟒𝒄𝒎
2 Perpendicular

3 87 3.87
First
3.91 3.91
3 94 3.94 𝒓𝟑 = 𝟎. 𝟏𝟗𝟔𝒄𝒎
3 Perpendicular
 P a g e | 21

2. Table for measurement of viscosity of the liquid.

Table No 2

Time taken Terminal Coefficient Average

to cross the Average Velocity of viscosity value at
No. Radius of the distance Time. 𝒗 𝜼 25 ℃
𝟐 𝟐 (𝝆 − 𝝇)𝒈
of ball (r = D/2) 𝟐
𝒓 𝒄𝒎 𝟐 between two 𝒍 = 𝒓
𝟗 𝒗 CGS
= 𝒄𝒎/𝒔
Obs. cm loops of 𝒕 Unit
thread(t)s

1 1.25
0.304 0.092
1.15 43.47 3.04

2 1.05

3 1.22
0.234 0.054 1.43 34.96 2.22 2.44

4 1.64

1.89
5
0.196 0.038 26.31 2.07
1.9
6 1.91

Calculation:
𝟐 𝟐 (𝝆 − 𝝇)𝒈
𝜼= 𝒓
𝟗 𝒗
Precautions:

1. The liquid should be transparent to observe the motion of the ball.

2. The ball should be well polished and spherical
3. Time to move the distance is to be calculated only after the balls attain the terminal
velocity.
4. If there is zero error in screw gauge, then it is to be calculated and necessary correction
should be done.