CAIE IGCSE Chemistry

9.1 Properties of metals

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Compare the general physical properties of metals and non-metals,
including:

(a) Thermal conductivity

● Metals tend to be good conductors of heat, whereas non-metals are not
● This is because metals contain delocalised electrons that are free to move
around to carry thermal energy (heat) from one place to another

(b) Electrical conductivity

● Metals tend to be good conductors of electricity, whereas non-metals are poor
conductors of electricity and heat.
● This is because metals contain delocalised electrons that are free to move
around to carry charge from one place to another

(c) Malleability and ductility

● Metals are malleable (able to be bent and shaped easily) and ductile
(stretched and pulling without breaking)
● This is because the positive metal ions are arranged in uniform rows in the
structure so are able to slide over one another.

(d) Melting points and boiling points

● Metals generally have high melting and boiling points, whereas non-metals
generally have low melting and boiling points.
● This is because metals are giant structures with strong metallic bonding.
There is strong electrostatic attraction between the positive metal ions and the
negative electrons so require a large amount of energy to break/overcome
these bonds to change state.

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Describe the general chemical properties of metals, limited to their
reactions with:

(a) Dilute acids

● When a metal reacts with a dilute acid, a salt and hydrogen is formed
● This is a displacement reaction as the metal is more reactive than hydrogen in
the reactivity series so the metal ions will displace the hydrogen ions in the
acid to form the salt
● General equation: Metal + Acid -> Salt + Hydrogen
○ E.g. Sodium + Hydrochloric acid -> Sodium chloride + Hydrogen
2Na (s) + 2HCl (aq) -> 2NaCl (aq) + H2 (g)
● Metals that are less reactive the hydrogen will be unable to displace hydrogen
so will not form a salt

(b) Cold water and steam

● When a metal reacts with cold water H2O (l), a metal hydroxide and hydrogen
gas are formed
○ The more reactive metals will react with the water more vigorously and
quickly, e.g. when potassium K reacts with water it burns with a lilac
flame as it is a very exothermic reaction.
○ Whereas the less reactive metal react with water less violently and
more slowly
● General equation: Metal + Water -> Metal hydroxide + Hydrogen gas
○ E.g. Potassium + Water -> Potassium hydroxide + Hydrogen gas
2K (s) + 2H2O (l) -> 2KOH (aq) + H2 (g)
● When a metal reacts with steam H2O (g), a metal oxide and hydrogen gas are
formed
○ The less reactive metals, such as magnesium, react with steam more
vigorously than with water
● General equation: Metal + Steam -> Metal oxide + Hydrogen gas
○ E.g. Magnesium + Water -> Magnesium oxide + Hydrogen gas
Mg (s) + H2O (g) -> MgO (s) + H2 (g)

(c) Oxygen

● When a metal reacts with oxygen, a metal oxide is formed

● The speed at which this reaction occurs depends on the reactivity of the metal
● General equation: Metal + Oxygen -> Metal oxide
○ E.g. Calcium + Oxygen -> Calcium oxide
2Ca (s) + O2 (g) -> 2CaO (s)

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 CAIE IGCSE Chemistry

9.2 Uses of metals

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Describe the uses of metals in terms of their physical properties, including:

● Metals have the following physical properties:

○ Good conductors of electricity (and heat)
○ Malleability and ductility
○ Some are very shiny, have low density or are resistant to corrosion
○
● Metals have a variety of uses, due to their physical properties, such as:

(a) Aluminium in the manufacture of aircraft because of its low density

● Aluminium has low density due to its lightweight atoms, making it an ideal
material for manufacturing aircraft structures as it is lightweight and easy to
manoeuvre

(b) Aluminium in the manufacture of overhead electrical cables because of its low
density and good electrical conductivity

● Low density- aluminium is lightweight and easy to move around

● Good electrical conductivity- delocalised electrons are free to move around
and carry charge

(c) Aluminium in food containers because of its resistance to corrosion

● Resistant to corrosion- forms an aluminium oxide layer to reduce further

oxidation

(d) Copper in electrical wiring because of its good electrical conductivity and ductility

● Good electrical conductivity- delocalised electrons are free to move around

and carry charge
● Ductility- able to be stretched and drawn out through a wire without breaking

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 CAIE IGCSE Chemistry

9.3 Alloys and their properties

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Describe an alloy as a mixture of a metal with other elements

● Alloys are metal compounds made by combining a metal with other elements.
This process is carried out to give the material greater strength or resistance
to corrosion.
● Examples of alloys:
○ Brass is a mixture of copper and zinc
○ Stainless steel is a mixture of iron and other elements like chromium,
nickel and carbon

State that alloys can be harder and stronger than the pure metals and are
more useful

● Alloys generally have greater strength and hardness than pure metals,
meaning their utility in the manufacture of other materials is more varied
○ E.g. Stainless steel is much harder than pure iron, which is very soft.

Describe the uses of alloys in terms of their physical properties

● Alloys can be used to make a variety of tools, as opposed to their pure metal
counterparts, due to their hardness and resistance to corrosion/rusting
○ Corrosion is destruction of materials by chemical reactions with
substances in the environment. E.g. iron rusts when in the presence of
oxygen and water.
● For example to make cutlery, stainless steel is used since it is resistant to
rusting and has greater hardness than pure iron

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Identify representations of alloys from diagrams of structure

● The structure of pure metal has neat layers of identically-sized metal atoms
● Since alloys are compounds made up of 2 or more elements, the size of the
atoms are different so the layers will be distorted:

(Extended only) Explain in terms of structure how alloys can be harder and
stronger than the pure metals because the different sized atoms in alloys
mean the layers can no longer slide over each other

● Alloys are stronger and harder than pure metals due to their difference in
structure:
○ Pure metals have the same sized metal atoms so the layers are able to
slide over each other = malleable and soft
○ Alloys have different sized metal (and non-metal) atoms so the layers
are unable to slide over each other= hardness and strength

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 CAIE IGCSE Chemistry

9.4 Reactivity series

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State the order of the reactivity series as: potassium, sodium, calcium,
magnesium, aluminium, carbon, zinc, iron, hydrogen, copper, silver, gold

● Reactivity series arranges metals in order of their reactivity. This can be used
to predict products from reactions.
● Non-metals hydrogen and carbon are often included in the reactivity series
● A mnemonic to remember the order of the reactivity series:
○ A Posse of Sly Cats Maliciously Admire Clever Zebras In Hiding
Copying Slowly and Gradually

Most reactive
Potassium
Sodium
Calcium
Magnesium
Aluminium
(Carbon)
Zinc
Iron
(Hydrogen)
Copper
Silver
Gold
Least reactive

Describe the reactions, if any, of: (a) potassium, sodium and calcium with
cold water (b) magnesium with steam (c) magnesium, zinc, iron, copper,
silver and gold with dilute hydrochloric acid and explain these reactions in
terms of the position of the metals in the reactivity series

(a) Potassium, sodium and calcium with cold water

● When potassium reacts with cold water, potassium melts and floats, moving
rapidly on the surface of the water. A lilac flame will also ignite and sometimes
at the end of the reaction a small explosion can occur.
● Potassium will have the most violent/vigorous reaction with cold water since it
is at the top of the reactivity series
● Word equation: Potassium + Water → Potassium hydroxide + Hydrogen
● Symbol equation: 2K (s) + 2H2O (l) → 2KOH (aq) + H2 (g)

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 ● When sodium reacts with water, the metal melts to form a ball that moves
rapidly around on the surface. The ball fizzes rapidly before it disappears, but
the reaction of sodium and water is less vigorous than potassium and water.
● Word equation: Sodium + Water → Sodium hydroxide + Hydrogen
● Symbol equation: 2Na (s) + 2H2O (l) → 2NaOH (aq) + H2 (g)

● When calcium is added to water, the reaction is slower and less violent than
the reactions prior. The calcium metal sinks in water and after an hour or so
bubbles of hydrogen gas can be seen on the surface of the metal.
● Calcium will have a less vigorous and slower reaction with cold water since it
is lower than potassium and sodium in the reactivity series
● Word equation: Calcium + Water → Calcium hydroxide + Hydrogen
● Symbol equation: Ca (s) + 2H2O (g) → Ca(OH)2 (aq) + H2 (g)

(b) Magnesium with steam

● Magnesium does not react with cold water but it does however react with
steam to produce magnesium oxide
○ Very clean magnesium ribbon has a very slight reaction with cold
water but the magnesium hydroxide is insoluble so no further reaction
occurs.
● The initial reaction between magnesium and steam will form magnesium
oxide and hydrogen gas
● Word equation: Magnesium + Steam -> Magnesium oxide + Hydrogen gas
● Symbol equation: Mg (s) + H2O (g) -> MgO (aq) + H2 (g)
● This is because magnesium is further down the reactivity series than
potassium, sodium and calcium, so will be more unreactive.

(c) Magnesium, zinc, iron, copper, silver and gold with dilute hydrochloric acid

● Potassium, Sodium and calcium are too reactive that their reactions with
hydrochloric acid are too dangerous to be attempted
● The further down the reactivity series, the slower the reaction until no reaction
will occur.
● Only metals above hydrogen in the reactivity series will react with dilute acids

Metal Reaction with dilute hydrochloric acid

Magnesium Fast reaction

Zinc Slightly fast reaction

Iron Slightly fast reaction

Copper No reaction

Silver No reaction

Gold No reaction

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Deduce an order of reactivity from a given set of experimental results

● The order of reactivity can be deduced from the results of experiments by

determining the speed and observations of each metal
● E.g. A less vigorous and slow reaction will usually mean a lower reactivity
whereas lots of effervescence (bubbles/fizzing) and quicker reactions are
usually higher in the reactivity series
● In a displacement reaction, the more reactive metal will replace the less
reactive metal in a compound

(Extended only) Describe the relative reactivities of metals in terms of

their tendency to form positive ions, by displacement reactions, if any,
with the aqueous ions of magnesium, zinc, iron, copper and silver

● When metals react with other substances, metal atoms form positive ions
● The reactivity of a metal is determined by their tendency to form positive ions

● In a displacement reaction, the more reactive metal will replace the less
reactive metal in a compound
○ If there is no difference in reactivity between the metals, no reaction will
take place

● E.g Zinc sulfate + Calcium -> Calcium sulfate + Zinc

ZnSO4(aq) + Ca(s)———————> Zn(s) + CaSO4(aq)
Calcium is higher in the reactivity series than zinc so will displace zinc ions in
zinc sulfate to form calcium sulfate

● The more reactive a metal is, the more easily it will lose its outer shell
electrons to form its positive ion.
● E.g. Ca(s) -> Ca2+(aq) + 2e– Calcium has been oxidised (lost electrons)
Zn2+(aq) + 2e– -> Zn(s) Zinc has been reduced (gained electrons)
● We can see that the more reactive metal, calcium, has lost electrons to form
its positive ions and the less reactive metal, zincs, has gained electrons.

(Extended only) Explain the apparent unreactivity of aluminium in terms

of its oxide layer

● Aluminium metal reacts with oxygen in the air to form Al2O3, aluminium oxide
○ This coats the surface of the aluminium and is very unreactive
● Therefore, it can prevent the aluminium metal from further oxidation

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 CAIE IGCSE Chemistry

9.6 Extraction of metals

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Describe the ease in obtaining metals from their ores, related to the
position of the metal in the reactivity series

● Most metals are extracted from their ores which are found in the Earth’s crust
● An ore can be a rock or mineral that contains metals that are combined with
other elements

To extract the pure metal from their ores, it depends on their position in the reactivity
series:
● The more unreactive metals such as gold and silver are found in the pure
form without any elements combined so don’t need to undergo any chemical
reaction to be obtained
● Zinc and iron are found bonded to oxygen, i.e. zinc oxide and iron oxide, so
are reacted with carbon. Since carbon is higher in the reactivity series, it will
displace the metal ions in the compounds.
○ This is known as: reduction with carbon
● The remaining metals above carbon in the reactivity series are extracted
using electrolysis. An electric current is passed through the compound, e.g.
aluminium oxide, to extract pure aluminium.

Most reactive
Potassium
Sodium
Calcium
Magnesium
Aluminium
(Carbon)
Zinc
Iron
(Hydrogen)
Copper
Silver
Gold
Least reactive

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Describe the extraction of iron from hematite in the blast furnace. Symbol
equations are not required

● The main ore of iron is known as hematite

○ Hematite contains large amounts of iron(III) oxide.
○ Since iron is lower than carbon in the reactivity series, pure iron is
extracted through reduction with carbon.
○ The extraction takes place in a large blast furnace.
● The raw materials needed to do this are hematite, coke, limestone and air.
○ Hematite: made up of iron (III) oxide Fe2O3
○ Coke: Coal based fuel with a high carbon content
○ Limestone: Calcium carbonate CaCO3 used to remove any acidic
impurities from the iron
● The process in the blast furnace is continuous, meaning reactants are being
added constantly without the reaction being stopped. This is to save on costs
for energy that would otherwise be too expensive if the process had to be
halted and restarted.

(a) The burning of carbon (coke) to provide heat and produce carbon dioxide
● The hematite, coke and limestone are added through the top of the blast
furnace.
● Hot air enters through the bottom of the furnace and moves to the top.
● At the bottom of the furnace, the coke burns in the hot air producing carbon
dioxide. This is an exothermic reaction, the heat released keeping the furnace
hot.
● Carbon + Oxygen -> Carbon dioxide

(b) The reduction of carbon dioxide to carbon monoxide

● The carbon dioxide produced reacts with the coke to form carbon monoxide:
● Carbon dioxide + Carbon -> Carbon monoxide

(c) The reduction of iron(III) oxide by carbon monoxide

● The carbon monoxide produced reduces the iron(III) oxide to iron:
● Iron (III) oxide + Carbon monoxide -> Iron + Carbon dioxide
● The iron ions in iron (III) oxide are reduced to iron atoms
● Carbon monoxide is oxidised to carbon dioxide
● This method is most used to extract the pure iron, which flows to the bottom of
the furnace and is removed.

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(d) The thermal decomposition of calcium carbonate/limestone to produce calcium
oxide
● The hematite contains other impurities like sand (silicon (IV) oxide), so
limestone is added to helps remove these impurities
● Limestone is chemically calcium carbonate CaCO3
● The heat from the furnace decomposes the CaCO3, in a process known as
thermal decomposition, into calcium oxide
● Calcium carbonate -> Calcium oxide + Carbon dioxide

(e) The formation of slag

● The calcium oxide reacts with the silicon (IV) oxide to form a 'slag' :calcium
silicate.
● This slag can be used as a building material, e.g. for road building
● Calcium oxide + Silicon (IV) oxide -> Calcium silicate

State that…

● The main ore of aluminium is known as bauxite

● Aluminium is higher in the reactivity series than carbon, so is removed via
electrolysis

(Extended only) State the symbol equations for the extraction of iron from
hematite (a) C + O2 → CO2 (b) C + CO2 → 2CO (c) Fe2O3 + 3CO → 2Fe +
3CO2 (d) CaCO3 → CaO + CO2 (e) CaO + SiO2 → CaSiO3

(a) The burning of carbon (coke) to provide heat and produce carbon dioxide
● Carbon + Oxygen -> Carbon dioxide
● C(s) + O2(g) → CO2(g)

(b) The reduction of carbon dioxide to carbon monoxide

● Carbon dioxide + Carbon -> Carbon monoxide
● CO2(g) + C(s) → 2CO(g)

(c) The reduction of iron(III) oxide by carbon monoxide

● Iron (III) oxide + Carbon monoxide -> Iron + Carbon dioxide
● Fe2O3(s) + 3CO(g) → 2Fe(l) + 3CO2(g)

(d) The thermal decomposition of calcium carbonate /limestone to produce calcium

oxide
● Calcium carbonate -> Calcium oxide + Carbon dioxide
● CaCO3(s) → CaO(s) + CO2(g)

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(e) The formation of slag
● Calcium oxide + Silicon (IV) oxide -> Calcium silicate
● CaO(s) + SiO2(s) → CaSiO3(l)

(Extended only) Describe the extraction of aluminium from purified

bauxite / aluminium oxide. Details of the purification of bauxite are not
required

● The extraction of aluminium from purified bauxite is done by electrolysis.

● Purified bauxite contains aluminium oxide from which pure aluminium can be
removed

(a) The role of cryolite

● For electrolysis to occur the ions in the aluminium oxide must be free to move
so that electricity can pass through it.
● Molten cryolite is an aluminium compound with a lower melting point than
aluminium oxide. The use of cryolite reduces some of the energy costs
involved in extracting aluminium.
● Aluminium oxide has a very high melting point. It is dissolved in molten
cryolite to reduce the melting point of the electrolyte, reducing energy usage
and cost.

(b) Why the carbon anodes need to be regularly replaced

● The cathodes and the anodes involved in the electrolysis of aluminium are
made of graphite, a form of carbon.
● During electrolysis oxide ions lose electrons at the anode, become oxidised
and form oxygen molecules
● The anodes are eroded as the carbon they are made from reacts with the
oxygen to form carbon dioxide, so they must be replaced frequently.

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(c) the reactions at the electrodes, including ionic half-equations

● At the cathode: Positively charged aluminium ions are attracted and gain
electrons (become reduced) to become aluminium atoms, forming pure
molten aluminium.
● The half equation is Al³⁺ + 3e⁻ → Al.
● At the anode: Negatively charged oxide ions are attracted and lose electrons
(become oxidised) and form oxygen gas.
● The half equation is 2O²⁻ - 4e⁻ → O2

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 CAIE IGCSE Chemistry

9.5 Corrosion of metals

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State the conditions required for the rusting of iron and steel to form
hydrated iron(III) oxide

● Rusting is an oxidation reaction

● Steel and iron will rust in the presence of water and oxygen
● Iron will react with oxygen and water to form hydrated iron (III) oxide
○ Iron + Oxygen + Water -> Hydrated Iron (III) oxide

State some common barrier methods, including painting, greasing and

coating with plastic

● To prevent iron and steel from rusting, there are various barrier methods such
as:
○ Painting
○ Greasing
○ Coating with a layer of plastic
○ Oiling
○ Galvanising

Describe how barrier methods prevent rusting by excluding oxygen or

water

● Barrier methods prevent iron and steel from rusting by preventing the metals
from becoming in contact with oxygen and water
● Rusting cannot occur without these two conditions because it is an oxidation
reaction

(Extended only) Describe the use of zinc in galvanising as an example of a

barrier method and sacrificial protection

● Galvanising is the process in which a metal, such as iron and steel, is coating
with a thin layer of another metal, such as zinc, to prevent it from corrosion or
rusting
● Galvanising is another example of a barrier method as oxygen and water will
not come into contact with the iron or steel underneath the protective coating
● Sacrificial protection is when metals higher in the reactivity series, such as
zinc, are used to form a protective layer on the surface of metals that are
lower in reactivity.
○ This is because zinc is more reactive than iron so will be more likely to
be oxidised and lose electrons to form its positive ions, so iron will be
less likely to be oxidised

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(Extended only) Explain sacrificial protection in terms of the reactivity
series and in terms of electron loss

● Sacrificial protection is when metals higher in the reactivity series, such as

zinc, are used to coat metals lower in reactivity, such as iron.
○ This is because metals that are more reactive than iron will be more
likely to get oxidised and lose electrons to form its positive ions, so iron
will be less likely to oxidise

Most reactive
Potassium
Sodium
Calcium
Magnesium
Aluminium
(Carbon)
Zinc
Iron
(Hydrogen)
Copper
Silver
Gold
Least reactive

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