Marine Automation

and Control
Lesson 1 - Introduction
What is Automatic Control System?

Defined as a system in which the value of a

controlled condition is compared with a
desired value and corrective action is taken
dependent on the deviation, without the
inclusion of a human element.
An automatic control system thus includes:
a) the plant,
b) the detecting or sensing element,
c) the measuring or indicating element,
d) the controller
Manual vs Automatic Control

 Manual – Open Loop Control

- (Local or Remote)
- Corrective action left to the human
operator.

 Automatic Control – Close Loop Control

- Automatic process
- Controller provides the necessary
corrective action.
A BASIC CONTROL SYSTEM (OPEN LOOP)

DISTURBANCES

INPUT OUTPUT
PROCESS

CORRECTING MEASURING
UNIT UNIT

A BLOCK DIAGRAM
A BASIC CONTROL SYSTEM (CLOSE LOOP)

DISTURBANCES

INPUT OUTPUT
PROCESS

CORRECTING
UNIT MEASURING
UNIT

CONTROLLER

SET POINT
 Advantages of Automation

 Improved conditions for seagoing staff by transferring much of

“donkey work” from manual operation to automatic operation,
paricularly the more unpleasant tasks such as soot blowing,
cleaning of oil purifiers
 Savings due to more efficient use of seagoing staff by transfer
from watchkeeping to day work; routine maintenance can be
carried out more efficiently by a day worker.
 Possible increase in the availability of the ship due to improved
degree of operation and maintenance.
 Saving in maintenance costs due to improvement in efficiency
of the machinery
 Possible fuel cost saving due to improvement in efficiency of
operation of the machinery.
 Increased safety due to greater reliability of automated
equipment and systems
Controller Classification

Controller Characteristic Sub- Categories

1. Is it Automatic? a) Automatic
b) Semi-Auto
c) Manual
2. Where are the Components? a) Local
b) Remote
c) Centralized
d) Distributed
3. What is Controlled? a) Position
b) Speed
c) Process
4. How it functions? a) Open Loop
b) Close loop
c) Feedforward
d) Feedback
e) Analog
f) Digital
5. What mode is used? a) Proportional
b) Rate
c) Reset
d) Multimode
6. What media is used? a) Pneumatic
b) Hydraulic
c) Electric
d) Mechanical
e) Electronic
f) Multimedia
Control System Requirements
3 MAIN REQUIREMENTS:
 Good Stability
 Allowable Deviation
 Suitable Speed of Response

OTHER REQUIREMENTS:
 Reasonable costs
 Compatible with other interacting system
 Easy to maintain and repair
 Withstand its operating environment
 JACKET COOLING WATER TEMPERATURE CONTROL
SYSTEM

Signal

HEADER
TANK
SET POINT CONTROLLER

S.W. IN S.W.OUT
M.U.

COOLER

MAIN 3-WAY
CONTROL
ENGINE VALVE

J.W.PUMP

A TYPICAL PROCESS CONTROL SYSTEM ONBOARD SHIP.

 Important Definitions
Elements: Physical Devices
1. Final Control Element: The component which receives a
signal from the controller and directly changes the
manipulated variable.
2. Process: The system under control excluding the controller
itself.
3. Measuring Element: The component which senses the
value of and converts information about the controlled
variable into a form of information.
4. Controller: The component which evaluates the difference
between the controlled variable from its set point and
creates a correction signal to drive the final control element.
 Important Definitions
Signals: Quantities or Qualities
1. Manipulated Variable: The process variable which is altered by the
controller to change the value of the controlled variable. Sometimes called
the Input
2. Controlled Variable: The process variable which is measured and
controlled. Sometimes called the Output.
3. Set Point: An independent input parameter which is the instruction given to
the controller which determines the stabilized value of the controlled
variable.
4. Deviation: The difference between the value of the controlled variable and
the set point as created by (the comparing element of) the controller.
5. Actuating Signal: The signal sent from the controller to the final control
element.
6. Disturbances: Uncontrolled process variables which affect the value of the
controlled variable.
Marine Automation
and Control
Lesson 2 - Measuring Instruments
Learning Objectives

 Comprehend the measurement of

pressure, temperature, level and flow.
 Comprehend the units of measurement
 Comprehend various measurement
devices
What Do We Measure?
 LENGTH (in, ft, yd, mm, cm)
 AREA (sqin, sqft, sqm, )
 VOLUME (cuft, cum)
 MASS (lb, kg)
 FLOW (gal/h, l/s, m3/hr)
 TIME (s, min, h)
 PRESSURE (psi, cm of Hg, bar, kg/cm2, )
 TEMPERATURE (F, C)
 SPEED (Knots, rpm, km/h, m/s)
TEMPERATURE

 A measure of a substance’s internal

kinetic energy
 [Simply stated] The degree of hotness
or coldness of a substance, as
measured on a thermometer
Temperature
Measurement
 Scales  Conversions
 Fahrenheit (F)  F = 1.8*C + 32
 Rankine (R)  R = F + 459.67
 Celsius (C)  C = (F-32) / 1.8
 Kelvin (K)  K = C + 273.15

Fahrenheit and Celsius based on boiling and freezing points of water

Rankine and Kelvin based on absolute zero - more precise
thermodynamic study.
Temperature Measuring
Devices
 Expansion Thermometers
 Liquid in Glass
 Bimetallic
 Filled System / Distant Reading
 Pyrometers
 Thermocouple
 Resistance
 Radiation and Optical Pyrometers
Liquid in Glass
Thermometer
Bimetallic
Expansion
Thermometer
Distant
Reading
Thermometer
Thermocouple
Resistance Temperature
Device
Radiation Pyrometer
Thermometers
PRESSURE
 Force exerted on a unit area
 Measured in psi (other units include
atm, in Hg, mm Hg, bar, kg/cm2)
 Atmospheric pressure at sea level is
14.7 psia, 0 psig, 1 atm, 29.92 in Hg,
760.0 mm Hg
 absolute pressure (psia) = gage
pressure (psig) + 14.696
Pressure Relationships

 Pressure Relationships
Pa = Patm + Pg

Patm = 14.7 psi or 29.92 in. Hg or 1 bar.

 Barometric Pressure
- A measure of air pressure that correlates with
weather and altitude.
Pressure Measuring
Devices

 Manometer
 Bourdon tube
 Bellows gage
Manometer
Bourdon Tube
Bellows Gauge
Pressure Gauges
Level Gauges
 Flowmeters

 Mechanical flowmeters measure flow using an

arrangement of moving parts, either by passing
isolated, known volumes of a fluid through a
series of gears or chambers (positive
displacement) or by means of a spinning
turbine or rotor.

 All positive displacement flowmeters operate

by isolating and counting known volumes of a
fluid (gas or liquid) while feeding it through the
meter. By counting the number of passed
isolated volumes, a flow measurement is
obtained.
Flowmeters
Measuring Instruments cont’d.

A bimetallic strip is made up of two different metals firmly bonded

together. When a temperature change occurs different amounts of
expansion occur in the two metals, causing a bending or twisting of
the strip. A helical coil of bimetallic material with one end fixed is
used in one form of thermometer (Figure 15.7). The coiling or
uncoiling of the helix with temperature change will cause movement
of a pointer fitted to the free end of the bimetallic strip. The choice of
metals for the strip will determine the range, which can be from -
30°C to +550°C.
The thermocouple is a type of electrical thermometer. When two
different metals are joined to form a closed circuit and exposed to
different temperatures at their junction a current will flow which can
be used to measure temperature. The arrangement used is shown in
Figure 15.8, where extra wires or compensating leads are introduced
to complete the circuit and include the indicator. As long as the two
ends A and B are at the same temperature the thermoelectric effect is
not influenced. The appropriate choice of metals will enable
temperature ranges from ~200°C to +1400°C.
 Radiation Pyrometers

A pyrometer is generally considered to be a high-temperature measuring

thermometer. In the optical, or disappearing filament, type shown in Figure
above, radiation from the heat source is directed into the unit. The current
through a heated filament lamp is adjusted until, when viewed through the
telescope, it seems to disappear. The radiation from the lamp and from the
heat source are therefore the same. The current through the lamp is a
measure of the temperature of the heat source, and the ammeter is
calibrated in units of temperature.
Various pick-up devices can be used in conjunction with a digital counter to
give a direct reading of speed. An inductive pick-up tachometer is shown in
Figure 15.17(a). As the individual teeth pass the coil they induce an e.m.f.
pulse which is appropriately modified and then fed to a digital counter. A
capacitive pick-up tachometer is shown in Figure 15.17{b). As the rotating
vane passes between the plates a capacitance change occurs in the form of
a pulse. This is modified and then fed to the digital counter.
Viscosity measurement

Viscosity control of fuels is essential if

correct atomisation and combustion is to
take place. Increasing the temperature of
a fuel will reduce its viscosity, and vice-
versa. As a result of the varying properties
of marine fuels, often within one tank,
actual viscosity must be continuously
measured and then corrected by
temperature adjustment.

The sensing device is shown in Figure

15.20. A small constant speed gear pump
forces a fixed quantity of oil through a
capillary (narrow bore) tube. The liquid
flow in the capillary is such that the
difference in pressure readings taken
before the capillary and after it is related to
the oil viscosity. A differential pressure
gauge is calibrated to read viscosity
and the pressure values are used to
operate the heater control to maintain
some set viscosity value.
 Oil-in-water monitor
Current regulations with respect to
the discharge of oily water set limits
of concentration between 15 and 100
parts per million. A monitor is
required in order to measure these
values and provide both continuous
records and an alarm where the
permitted level is exceeded.

The principle used is that of ultra-

violet fluorescence. This is the
emission of light by a molecule that
has absorbed light. During the short
interval between absorption and
emission, energy is lost and light of a
longer wavelength is emitted. Oil
fluoresces more readily than water
and this provides the means for its
detection.
A sample is drawn off from the overboard discharge and passes through a sample cell
(Figure 15.23). An ultra-violet light is directed at the sample and the fluorescence is
monitored by a photoelectric cell. The measured value is compared with the maximum
desired value in the controller/recorder. Where an excessive level of contamination is
detected an alarm is sounded and diverting valves are operated. The discharging liquid
is then passed to a slop tank.
Control Signals

 A controller is composed of elements, each of

which accepts an input and creates an output.
 These inputs and outputs are called signals
and are the information being transferred into
or away from the components or elements.
 The signals are being transmitted from one
element to the next.
 The components are the system; the pieces of
information passing between the
components are the signals.
 The various physical forms of media in which these
signals are transmitted in marine applications are:

 Mechanical
 Pneumatic
 Hydraulic
 Electrical
 Electronic

 Sometimes the signal is also given (send) to a

component which is not part of the automatic control
system. They are front panel indicators, repeaters,
alarm systems, automatic data gathering and
recording systems and remote monitoring systems.
 Signals which are transferred from one element
to another must have a means of getting there.
They are achieved by using one of the following
forms of physical connection:

 Linkages
 Shafts and gears
 Pipes
 Electrical wires
 Wireropes and cables
Common Terms
 Receiver – any device which receives a signal in any
medium.
 Any device that creates a signal is called a transmitter,
converter, sensor or transducer depending on how its
being used in the system.
 Transducer, most commonly used – a device that
receives information from one system and changes the
medium or the form of the signal and provides and
output that is representative of the input information.
 Transmitter – is a transducer that responds to a
measured variable and creates a standard transmission
signal which is a function only of the measure variable.
 Converters – are also transducers, however, they are
distinguished by the fact that they received standard
signals, change the signal’s form and retransmits it into
the rest of the system.
Control Signals – Standard
Ranges
Most modern equipment works on the following standard
signal ranges.

· Electric 4 to 20 mA
· Pneumatic 0.2 to 1.0 bar
· Digital standards
Older electrical equipment use 0 to 10 V.

The advantage of having a standard range is that all

equipment is sold ready calibrated. This means that the
minimum signal (Temperature, speed, force, pressure and so
on) is represented by 4 mA or 0.2 bar and the maximum
signal is represented by 20 mA or 1.0 bar. So the purpose of
processing and conditioning is usually to convert the output
into the standard range.
SIGNAL CONVERTERS
Signal converters change the signal from one form to another. Where
ever possible, these are the standard inputs and output ranges.
Normally we show them on a block diagram as a box with an input and
output with a label to say what it does.

Here are some examples.

All these examples have opposite versions i.e. I/P, P/M
and so on.
Flapper Nozzle Mechanism

If the flapper moves away from the nozzle then the transmitted or
output pressure will fall to a low value. If the flapper moves
towards the nozzle then the transmitted pressure will rise to almost
the supply pressure. The transmitted pressure is approximately
proportional to the movement of the flapper and thus the change in
the measured variable.
Pneumatic transducers

 The flapper-nozzle displacement sensor forms

the basis of all pneumatic transducers. It
consists of a fixed restrictor (orifice) in series
with a variable restrictor (flapper and nozzle).
 Varying the separation x of the flapper and
nozzle alters the resistance to air flow. The
output is taken to be the pressure p. An
increase in x reduces the nozzle resistance
and the output pressure.
FLAPPER-NOZZLE MECHANISM
and D. P. CELLS
Description
The nozzle – flapper system is widely used in D.P. cells. The form
shown converts differential pressure (e.g. from a differential
pressure flow meter) into a standard pneumatic signal. This is
widely used in the control of air operated pipeline valves.

The bellows respond to the differential pressure and moves the lever.
This moves the flapper towards or away from the nozzle. The air
supply passes through a restrictor and leaks out of the nozzle. The
output pressure hence depends on how close the flapper is to the
end of the nozzle. The range of the instrument is adjusted by
moving the pivot and the zero position is adjusted by moving the
relative position of the flapper and nozzle.

This system is used in a variety of forms. Instead of bellows, a

bourdon tube might be used and this is operated by an expansion
type temperature sensor to produce a temperature - pneumatic
signal converter.
Electrical DP Cells
These provide the same functions as the pneumatic versions
but given an output of 4 – 20 mA using electrical pressure
transducers. They are typically used with D.P. flow meters.
Converters
The pictures below show typical units for converting 4 – 20 mA into
0.2 – 1 bar and vice versa. They contain adjustments for range and
zero. They are widely used for converting the standard pneumatic
and electric signals back and forth. They can also be adjusted to
work with non standard inputs to convert them into a standard form.

Current to Pressure Converter (I/P) Pressure to Current Converter (P/I)

Controllers

 The devices that receive the measured value

signals and compare them with the desired
value signals (set points) and process their
differences if any, to produce correction
signals in response to any system
disturbances.

 However, there are various time lags or

delays that the controller must compensate for
and ensure a steady output as near to the
desired value as possible.
Controller Actions –
Time Lags or Delays
 Measurement Lag
- The actual value in time that it takes a measuring unit to indicate or
transmit a signal equal in value to the variable being measured after a
disturbance has occurred.
 Process Lag
- The value in time that it takes the process being controlled to change
by the required amount after the correcting (regulating) unit has been
adjusted to effect the change, i.e. if water is being heated in a tank by
a steam coil, the process lag is the time taken for the water to attain a
new value after the regulating valve has been adjusted.
 Transfer Lag
- A process will contain a transfer lag if, for example, the process liquid is
heated indirectly by causing steam to heat a transfer medium in an
inner tank.
 Distance Velocity Lag
- The time delay between a change in process condition at the correcting
element and the arrival of this changed condition at the detecting
element.
Effects of Process Lags on the Response of the
Controlled Condition

Position of correcting
element
The function of the controller (a)
Perfect process with no
is to overcome and lags
Distance velocity lag
compensate for the effects (b)
(L)
Process with ideal
of the system lag. distance velocity lag
(c)
Process with single
capacity lag
Change in controlled
(d)
condition (L)
Process with single capacity
and distance velocity lag
(e)
Figure showing the effects of
process lags on controlled Process with two capacity
and transfer lags
condition response. (f)

Time
Controller Action –
Two-Step or On/Off Control

In this, the simplest of controller actions, two extreme positions of

the controller are possible, either on or off. If the controller were,
for example, a valve it would be either open or closed. A heating
system is considered with the control valve regulating the supply
of heating steam. The controller action and system response is
shown in the figure below.

As the measured value rises above its desired value the valve will
close. System lags will result in a continuing temperature rise
which eventually peaks and then falls below the desired value.
The valve will then open again and the temperature will cease to
fall and will rise again. This form of control is acceptable where a
considerable deviation from the desired value is allowed.
Two-Step or On/Off Control
Controller Action –
Proportional Action

This is a form of continuous control where any change in controller output is

proportional to the deviation between the controlled condition and the desired
value. The proportional band is the amount by which the input signal value
must change to move the correcting unit between its extreme positions. The
desired value is usually located at the centre of the proportional band. Offset
is a sustained deviation as a result of a load change in the process. It is
an inherent characteristic of proportional control action.

Consider, for example, a proportional controller operating a feedwater valve

supplying a boiler drum. If the steam demand, i.e. load, increases then the
drum level will fall. When the level has dropped the feedwater valve will open.
An equilibrium position will be reached when the feedwater valve has opened
enough to match the new steam demand. The drum level, however, will have
fallen to a new value below the desired value, i.e. offset.
System response to proportional controller action
Proportional Band and Gain

 Proportional Band = the input change

required to change the output 100%.
Wide, Narrow, Low & High
 Open
100

100% Proportional
80 Band
20% Proportional
Percentage Valve Opening

Band

60

•
40 20% Proportional
Band

20

0
Closed 20 40 60 80 100
Percentage of Scale Range
Proportional Band

 Is the amount the measured value of a controlled

condition must change in order that the control valve
may be moved from fully closed to fully open position.
 The proportional band setting required for any given
application will depend on plant characteristics and the
various lags in the control loop.
 There is an optimum value which will give stable
control. If the p.b. is made too narrow (high controller
sensitivity), the process will become unstable, while if it
is made too wide ( low controller sensitivity), the
process will be sluggish.
Response Versus P.B.,
Proportional Control only.
Controller Action –
Integral Action

This type of controller action is used in conjunction with

proportional control in order to remove offset. Integral or
reset action occurs when the controller output varies at a
rate proportional to the deviation between the desired
value and the measured value. The integral action of a
controller can usually be varied to achieve the required
response in a particular system.
Controller Action –
Derivative Action

Where a plant or system has long time delays between

changes in the measured value and their correction,
derivative action may be applied. This will be in addition
to proportional and integral action. Derivative or rate
action is where the output signal change is proportional
to the rate of change of deviation. A considerable
corrective action can therefore take place for a small
deviation which occurs suddenly. Derivative action can
also be adjusted within the controller.
Controller Action –
Multiple Term Controller Action

The various controller actions in response to a process

change are shown in the figure below. The improvement
in response associated with the addition of integral and
derivative action can clearly be seen. Reference is often
made to the number of terms of a controller. This means
the various actions: proportional (P), integral (I), and
derivative (D). A three-term controller would therefore
mean P+I+D, and two-term usually P+I.
System Recovery Time
Response
to
Controller
Actions
Controllers – Basic Construction

Flapper
Nozzle
Air Supply

Output, p

Comparator
Measured bellows
Set Point
Value Signal
Correcting Unit
Description of the Basic Construction

The diagram shows the same flapper nozzle arrangement

seen earlier. One end is connected to comparator
bellows. The movement of this end of the flapper is
thus dependent upon the relative values of the
measured value and set point signals. Any difference
between the two values brings about movement of the
flapper which, in turn, changes the separation between
the flapper and the nozzle thereby changing the value
of the generated pneumatic pressure signal.

It should be noted, however, that the total pressure

change of 0.2 to 1.0 bar is brought about by change in
separation of 40 um. That means, in this form, this
device is a very high gain device and as such of not
much practical use.
Proportional Controller

Flapper
Nozzle
Air Supply

Relay Valve

Comparator
Measured bellows
Set Point
Value Signal
Correcting Unit
Proportional Controller Description.

The diagram shows addition of a negative feedback

bellows or proportional bellows being supplied with the
output signal and actuating the other end of the flapper.
The separation between the flapper and nozzle is thus
under the combined influence of the opposite
movements brought by the two ends of the flapper.
By a suitable selection of relative bellows coefficients, it is
possible to arrange to have any desired change in
separation between flapper and nozzle for a specified
change in the value of the measured variable, and thus
control the gain or sensitivity of the device. This then
forms the basis of a pure proportional controller.
Summary
 (P) Proportional control: action of a controller whose
output signal is proportional to the deviation.
i.e. Correction signal ∞ deviation
 (I) Integral control: action of a controller whose output
signal changes at a rate which is proportional to the
deviation.
i.e. Velocity of correction signal ∞ deviation
Objective: To reduce offset to zero.
 (D) Derivative control: action of a controller whose
output signal is proportional to the rate at which the
deviation is changing.
i.e. Correction signal ∞ velocity of deviation
Objective: Gives quicker response and better damping.
Correcting Unit / Regulating Unit
The controller output signal is fed to the
correcting unit which then alters some variable
in order to return the system to its desired
value.

This correcting unit may be a valve, a motor, a

damper or louvre for a fan or an electric
contactor. Most marine control applications will
involve the actuation or operation of valves in
order to regulate liquid flow.
 Adjusting valves: Do you believe in automation?

Central control room

• Overview of
entire process
• Make
immediate
adjustment
anywhere
• Safe location
• History of past
operation

Process pictures courtesy of Petro-Canada Products

 Pneumatic Control Valves
It can be considered as made up of two parts —
the actuator and the valve.

• In the arrangement shown a flexible

diaphragm forms a pressure tight chamber
in the upper half of the actuator and the
controller signal is fed in.

• Movement of the diaphragm results in a

movement of the valve spindle and the valve.

• The diaphragm movement is opposed by a

spring and is usually arranged so that the
variation of controller output corresponds
to full travel of the valve.
 The valve body is arranged to fit into the
particular pipeline and houses the valve and seat
assembly.

 Valve operation may be direct acting where

increasing pressure on the diaphragm closes the
valve. A reverse acting valve opens as pressure
on the diaphragm increases.

 The diaphragm movement is opposed by a spring

which will close or open the valve in the event of
air supply failure depending upon the action of
the valve.
Some Typical C. Valves
 Pneumatic Control Valves

Diaphragm Motor Valve Body

Or Actuator Containing Inner
Valve or Plug

Required to Varies the Area

Convert a Change Thro Which the
of Pressure into a Fluid Passes
Stroke
 Valves: What are the two main features?
Sampson Valves

The actuator provides the

ability to change the flow
resistance, i.e., the size of
the opening for flow.
The most common actuator
is a pneumatic diaphragm.

The body of the valve

defines the flow path and is
selected to achieve the
desired fluid flow behavior.
Valve Body: We match the valve body to the fluid type
and process needs?

http://www.tycoflowcontrol-pc.com/products_results.asp?Selection=Double+Flanged+Butterfly+Valve&m=1

Fluids: water, nitrogen, tree pulp and water,

blood, sewage, food products (yogurt), highly
pure pharma products, hazards (isocyanates),
polymer melts, and just about anything else that
flows!

http://images.google.ca/imgres?imgurl=http://www.ckit.co.za/Secure/Catalogues/mac%2520steel/fluid%2520control/MS%2520image%2520
24%2520-
2520thumb.jpg&imgrefurl=http://www.ckit.co.za/Secure/Catalogues/Mac%2520steel/Fluid%2520control/MS%2520fluid%2520control.htm
&h=150&w=113&sz=5&hl=en&start=83&tbnid=3ZKYixrpLJ5wTM:&tbnh=96&tbnw=72&prev=/images%3Fq%3Dball%2Bvalves,%2Bpr
ocess%2Bcontrol%26start%3D80%26ndsp%3D20%26svnum%3D10%26hl%3Den%26sa%3DN
 Trim
 Trim generally refers to the removable internal
parts of a valve which come in contact with the
flowing fluid.

 The components included in trim are different

depending on the type of valve, but they
usually include packing follower, lantern ring,
packing retaining ring, stem, stem lock pin,
guide bushing, valve plug and seat ring (cage).
Bonnets
Bonnets functionally connect or join the
actuator to the valve body and serve as a
housing for the stem seal or packing.
Four types of bonnets are provided for
various operating temperatures and
corrosive conditions:
i) Plain iii) Extension Column
ii)Radiation Fin iv) Bellows Seal
Packings
 Plain Bonnet
Used for fluids having temperatures between 0 and 200 C. With
grafoil packing can be used upto 450 C.
 Extension Column Bonnet
Used for low temperature service between 0 to -270 C. Low temp
frosting can cause packing damage. The extension bonnet
removes the packing from the frosting area.
 Radiation Fin Bonnet
High temperature tends to dry out packing and decompose
lubricants. For temperatures >200 C an extension bonnet with
radiating fins can be used.
 Bellows Seal Bonnet
Used to provide an absolutely tight seal when a highly explosive,
toxic, costly or volatile fluid is flowing thru the valve. Bellows
material is usually stainless steel or monel depending on pressure.
Additional packing is provided for emergency use in case of
damaged bellows.
Valve Packing
 Inner Valve
Single Seated Double Seated

Tight Shut-Off ie. Balanced Forces ie

Very Low leakage More Accurate
Rate. Positioning of the
Valve.
Unbalanced Forces
Requiring Large Difficult to Prevent
Diaphragm Motor. Leakage.

In order to achieve accurate valve disc positioning and overcome the

effects of friction and unbalanced forces a valve positioner may be
used.
Valve Positioner
Function of Valve Positioner

 To position the valve stem more

accurately than is possible using
only the controller output.
 To provide extra power to operate the
valve, so increasing the speed of valve
movement.
Valve Positioner Description
The controller signal acts on a bellows which will move
the flapper in relation to the nozzle.
This movement will alter the air pressure on the diaphragm
which is supplied via an orifice from a constant pressure
supply.
The diaphragm movement will move the valve spindle
and also the flapper. An equilibrium position will be
set up when the valve disc is correctly positioned.
This arrangement enables the use of a separate
power source to actuate the valve.

Actuator Operation
The control signal to a correcting unit may be pneumatic,
electric or hydraulic.
The actuating power may also be any one of these three
and not necessarily the same as the control medium.
Electrical control signals are usually of small voltage or
current values which are unable to effect actuator
movement. Pneumatic or hydraulic power would then be
used for actuator operation.

A separate pneumatic power supply may be used even

when the control signal is pneumatic, as described in the
previous section. Hydraulic actuator power is used where
large or out of balance forces occur or when the correcting
unit is of large dimensions itself.

Hydraulic control with separate hydraulic actuation is a

feature of some types of steering gear.
Control Systems Onboard Ships
- Boiler Water Level Control System.
Water Level Control for LP Boilers

STEAM FLOW

BOILER CONTROLLER

SET POINT

LEVEL TRANSMITTER

FEED CONTROL
VALVE
Steam Temperature Control System
Boiler Combustion Control System
Cooling Water Temperature Control
System.
Cooling Water Temperature Control
System.
Fuel Oil Viscosity Control System
CONTROLLER

SET
POINT

CORRECTING
UNIT

FUEL OIL STORAGE TANK

F.O. HEATER

TO ENGINE

MEASURING UNIT

STEAM OUT
Automatic Steering System
Automatic Load Control of
Alternators.
Assignment 2, Q1
How do you make this system automatic?

How do you incorporate alarms for low oil level and dirty
filters?
How do you make the standby pump start automatically
when the oil pressure is low?

S.W. IN S.W.OUT

MAIN COOLER

ENGINE
3-WAY
CONTROL
VALVE
DUPLEX FILTER

L.O. SUMP L.O.PUMP

TANK

M.E. LO Temperature Control System

Assignment 2, Q2

 Sketch an electrically operated control

valve of any design.
 What are the factors that need to be
considered for selecting trim materials?.
 Identify the materials commonly used for
control valve trim.
Assignment 2, Q3

 Sketch an oily water separator system

showing how the oil content in the
discharge water is controlled and kept
within allowable limits.
 Adjusting valves: Do you believe in automation?

Central control room

• Overview of
entire process
• Make
immediate
adjustment
anywhere
• Safe location
• History of past
operation

Process pictures courtesy of Petro-Canada Products

Centralised Control
 The automatic control concept, correctly
developed, results in the centralising of control
and supervisory functions. All ships have some
degree of automation and instrumentation
which is centred around a console.

 Modern installations have machinery control

rooms where the monitoring of control
functions takes place. The use of a separate
room in the machinery space enables careful
climate control of the space for the dual benefit
of the instruments and the engineer.
Centralised
Control
 Control consoles are usually arranged with the
more important controls and instrumentation
located centrally and within easy reach.
 The display panels often make use of mimic
diagrams. These are line diagrams of pipe
systems or items of equipment which include
miniature alarm lights or operating buttons for
the relevant point or item in the system. A high-
temperature alarm at, for instance, a particular
cylinder exhaust would display at the
appropriate place on the mimic diagram of the
engine. Valves shown on mimic diagrams
would be provided with an indication of their
open or closed position, pumps would have a
running light lit if operating, etc.
Mimic Diagram / Panels
 The grouping of the controllers and
instrumentation for the various systems
previously described enables them to become
part of the complete control system for the
ship.
 The ultimate goal in the centralised control
room concept will be to perform and monitor
every possible operation remotely from this
location. This will inevitably result in a vast
amount of information reaching the control
room, more than the engineer supervisor might
reasonably be expected to continuously
observe. It is therefore usual to incorporate
data recording and alarm systems in control
rooms.
Data Logging and Alarm
Monitoring System
 The alarm system enables the monitoring of certain
measured variables over a set period and the readings
obtained are compared with some reference or desired
value. Where a fault condition is located, i.e. a
measured value different from the desired value,
audible and visual alarms are given and a print-out of
the fault and the time of occurrence is produced.

 Data recording or data logging is the production of

measured variable information either automatically at
set intervals or on demand.
Unattened Machinery Spaces
The sophistication of modern control systems and the
reliability of the equipment used have resulted in
machinery spaces remaining unattended for long
periods. In order to ensure the safety of the ship and
its equipment during UMS operation certain essential
requirements must be met:

1. Bridge control.
A control system to operate the main machinery must
be provided on the bridge. Instrumentation providing
certain basic information must be provided.
2. Machinery control room.
A centralised control room must be provided with the
equipment to operate all main and auxiliary machinery
easily accessible.
3. Alarm and fire protection.
An alarm system is required which must be
comprehensive in coverage of the equipment and
able to provide warnings in the control room, the
machinery space, the accommodation and on the
bridge. A fire detection and alarm system which
operates rapidly must also be provided throughout
the machinery space, and a fire control point must be
provided outside the machinery space with facilities
for control of emergency equipment.
4. Emergency power.
Automatic provision of electrical power to meet the
varying load requirements. A means of providing
emergency electrical power and essential lighting
must be provided. This is usually met by the
automatic start up of a standby generator.
Maintenance of Control Systems
Comparison of Pneumatic, Electric
and Hydraulic Control Media

 Pneumatic systems use compressors to store air under

high pressure. When released, this pressurized air
pushes on machine parts, making them move.
 Electric systems use electric generators to supply
machine parts with power, which electric motors use to
make parts move.
 Pneumatic machines can be made without using
flammable parts or materials.
 Electricity is always a potential fire hazard.
 Pneumatic systems can operate even when the
electricity goes out.
Advantages of Pneumatic Control Systems
 The low cost of the components
 The ease of design and implementation
 The huge range of available components
 The use of air limits the force/torque that can be
generated providing a safety feature
 Pneumatic systems can operate even when the
electricity goes out.

Disadvantages of pneumatic systems

 compared with electrical and hydraulic actuators is that
the motive fluid (air) is compressible and hence
accurate speed control and position control is difficult
and often requires ancillary systems.
 need air compressors and other support equipment.
Advantages of Hydraulic Systems
 Compared to pneumatic and electric systems is that
high forces and torques can be developed with
comparatively compact motors without the need for
gearboxes.
 Very accurate motion controls are possible using
sophisticated servo valves.

Disadvantages of Hydraulic Systems

 relatively high cost of components
 the need to condition and contain the hydraulic fluid.
Care & Maintenance of Control
Systems
 For satisfactory continuous operation any
controller or control system should receive
periodic inspection and careful intelligent
maintenance.
 Dirt, corrosion and wear are the enemies of
control.
 Clean conditions must be effected in the ship
before the equipment is installed.
 The main machinery as well as the control
system requires adequate maintenance.
 Many cases of unsatisfactory performance
can be traced to faults in the main
machinery.
 Many operators are prone to overlook this
point and spend much time investigating the
control system rather than the machinery
itself.
 Pneumatic and hydraulic components require
very little maintenance.
 The various pivots and links in the system
should be free of friction and in good
working order.
 Oil must never be applied to a pneumatic
system except for by specific instruction from
the manufacturer.
 Connections in pneumatic and hydraulic
systems should be tight and should always be
checked for leakage.
 Non-ferrous materials such as copper or
brass should be used for air-supply lines.
Steel pipe will ultimately rust and small solid
particles will cause future difficulty.
 The greatest problem with pneumatic
systems is the maintenance of clean, dry air
at constant pressure.
 Moisture is usually adequately removed with
a storage tank of proper size and a
compressor after cooler.
 The air compressor should never be
overloaded since it will pump more oil when
running at high loads.
 Effective removal of moisture also helps in
the problem of frozen air lines.
 Air lines should be located to avoid low-
temperature areas such as the upper deck.
 The importance of maintaining a very high
degree of cleanliness when working on
control systems cannot be over-emphasized.
 Because of fine clearances involved in
pneumatic and hydraulic components it is
imperative that the system remain free of
contamination.
 The same need of cleanliness applies to
electrical systems since dirt generates
electrical noise.
 To prevent dirt entering a system the following
precautions should be taken before any work
is commenced:
1. Thoroughly clean the outside of fittings, pipes,
components and surrounding structure before
disconnecting any pipes.
2. When pipelines are disconnected fit dust caps to pipes
and unions, mask any exposed surfaces immediately
and make certain that it is not possible for foreign
matter to enter the system.
3. When drying pipes or components use only clean, dry
compressed air, i.e. from a bottle and not from a
compressor.
4. When flushing pipes use clean carbon tetrachloride
from a clean container.
5. Maintain clean hands and tools.
 With instruments only minor servicing, e.g.
zero adjustment and functional checking,
should be done in situ.
 When repairs or re-calibration are needed the
instrument should be removed and replaced by
another so that maintenance can be carried out
in a workshop.
 A generous allowance of space (more than is
normal for a fitting or machine shop) is amply
justified by the consequent ease and tidiness
of operation. The shop itself should dry,
warm and clean.
 If an efficient record system is used then
information will be collected to show the
amount of servicing required.
 The provision of block diagrams of control
systems and the identification of components
is vitally important.
 Such block diagram should be inside panel
doors or other convenient location.
 Control valves can be mounted the wrong
way round and without an external indication
of flow it is a long tedious process to discover
the fault and carry out rectification.
Electrical Hazards

 The resistance of the human body is quite high

only when the skin is dry. The danger of
electric shock is therefore much greater for
persons working in a hot, humid atmosphere
since this leads to wetness from body
perspiration. Fatal shocks have occurred at as
low as 60V and all circuits must be considered
dangerous.
 All electrical equipment should be isolated before any
work is done on it. The circuit should then be tested to
ensure that it is dead. Working near to live equipment
should be avoided if at all possible. Tools with
insulated handles should be used to minimise risks.
 The treatment of anyone suffering from severe electric
shock must be rapid if it is to be effective. First they
must be removed from contact with the circuit by
isolating it or using a non-conducting material to drag
them away. Electric shock results in a stopping of the
heart and every effort must be made to get it going
again. Apply any accepted means of artificial
respiration to bring about revival.
 Maintenance of Electrical Equipments

 With all types of electrical equipment cleanliness is

essential for good operation. Electrical connections
must be sound and any signs of sparking should be
investigated. Parts subject to wear must be examined
and replaced when necessary. The danger from a.c.
equipment in terms of electric shocks is far greater
than for similar d.c. voltages. Also a.c, equipment often
operates at very high voltages. Care must therefore be
taken to ensure isolation of equipment before any
inspections or maintenance is undertaken.
 The accumulation of dirt on electrical equipment will
result in insulation breakdown and leakage currents,
possibly even an earth fault.
 Moisture or oil deposits will likewise affect insulation
resistance. Regular insulation resistance measurement
and the compiling of records will indicate the
equipment requiring attention. Ventilation passages or
ducts may become blocked, with resultant lack of
cooling and overheating.
 Oil deposits from a direct-coupled diesel engine driving
an open generator (usually d.c.) can damage windings
and should therefore be removed if found.
 Totally enclosed machines should be periodically
opened for inspection and cleaning since carbon dust
will remain inside the machine and deposit on the
surfaces.
 Brushgear should be inspected to ensure adequate
brush pressure and the springs adjusted if necessary.
New brushes should be 'bedded in‘ to the commutator
or slipring shape with fine glass paper. Sparking at the
commutator will indicate poor commutation. This may
require polishing of a roughened commutator surface.
The mica insulation between commutator segments
may require undercutting if it protrudes, or simply
cleaning if deposits have built up.
 Control equipment, such as starters, will require
attention to contacts which may be worn or pitted as a
result of arcing. Contactors usually have a moving or
wiping action as they come together. This helps clean
the surfaces to provide good electrical contact, and
also the arc produced during closing and opening is not
at the finally closed position. The contactor contact
surfaces of frequently used equipment should
therefore be subject to regular inspections.
Emergency Generator Supply
In the event of a main generating system failure an
emergency supply of electricity is required for essential
services. This can be supplied by batteries, but most
merchant ships have an emergency generator. The
unit is diesel driven and located outside of the
machinery space.
 The emergency generator must be rated to provide
power for the driving motors of the emergency bilge
pump, fire pumps, steering gear, watertight doors and
possibly fire fighting equipment. Emergency lighting for
occupied areas, navigation lights, communications
systems and alarm systems must also be supplied.
Where electrical control devices are used in the
operation of main machinery, these too may require a
supply from the emergency generator.
 A switchboard in the emergency generator room
supplies these various loads. It is not usual for an
emergency generator to require paralleling, so no
equipment is provided for this purpose. Automatic start
up of the emergency generator at a low voltage value
is usual on modern installations.