CHAPTER FIVE

ANALYSIS

5-1 GENERAL METHODOLOGY

*>

The principle of conservation of energy and the equations of state permit solution
t
of a number of interesting and important technical problems. We shall begin to
apply these ideas at this point in order to indicate the manner in which thermody­
namics is used in engineering.
Energy analysis is essentially an accounting procedure, in which we take
account of energy transfers to and from a system and of changes in energy inside
the system. There are two main types of accounting procedures. In control-mass
analysis we write the conservation-of-energy equation for a specified piece of
matter, while in control-volume analysis we work instead with specified regions in
spaced The latter being somewhat more difficult, we shall begin by illustrating
energy analysis for a control mass.
An accounting procedure must be carried out over a set accounting period,
and an essential step in control-mass analysis is specification of the time base. This
might be a given period of time, or the time required for something to happen, or
we might specify that our accounting be done on an instantaneous-rate basis.
Some specification is necessary.

t The terms “system.” or “closed system,” and “ open system ” arc used by many texts instead
of “control mass” and “control volume.”

105
106 Engineering Thermodynamics Energy analysis 107

The accounting will be carried out with symbols used to represent energy 1. Define the system carefully and completely, indicating its boundaries on a
transfers to and from the control mass, and some sort of sign convention must sketch (control mass or control volume?).
always be set up for the energy flows. The important thing in energy analysis is to 2. List the relevant idealizations.
recognize all the energy transfers and changes that take place and to relate these in 3. Indicate the flows of energy to be considered in the energy balance and set up
a proper mathematical manner. The sign convention chosen for W and 0 is not their sign convention on the system sketch.
particularly important, provided that both the person doing the analysis and the 4. Indicate the time basis for the energy balance.
person reading it understand what it is. We shall adopt the policy of selecting 5. Sketch the process representation.
whatever convention seems appropriate for the analysis at hand; we will always 6. Write the energy balance in terms of the symbols shown on the system sketch;
indicate the directions of positive energy flows by arrows on the system sketch. there should be a one-to-one correspondence between the terms in the equation
This scheme has the additional advantage that the energy flows to be considered and those on the sketch.
are all identified, and where and how the energy crosses the boundary is quite 7. Bring in equations of state or other information as necessary to allow solution
clear. There should always be a one-to-one correspondence between the energy tK#* rxrnKlAm
flows shown on the system sketch and those that appear in the energy balance.
In working with energy changes we shall follow the conventions of cal­ We shall now illustrate this methodology for the control mass by example.
culus, in which dx and Ax always represent increases in the value of x. AE will The analyses which follow were selected to illustrate different aspects of first-law
always represent an increase in the energy stored within the control mass. analysis from the control-mass viewpoint. Different kinds of idealizations are
Having made the energy balance, the next step is to bring in enough other introduced in the various developments, the use of graphical and tabular equa­
information to permit reduction of the problem to one equation in one unknown. tions of state are demonstrated, and some important definitions and general con­
This information might be in the form of equations of state, information about the sequences are given. Every one of the examples should be studied carefully, even
nature of the process, or other information obtained by applying the principle of though they may appear to be extremely simple and straightforward (as indeed
conservation of mass, Newton’s law, or other fundamental principles to the thpv arc if a svstematic methodolosv is followed).
system.
In any analysis various approximations, or idealizations, must be made to
reduce the problem to a manageable size. These idealizations must be clearly 5-2 EXAMPLES OF CONTROL-MASS ENERGY ANALYSIS
understood by both the analyst and the reader of the analysis, hence we prefer to
list these specifically at the start of the analysis. Sometimes idealizations are Evaporation at constant pressure. Three kg of H20 in a piston-cylinder
implicitly indicated on the system sketch; for example, the absence of an energy system is initially in the saturated-liquid state at 0.6 MPa. Energy is added slowly
transfer term Q would imply that we idealize that energy transfer as heat is to the water as heat, and the piston moves in such a way that the pressure remains
negligible during the time period over which the energy balance will be made. constant. How much w'ork is done by the water, and how much energy must be
Such idealizations should be specifically listed to ensure their communication to transferred as heat in order to bring the water to the saturated-vapor state? See
the reader. Fig. 5*1.
We cannot emphasize enough the importance of a good system sketch,
complete with all the relevant energy-transfer terms. A good sketch can be of great
value to the analyst in thinking straight about the process, in being consistent
throughout the analysis, and also in seeing what steps must be taken to complete
the analysis.
An equally important working diagram is the process representation. This
is one or more diagrams showing what happens to matter within the system on ►
o
suitable thermodynamic planes. In most analyses one must find some way to fix
the states ol the matter at the start or finish of the process, and the process
representation is of great value in helping the analyst work through a complex
problem. Hence one should always try to draw the process representation before
carrying out the analysis in order to orient one’s thinking properly and efficiently.
In summary, the general methodology for energy-balance analysis is as (a) The control mass (b) The process representation
follows: Figure 5*2.
 108 Engineering Thermodynamics Energy analysis 109

We could select the water or the water plus the piston as the control mass. The work done is therefore
Since we are interested in energy transfers to the water, and the piston is merely a
means for maintaining the constant pressure, we take only the water as our W = 3 kg x 6 x 105 N/m2 x (0.3157 - 0.0011) m3/kg.= 566,300 J
control mass. The change in state is depicted by the process representation, which = 566.3 kJ
is nicely shown on a P-v plane.
In order to solve the problem we idealize that the changes in the gravita­ We can finally calculate the energy added as heat:
tional potential energy of the water are negligible in comparison with the changes
in the internal energy. We idealize further that the presence of the gravitational Q = 566.3 + 3 kg x (2567.4 - 669.9) kJ/kg = 6259 kJ
field does not significantly alter the behavior of the water molecules, so that the
relationships between the thermodynamic properties are the same as if the water The energy transfer as heat could have been calculated directly if we had
were truly a simple compressible substance. In short, we idealize that the water noticed that it is expressible as
behaves like a simple compressible substance and is in equilibrium states at the
start and end of the process. Q = M[P( v 2 - v { ) + (u 2 - Uj)] = M(h 2 - h t )
When we employ these idealizations, the energy balance, made over the
period during which the process occurs, is Note that the energy transfer as heat (per unit of mass) to a simple compres­
sible substance during a constant pressure process is equal to the increase in
Q = W + AU its enthalpy.
energy energy increase in
input output energy storage
Values for h i and h 2 could have been obtained from Table B- lb. Thus the energy
transfer as heat required to evaporate a unit of mass of a simple compressible
where AU = M(u 2 - uf) substance at constant pressure is simply h g — h f = h fg and is sometimes called the
enthalpy of evaporationf of that substance. Note that it depends on pressure and
Fixing the initial and final states from the SI version of Table B- lb, at the initial vanishes at the critical point.
state (saturated liquid at 0.6 MPa)
A Dry-Ice cooler. One lbm of Dry Ice (C02) at 1 atm pressure is placed on
Pj = 6 x 105 N/m2 7) = 432 K (158.9°C) top of a piece of meat in a cooler. The Dry Ice sublimes at constant pressure as a
u 1 = 669.9 kJ/kg = 0.001101 m3/kg result of energy transfer as heat from the warmer meat. What is the temperature of
Vl
the CO2, and how much energy is transferred as heat from the meat? See Fig. 5 • 2.
and at the final state (saturated vapor at 0.6 MPa)
t The term “ latent heat of vaporization ” is also used.
P2 = 6 x 105 N/m2 T 2 = 432 K (158.9°C)
u 2 = 2567.4 kJ/kg v 2 = 0.3157 m3/kg

Note that the volume occupied by the water increases tremendously.

We could now compute the net energy added to the water, but as yet we CO0(g)

cannot tell how much is added as heat and how much is taken away as work. The
fact that the pressure remains constant during the process allows us to compute
CO„ (s)
the work very simply. The work done by the water is

2 22
w=\ aw = I p dv = m f p dv
•i -i -h

Since the pressure is constant,

(a) The control mass (6) The process representation
W = MP(v 2 — iq) Figure 5 • 2.
 110 Engineering Thermodynamics Energy analysis 111

For the control mass we pick the C02, including the solid and vapor. The 1°K nl
boundary of this control mass moves as the solid sublimes, and so there will be
energy transfer as work, in this case from the expanding C02 to the environment. 5000
at7
We assume no energy transfer as heat from the C02 to the surrounding air and
neglect mixing of the C02 with the air. The energy balance is then
0.5°K
Q = W +AU
energy energy increase in (a) The control mass (b) The process representation
input output energy storage
Figure 5-3.

where A U = M(u 2 —u 1 )
cooling. The initial temperature is 1 K and the final temperature is 0.5 K; how
As in the previous example, the work done by the expanding C02 is related to the much energy must be transferred as heat from the alum? See Fig. 5-3.
pressure (constant by assumption) and the volume change, This problem is complicated by the fact that the thermodynamic-property
data (Fig. B-12) are given in absolute magnetostatic units, while the expressions
W = MP(i> 2 - tq) for work of magnetization given in Chap. 2 are in the rationalized mksc system.
The required unit conversions will be good practice.
Solving for the energy transfer as heat to the C02 and expressing it in terms of the The energy terms considered to be important are shown on the control-
change in the enthalpy property, mass diagram; the energy balance, made over the time for the process to occur, is

Q = M[(u2 - iq) + P(v 2 - iq)] W=Q+AU

energy energy increase in
= M[(u2 + P 2 v 2 ) - (tq + P 1 v 1 )] = M(h 2 - /q) input output energy storage

where A U = M(u 2 — tq)

The equation of state for C02 is given on a temperature-entropy plane in Fig. B-6.
The entropy is an important thermodynamic property which we shall discuss in
From the graphical equation of state we obtain the initial and final internal
the next chapters. For the time being we can use the equation of state as given in
energies (assuming that the initial and final states are states of thermodynamic
Fig. B-6 without worrying about this property. The initial state is saturated solid
equilibrium),
at 1 atm, and from Fig. B-6 we read the enthalpy of this state as 31 Btu/lbm. The
final state, 2, is saturated vapor at 1 atm, for which we read the enthalpy as
tq = 1.56 x 104 ergs/g u 2 = 1.39 x 104 ergs/g
276 Btu/lbm. The positions of these states on the temperature-entropy diagram
are indicated on the process representation in Fig. 5-2b.
If the alum is idealized as a simple magnetic substance, the work done on the alum
From Fig. B-6 we also read the saturation temperature corresponding to
by the external field is [see Eq. (2-17)]
15 psia as — 108°F. The energy transferred as heat from the meat to the C02 is then
22
2=1 Ibm x (276 — 31) Btu/lbm = 245 Btu W = I nw= I Vp 0 H (iM
*1 ‘I
The difference h sg is called the enthalpy of sublimationt and represents the
The work calculation is made particularly simple by the fact that the applied field
energy which must be added as heat to completely sublime a unit of mass of a
substance at constant pressure. is held constant. For constant H the work becomes

W = p 0 FH(M2 - Mj)
Thermal magnetization. One cm3 of the paramagnetic substance iron-
ammonium alum is magnetized in a constant external field H of 5000 G (gauss) by
From Fig. B-12 we read the initial and final magnetizations as
t Sublimation is the transformation of a solid directly into a gas at constant pressure. The
term “latent heat of sublimation” is sometimes used for hS0 = hg — hs. M, = 62 G M2 = 84 G
112 Engineering Thermodynamics
Energy analysis 113

We choose to convert everything to the rationalized mksc unit system. From

Appendix A we find the dimensional equivalents, Saturated-liquid line
/
TVi
w
1 G of H = 79.6 C/(s*m) of H Saturated-vapor line

1 G of M = 1000 C (s-m) of M r P

Liquid Vapor f ; Vapor '

V apor
i2 JL

Then, in the rationalized mksc system we have

AV
H ----- 40 x 104 C (s*m) Liquid
£C
Mixture
2
J!
Mx = 62 x 103 C (s*m) 1
i \
i

M2 - 84 x 103 C (s• m) (a) The control mass The process representation

Figure 5'4.
ft0 = 1.256 x 10“6 kg*m/C2

The energy transfer as work to the alum is therefore

* X

do expect the volume to change, resulting in an energy transfer as work. The only
W = (0.01 m)3 X 1.256 x 10"6 kg-m/C2 x 40 x 104 C (s-m)
energy stored within the control mass is the internal energy of the mercury; the
x (84 - 62) x 103 C/(s-m) energy balance, made over the time for the process to take place, is therefore
(Fig. 5*4)
= 0.0111 kg-irr/s2 = 0.0111 J
H AV
The density of the alum is (Fig. B-12) 1.71 g/cm3. The internal-energy increase is energy increase in
therefore input energy storage

M( u 2 - mO = 1.71 g x (1.39 x 104 - 1.56 x 104)(g-cm2/s)/g where AU = U ?

= -0.3 x 104 erg = -0.0003 J The work calculation is again made easy by the fact that the pressure is constant.
When the piston moves in an amount dx, the energy transfer as work from the
So the energy which must be transferred from the alum as heat is environment to the control mass is

Q = 0.0111 - (-0.0003) J = 0.0114 J dW = PA dx = -P dV

This energy is transferred to some environment at a temperature lower than 0.5 K. Integrating,

Thermal mixing at constant pressure. Two Ibm of saturated liquid mer­ 1

cury at 1 psia is mixed with 4 Ibm of 1400°F mercury vapor at 1 psia. The mixing W P dv= P(FJ - V2)
•i
vessel is such that the pressure remains constant during this process, and no
energy transfer as heat occurs between the vessel and the mercury. Determine the Combining with the energy balance,
equilibrium state reached by this mixture.
In the previous examples the control mass was in a state of equilibrium at U 2 + PV2 = U, + PI- (5*1)
the start of the process, so the calculation of the initial energy was quite straight­
forward. In this example we shall see how to make the corresponding evaluation To evaluate the initial terms we assume that the liquid is in an equilibrium state
for a system that is not in equilibrium. and the vapor is in an equilibrium state, even though they are not in equilibrium
Since the amount of liquid might change during the process, we cannot with one another. The graphical and tabular equations of state, Fig. B-10 and
take only the liquid or only the vapor as the control mass. Instead we take the Table B*3, may then be employed for each phase. Since the available equation-of-
114 Engineering Thermodynamics Energy analysis 115

state information is in terms of the enthalpy property, we express the right-hand w

side of Eq. (5*1) as 100 Tank

a
U1 + PVX = Mhuh + Mviuui + P(Mhvh + MVivvl) cyl
Cylinder
= Mhhh + Mvihvi 14.7

Time Vcyl
Now, from the tables, the initial liquid enthalpy is (saturated liquid at 1 psia,
Table B*3)

hh = 13.96 Btu/lbm (a) The control mass (6) The process representation
T, = 457.7°F Figure 5*5.

The initial vapor enthalpy is found from Fig. B*10 as

the load begins to move upward, maintaining this cylinder pressure until the
h = 164 Btu/lbm piston has traveled 3 ft. The load then stops, but air continues to flow into the
cylinder. Eventually the pressures in the tank and cylinder are equal, and through
Substituting the numbers, energy transfer as heat all the air attains a temperature of 60°F. Calculate the final
air pressure and the amount of energy transfer as heat from the tank walls to
U\ + PVt - 2 x 13.96 + 4 x 164 - 684 Btu the air.
In making the energy balance we consider the time period from the start to
The final state is a state of equilibrium, for which the end, where the air is in equilibrium throughout the system and the load is at its
highest point. We take the air as the control mass and consider the energy flows
U2 + PV2 = M(u + Pv)2 - Mh2 in FS• S The energy balance is

The enthalpy in the final state is therefore Q = W + AU

energy energy increase in
input output energy storage
684 Btu
114 Btu/lbm
6 lbm
In order to calculate Q we must first evaluate AU and W. The work computation
is facilitated by consideration of the process representation. Work will be done by
The final pressure and enthalpy may be used to fix the final state. Upon
the control mass on the piston only when the piston is moving, and during this
inspection of Fig. B* 10 we see that the final state is a mixture of saturated liquid
period the cylinder pressure is assumed to remain at 50 psia. During this period
and vapor at 1 psia and that the “moisture” (1 — x) is about 21 percent (0.79
the force exerted by the gas on the piston is 144 x 50 = 7200 lbf, and the piston
quality). Alternatively, we could use the information in Table B*3:
moves a distance of 3 ft. Hence
114 = (1 - x2) x 13.96 + x2 x 140.7
W = 7200 x 3 = 21,600 ft*lbf/(778 ft-lbf/Btu)
x2 = 0.79
= 27.8 Btu

A pneumatic lift. Air is used in a pneumatic lift (Fig. 5*5). The air is initially Idealizing that the air behaves as a perfect gas, we have enough informa­
contained in a 10 ft3 steel tank at 80°F and 100 psia. When lifting is required, the tion to establish the initial and final air states completely. From Table B*6, we
valve is opened and air is bled out into the cylinder. The cylinder is initially filled obtain the following constants for air:
with air at 1 atm, 60°F, has a cross-sectional area of 1 ft2, and a lifting height of
3 ft. Its initial volume is 0.5 ft3. When the pressure in the cylinder reaches 50 psia, cv = 0.172 Btu/(lbm*R) R = 53.3 ft*lbf/(lbm*R)
116 Engineering Thermodynamics Energy analysis 117

Initial state The final pressure is, from Eq. (4* 16),
Tank air 80°F( = 540 R), 100 psia
Using Eq. (4* 16), p 2 = p 2 RT 2 = 0.373 x 53.3 x 520 = 10,300 lbf/ft2
= 71.8 psia
1 P 100 x 144
P=~ = 0.500 lbm/ft3
v RT 53.3 x 540 The final specific internal energy is [Eq. (4-21)]

Hence u 2 = 0.172 x (520 - 460) = 10.3 Btu/lbm

M, = 10 x 0.500 = 5.00 lbm So U 2 = M u 2 = 5.04 x 10.3 = 51.9 Btu

Using Eq. (4-21), with T 0 = 0°F = 460 R, We now calculate the internal energy increase as

u, = 0.172 x (540 - 460) = 13.8 Btu/lbm A U = U 2 - U l = 51.9 - 69.4 = - 17.5 Btu

Hence (The minus sign indicates that the internal energy actually decreases.) Substituting
for W and A U in the energy balance,
U, = Mu = 5.00 x 13.8 = 69.0 Btu
Q = 27.8 + (-17.5) = 10.3 Btu
Cylinder air 60°F( = 520 R), 14.7 psia
The student should particularly note the manner in which we used the
process representations to orient our thinking and to guide the analysis.
P 14.7 x 144
P= - 0.0764 lbm/ft3
RT 53.3 x 520

M c = 0.5 x 0.0764 = 0.038 lbm A steady-flow system. The previous examples of control-mass analysis
u c = 0.172 x (520 - 460) = 10.3 Btu/lbm have dealt exclusively with nonflow systems, for which the control-mass method is
ideal. Flow systems are of great interest in engineering, and the control-volume
Uc = 0.038 x 10.3 = 0.39 Btu
view is better suited to analysis of such systems. In a moment we are going to work
out a proper energy equation for a control volume, and subsequently we shall
So, the total mass and energy in the initial configuration
consider all flow problems from the control-volume point of view. However, flow
problems may be worked by the control-mass method, though this is somewhat
M = 5.00 + 0.038 = 5.04 lbm
awkward. In the interests of motivating the control-volume transformation and
Uj = 69.0 4- 0.39 = 69.4 Btu clarifying the physics involved, we shall now do a particular flow-system analysis
by the control-mass method.
Consider a rather general “black-box” device, where fluid flows in one end
Final state All air at 60°F (520 R) and out the other. Energy is transferred as heat to the box, and power is trans­
The total final volume is mitted into the device through a rotating shaft. We define the control mass to be
the box and all its contents, and the fluid in the inlet and discharge pipes from
V = 10.00 + 0.5 + 3.0 = 13.5 ft3 section 1 through section 2 at time t. This control mass is indicated in Fig. 5-6.
The analysis will be made over an infinitesimal time interval dt. During this
Hence the final density is period the control mass will move, and its position at time t + dt is indicated in
Fig. 5-6. We shall assume that the inlet and discharge flows are one-dimensional,
meaning that the velocities and thermodynamic properties are constant across the
inlet and exit pipes. We also idealize this as a steady-flow steady-state situation,
118 Engineering Thermodynamics Energy analysis 119

Control-mass boundary at time t Note that V is the velocity normal to the flow area A. The mass balance can now be
Control-mass boundary at time t + dt interpreted as applying to the space C (the control volume),

M1 ~ M2
1 Jl
r
mass- mass-
-
. J dE inflow outflow
7...V
,rtW l +-
V rate rate

Vx dt C o dw 9

h ] n:-:; This merely states that the rate of mass inflow to the control volume must equal the
1
r rate of mass outflow from the control volume under steady-flow steady-state condi­
[ H
i
1• V2 dt tions, which is obviously the proper control-volume mass balance. However, the
2 proper energy equation is not as obvious, and we must derive it carefully.
An energy balance on the control mass, made over the time period dt,
yields
dwshaft
Figure 5 *6. The control mass
dW:l 4- WJhafl + dQ = dW2 + dE
energy input energy increase in
meaning that the velocities and thermodynamic properties at each point in space output energy storage
are unchanging in time.t
Let’s illustrate the approach to be used in the energy analysis in a simpler
The work terms dWx and dW2 represent energy transfers to and from the control
analysis of the mass conservation. Applying the conservation-of-mass principle to
mass due to normal motion of its boundaries in the pipes near sections 1 and 2. To
the control mass, we obtain
evaluate these terms we assume that the pressure exerted by the fluid on the duct
dM = 0
walls is the same as that exerted by the fluid immediately outside the control mass
on the fluid just inside the boundary. In other words, the pressure within the fluid is
where M is the mass of the control mass. This mass can be represented in terms of
presumed to be the same in all directions. Denoting the fluid pressures at sections
the spatial distribution of matter, that is, in terms of the masses in regions A, B,
1 and 2 by Px and P2 and assuming that these pressures act uniformly over the
and C of Fig. 5*6. Using the steady-flow steady-state condition,
flow cross sections at those points, we have
M(t) = M A + Mc
dWx = { P A ) X Vi d t
M(t + dt) = MB+ Mc
d W 2 - ( P A ) 2V 2 d t
dM = M(t + dt) - M(t) = Mb~ Ma
The change in the energy of the control mass can be represented in terms of the
The volume of A and B are (AV)X dt and (AV)2 dt, where Vj and V2 are the
energies of regions A, B , and C of Fig. 5*6. Using the steady-flow steady-state
velocities at sections 1 and 2. Hence the mass balance becomes idealization, we obtain

dM = (pA V)2 dt — ( p A V )1 d t = 0
E(t) = Ea + Ec
The term ( p A V )1 dt represents the amount of mass dM which crosses section 1 in E(t + dt) = Ec + Eb
the time interval dt. The rate of mass flow M is defined ast
dE = E(t + dt) - E(t) = EB- Ea
dM
► M= (pAV) (5*2)
dt We denote the energy per unit of mass of fluid at 1 and 2 by e , and e 2 . This
represents the internal energy, plus kinetic energy due to motion, plus potential
t The state of a piece of fluid passing through the device does change; and the states of the energy due to conservative force fields,
fluid at various positions within the device may be different.

i Note that M # dM/dt. See the Nomenclature at the back of the book. e = u + PE + KE
120 Engineering Thermodynamics Energy analysis 121

Then, the increase in energy within the control mass is V

i dw shaft Control volume
Control mass at t
: V-.
/

d E = e 2p 2( A 2 V2 d t ) - e l p l ( A l V: d t ) V dt 1
\S

& Control mass at t dt

N. V,
1
and the energy balance becomes /
/ /
w
If \\
4

\ 2
( P A V ) l d t — (P A V ) 2 d t + dWshaft + dQ = ( e A p V )2 dt — (eApV)1 dt // ^ecm dw, 2
I
\\
✓

The rates of energy transfer as work and heat are defined as 2

«__W2 dt

dw,:s h a f t A c1Q
► W shaft Q (5-3) Figure 5 *7. A control volume
dt dt

Dividing by dt and introducing the mass-flow rate M = ApV, the energy balance one-dimensional at points where mass crosses the control-volume boundary. We
may be written as again assume that the pressure exerted by the fluid on the duct walls is the same as
the force per unit of area on an imaginary cut across the duct. This will be a good
[ M ( e + P v )L + lTshaft + Q = [ M ( e + P v )}2 idealization, except in some cases where viscous shear is important, but there
energy-input rate energy-output rate the one-dimensional idealization would be invalid anyway. We allow energy trans­
fer as heat across the boundary of the control volume, but we must be careful in
The expressions below the equation show how the terms in this equation can be handling such energy transfer at points where mass enters the control volume, and
interpreted as applying to the space C (the control volume). to avoid confusion we shall assume that no energy is transferred as heat at the
The energy equation above relates the properties at sections 1 and 2 to the inlet and exit stations. We also presume that we can choose the control-volume
rates of energy transfer as heat and work to the device and consequently is just boundaries such that we can neglect work arising from tangential shearing mo­
what we need. Suppose we knew the temperature and pressure at states 1 and 2 tions of the boundary, except for energy transfer as work through rotating shafts.
and could thereby fix the thermodynamic states of the fluid. If, in addition, we Thus a number of important restrictions have been made, all of which can be
could in some way determine the mass-flow rate and knew the rate of energy removed by proper extension of the analysis. It is important to realize that our
transfer as heat, the energy balance could be used to calculate the shaft-power resulting control-volume energy equation will not be fully general, though it will
output. This is a typical use for a first-law equation. be sufficiently general for most of our purposes.
As we indicated, the control-mass point of view could be used to handle all To develop the proper control-volume energy-conservation expression, we
flow problems. The analysis would always involve motion of the boundaries in the shall consider two infinitesimally differing instants in time, t and t + dt, and apply
inlet and exit ducts and a representation of the energy of the control mass in terms the conservation-of-energy principle to the particular control mass whose bound­
of the distribution of energy through space. We might as well do a reasonably aries at time t happen to correspond exactly to those of the control volume.
general analysis of this type once and then use it whenever it is applicable in Work will be done on the control mass by the rotating shaft and also by the
flow-system analysis. This brings us now to the control-volume transformation. normal motion of the control-mass boundary at the two points where matter flows
into and out of the control volume. An energy balance on the control mass, made
over the time period dt, gives
5-3 THE CONTROL-VOLUME TRANSFORMATION
(Pv4)j Vj dt + dWsh.d(t + dQ (pa)2 v2 dt + dE C M
A control volume is any defined region in space. This region may be moving
energy input energy increase in
through space, and its shape and volume may be changing. However, most often output energy storage
we deal with control volumes that are of fixed shape and size and are fixed in the
reference frame, so we shall consider this special case first. We want to express all terms in this energy balance in terms of properties
Consider a control volume whose boundaries are fixed in space and sta­ of the control volume rather than the control mass. The energy contained within
tionary. Matter flows across the boundaries of this control volume, as indicated in the control mass at time t is identical with the energy within the control volume at
Fig. 5*7. Following our previous analysis, we assume that the flow streams are that instant. At time t + dt the energy of the control mass is equal to the energy of
122 Engineering Thermodynamics Energy analysis 123

the matter within the control-volume boundaries at t + dt, plus the energy of the may be of fixed size). Note that e, P, and v appearing in the flow terms are to be
matter within the shaded portion B, minus the energy of the matter within the evaluated at the point where the matter crosses the boundary.
shaded portion A. Therefore The energy per unit of mass of substance crossing the boundary is
composed of internal energy, bulk potential energy, and bulk kinetic energy. We
dE CM = E CM (t + dt) — E CM {t) can therefore write
= E cv (t + dt) + (A 2 V2 dt)p 2 e 2 — (A t Vj dt)p 1 e 1 — E cv (t)
e + Pv = KE + PE + u + Pv
= dE cv 4- (Ap\!e) 2 dt — (ApVe) 1 dt
The appearance of the combination h = u + Pv suggests further utility for tabula­
Here we have used e to represent the total energy of the matter per unit of mass. tions of the enthalpy property.
The terms dW sha[t and dQ represent energy transfers across the common bound­ The kinetic energy of a unit of mass is simply V2/2g c . The potential energy
aries, that is, across the control-volume boundary, which occur during the time of a unit of mass in a uniform gravitational field may be shown to equal (g/g c )z,
interval dt. Substituting for dE CM and regrouping terms, where g is the local acceleration of gravity (ft/s2), g c is the constant in Newton’s
law [32.17 ft Tbm/(lbf-s2)], and z is the height above some arbitrarily selected
dW sha[t + dQ + (^pV)j|e + —j j
dt = (TpV)2|e + — dt + dE cv datum. The electrostatic potential energy of a unit of mass is simply 0.S where Q is
the charge per unit of mass and & is the local value of the electrostatic potential
above the (arbitrary) ground state. Hence
The term Ap'd dt represents infinitesimal mass transfer across the control-volume
boundaries, which we denote by dM. Then V2 g
e -f- Pv = h -{- ——I— z -j- 0.$* + * • •
2 gc 9c
► dW shafl + dQ + [(e + Pv)dM] in = [(e + Pv)dM] out + dE cv (5-4)
energy input energy output increase in For a control volume with matter flowing across the boundaries in several
energy storage
places, and with boundaries which may themselves be moving, the conservation-
of-energy statement on the time-interval basis leads to
This can be viewed as a conservation-of-energy equation for the control volume,
expressed for a definite period of time. Alternatively, we could divide by dt and
► £ (e + Pv ) dM+ dW + dQ = X (e + -Pv) dM + dE cv (5-6)
express the energy balance on a rate basis as in out
energy input energy output energy storage

► W'shan + Q + [ M { e + Pv)] in = [ M ( e + Pv)] oal + (5-5)

and on the rate basis to
energy-input rate energy-output energy-storage
rate rate
► X (e + Pv)M +W +Q = Y J {e + Pv)M + (^) (5-7)
in out \ dt I (
We see that the conservation-of-energy idea can be retained for the control energy-input rate energy-output energy-storage
volume, provided that we adopt a slightly modified picture of energy. When matter rate rate

flows into a control volume, energy is connected in by the matter and, in addition,
energy is transferred to the control volume as work. The amount of energy trans­ Here W is understood to be the sum of shaft-power input and power input due to
fer as work associated with a unit of mass is Pv. In a sense, entering matter does normal motion of the control-volume boundaries. Q represents the sum of all
work on the matter already within the control volume by “pushing it out of the heat-transfer rates to the control volume. If the control-volume boundaries move,
way.” The Pv product, when used in this context, is sometimes called flow work. It M must be calculated in terms of the velocity of the fluid relative and normal to the
does not represent any energy contained by the fluid. control surface.
Note that the energy of matter is still designated by e. Only when matter It is sometimes necessary to replace the sums by integrals, and we then
crosses the boundaries of a control volume will the additional contribution of the obtain
Pv product occur in the energy-balance equation. Furthermore, care must be ► -f J(e + Pv)p\ rel -dA + W + Q = ^ f pe dV (5-8)
taken to distinguish between the P dv work done by a control mass in expanding cs dt J cv
and the Pv work done by a unit of mass in flowing into a control volume (which net energy-input rate energy-storage
rate
124 Engineering Thermodynamics Energy analysis 125

The area integration is to be extended over the control surface CS, and dA repre­ 1 T
sents an outward normal vector. The volume integration is extended over the '

entire control volume. Note that e appears in the energy-storage term, while *> Saturated-vapor line
vi
e + Pv appears in the energy-convection term. Vre] represents the outward velocity zU(e-fr^)1 | M (e + Pv
{T
relative to the boundary, while the absolute velocity V must be used to compute the
1L
kinetic energy.
Two important idealizations frequently made in control-volume analysis
are (1) that the flow is steady, so that no mass is accumulating within the control u
volume, and (2) that the state of the matter at each point in space is steady, that is,
(a) The control volume (b) The process representation
unchanging in time. This implies that the energy stored within the control volume
is unchanging and thereby eliminates the term in the energy equation involving Figure 5*8.

changes in the energy storage. It is therefore not necessary to know the details of
what is going on within the control volume. This is very important, because it
The conservation-of-mass principle implies that the flow rate is the same at
allows us to analyze intricate systems by examining only the transfers of energy
sections 1 and 2. In applying this principle we assume that the flow is one-
across the control-volume boundary.
dimensional at 1 and 2, which means that the properties are uniform across the
The methodology introduced for the control mass may readily be applied
sections. The energy per unit of mass is taken as
in setting up the control-volume energy balance. We shall now illustrate the
methodology by examples. In each case it will be necessary to make idealizations V2
e — u -f- ~—
in order to render the problem tractable. Such idealizations are usually based on 20c
experience, but engineering analysis is both a science and an art and can be
In evaluating u as a function of the temperature and pressure we shall assume
learned only by imitation and practice. Thus careful study of the examples will
that the motion in no way alters the thermodynamic equations of state. In micro­
provide the student’s first bit of experience and something to imitate. One can
scopic terms, even though the fluid is accelerating, the molecules behave locally as
often verify the validity of an idealization by making appropriate estimates and
if there were no bulk motion. Satisfactory results are obtained with this idealiza­
should make every attempt to do so whenever a particular assumption is
tion, and this experimental support is sufficient justification for its use. We shall
questionable. The examples serve to bring out many important features of
also neglect any differences in the potential energy of position of the entering and
systematic control-volume energy analysis and are typical of the simpler types of
emergent flows.
problems in engineering thermodynamics.
The internal process is quite complicated. However, only the states of the
fluid at 1 and 2 need to be known, and we can indicate our ignorance of the
intermediate states by showing the process as a dotted line (Fig. 5*8b).
5-4 EXAMPLES OF CONTROL-VOLUME ENERGY ANALYSIS
Several important simplifying idealizations have been made, and it is a
good idea to begin any analysis by listing them:
Flow through a nozzle. Steam enters the nozzle of a steam turbine with a
velocity of 10 ft/s at a pressure of 500 psia and a temperature of 1000°F. At the
Steady flow steady state
nozzle discharge the pressure and temperature are measured and found to be
Adiabatic control volume
300°F and 1 atm. What is the discharge velocity? See Fig. 5'8.
One-dimensional flow at 1 and 2 (but not necessarily internally)
In any such nozzle frictional effects between the fluid and the walls might
Equation of state the same as for a simple compressible substance
be important, but by choosing the boundaries as indicated in Fig. 5* 8a these
Changes in the potential energy of position negligible
effects become internal. Then, idealizing the flow as steady and assuming that the
state at each point in the control volume is invariant in time (steady state), we do
With these idealizations, application of the conservation-of-energy principle to the
not need to know what is going on within the control volume. We also idealize
control volume gives, on a rate basis,
that the control volume is adiabatic, so that no energy transfer as heat takes place
across the control-volume boundaries (this is a reasonable simplifying idealiza­ ./ V2
tion for most nozzles). This does not mean that no energy transfer as heat takes Ml u + Pv --------- - m(u + Pv + ~) =0
\ 2gc \ 2 gj 2
place within the control volume, but any such transfer would not be involved in a energy-inflow rate energy-outflow rate energy-
steady-flow steady-state analysis. storage
rate
126 Engineering Thermodynamics Energy analysis 127

Solving for the discharge kinetic energy per unit of mass,

v| = vf
T
+ [(u + Pv)i - (w + Pv)2] j
i
2Q 2 gc
e

The intensive thermodynamic states are fixed by the temperature and pressure
measurements (See Fig. B -1):

Tx = 1000°F T2 = 300°F
Pi = 500 psia
ux = 1360 Btu/lbm
vx = 1.7 ft3/lbm
P2 = 14.7 psia
u2 = 1110 Btu/lbm
v2 = 31 ft3/lbm
/
(a) The control volume (6) The process representation

Hence
Figure 5'9. Valve analysis

hx = (ux 4- Px vx) ~ 1520 Btu/lbm

h2 = (u2 + P2vi) ~ 1193 Btu/lbm One-dimensional flow at 1 and 2
Kinetic and potential energies negligible at 1 and 2
V3 102 Thermodynamic equilibrium at 1 and 2
Then “ = ...... -—pr (ft2/s2)/[ft * lbm/(lbf* s2)]

The energy balance is then simply

= 1.55 ft*lbf/lbm = 2 x 10“3 Btu/lbm
V?
r-1 = 2 x 10“3 + 1520 - 1193 = 327 Btu/lbm - 254,000 ft-lbf/lbm Mhx = Mh2
2Gc
energy- energy-
input output
V2 - x 32.2 ft-lbm/(lbf*s2) x“254,000lt-lbf/lbm - 4050 ft/s rate rate

Note that the enthalpies could have been more conveniently found in Table B*2 So, the energy balance tells us that the enthalpy of the flow leaving the valve will
or in Fig. B-2. Note also that the inlet kinetic energy is very small and could have be the same as that going in, and we have shown this on the process representation
been neglected. of Fig. 5*9b.
At the discharge state, we read from the SI version of Table B-2,
A valve. Steam enters a valve as a liquid-vapor mixture at 4 MPa and leaves at h2 = 2592.6 kJ/kg. So, hx must have this value. As the process representation
0.01 MPa, 50°C. What is the density of the inlet mixture? See Fig. 5*9. shows, the intersection of this enthalpy line with the inlet-pressure line fixes the
A valve is a device for producing a pressure drop in a flowing fluid. The inlet state. Since the hg at 4 MPa is greater than hx, the point 1 must lie under the
valve works by accelerating the flow to high velocity through a narrow restriction; vapor dome. From the SI Table B-lb, at the inlet pressure of 4 MPa,
the flow is then decelerated but, because of frictional losses, the discharge pressure *

is less than the inlet pressure. Now, although the kinetic energy inside the valve is
hfl = 1087.3 kJ/kg hgl = 2801.4 kJ/kg
high, the flow kinetic energy at the inlet and discharge will usually be quite small,
and the usual assumption in analyzing a valve is to neglect the flow kinetic energy. vfl = 0.001252 m3/kg vgl = 0.04978 m3/kg
The idealizations are as follows:
Using Eq. (4-13),
Steady flow steady state
Adiabatic control volume
*1 = (1 — X l ) h f l + X l h g l
128 Engineering Thermodynamics Energy analysis 129

Solving for xA MCe + PDh Saturated-vapor line

P
1 Ti V
^1 h f 1 2592.6 - 1087.3
Xi 0.878 h *
W
V “ hfi 28614^10873
2
Using Eq. (4-1),
2
M (e + Pv )2
v t — (i — Xi)^ + =0.122 x 0.00125 -f 0.878 x 0.04978
( a ) The control volume (6) The process representation
= 0.0439 m3/kg
Figure 5*20.
So, the density is
Steady flow steady state
Adiabatic control volume
Pi = 3 = 1/0.0439 = 22.8 kg/m3 One-dimensional flow at 1 and 2
V1
Kinetic and potential energy negligible at 1 and 2 (but certainly not inside)
Mercury in thermodynamic equilibrium at 1 and 2
Let’s investigate the effect of kinetic energy. To obtain a 5 percent error in
the density we would need to make a 5 percent error in the quality, which in turn
Under these idealizations, application of the conservation-of-energy principle to
would come from an enthalpy error of 5 percent of h f g , or 0.05 x
the control volume gives
(2801.4™ 1087.3) = 86 kJ/kg. A kinetic energy per unit of mass of V2/2g c =
86 kJ/kg corresponds to a velocity of
M(u + Pv)^ [ M ( u + P v )2 + fTshaft] o
energy-inflow energy-outflow rate energy-
V = / 2 x l x 86,000 (kg-m2/s2)/kg rate storage
rate
= 415 m/s
The shaft-energy output per unit of mass is then

In typical steam piping the velocity would seldom be this great, and thus our W shaft
neglect of kinetic energy was therefore reasonable. The engineer can often Ws.h a f t h t — h2.
M
assess the validity of simplifying assumptions by checks such as this.
The enthalpies may be found directly in Fig. B* 10, and we then have
A mercury turbine. Mercury enters the turbine of a high-temperature aux­
^Shan = (159 - 134) Btu/lbm = 25 Btu/lbm
iliary power system at 1200°F and 30 psia and emerges as a mixture of liquid and
vapor of 0.95 quality at 1 psia. What must the flow rate be if the power output is
The power requirement of 10 kW is equivalent to 34,120 Btu/h, so the required
to be 10 kW? See Fig. 5-10.
mass-flow rate is
A typical turbine consists of (1) a nozzle, which accelerates the flow, con­
verting internal energy and flow work to kinetic energy; (2) a rotor, which slows M = 34,120/25 = 1365 lbm/h = 0.379 lbm/s
down the fluid, extracting energy from the fluid as work; and (3) a diffuser, which
slows the fluid down again, with a resulting rise in pressure. The internal workings If the mercury is moving at 100 ft/s (typical for the inlet of a small mercury
of such a device are quite complicated. However, by judicious selection of the turbine), the required flow area can be computed from the relation M = A p V ,
control-volume boundaries and the idealizations of steady flow and steady state, provided the inlet density is known. The density does not appear on Fig. B-10.
one need worry only about the conditions at the points where the flow crosses the However, we can make an estimate of the density by assuming that the vapor
boundaries. This is a great advantage of the control-volume approach to steady- behaves like a perfect gas, for which
flow steady-state problems.
We take the boundary as shown above and make the following P P/T
idealizations: P o Pq/Tq
130 Engineering Thermodynamics Energy analysis 131

The zero denotes any selected reference state, which we take to be saturated vapor Turboexpander
v

at 20 psia. Then, using the data in Table B*3, we estimate the density at 1 as (Mh)

Saturated-liquid lint 60 atm

.. r
\
w
1 lbm \ 30/(1200 + 460)
Pi =
0.34 lbm/ft3
3.09 ft3 / 20/(706 + 460) *
>*
l
\
\ Liquid P Saturated-vapor
At 100 ft/s the inlet-flow area would be \
\
/
s line
ri_
•«
' - f Mh). / s "%'jf|
\
\
2
r%
✓ 4 j 3 atm
0.379 ✓
Centrifugal separator t
A 0.0111 ft2 = 1.6 in2 V /

h
0.34 x 100 3
Gas
Mh)

We can evaluate the validity of our idealization that the kinetic-energy (a) The control volume (b) The process representation
changes are negligible by some typical numbers. Suppose the discharge velocity is Figure 5 ' l l .
200 ft/s, with the inlet velocity as 100 ft/s. The difference in the inflow and outflow
kinetic energies, per unit of mass, would then be
With these idealizations, an energy balance on the control volume gives, on a rate
V2 Vf 2002 - 100 basis,
♦ m —• m r* ........ .. .4 | , ....................................................
465 ftdbf/lbm = 0.6 Btu/lbm
2 9c 2 x 32.2
M,(u + Pv), [M4(u + P v k + M 3 ( u + P v ) 3 + W ] .........
.........
0
energy-inflow energy-outflow rate energy-
This represents an error of about 2 percent when compared to the enthalpy rate storage
4

difference of 25 Btu/lbm, and our idealization was therefore quite reasonable for rale

first analysis. The analyst is frequently in a position to make such quantitative

estimates of the inaccuracies introduced by simplifying assumptions and should A mass balance will also be required; for the control volume,
do so whenever possible.
It is indeed interesting that the size of the system did not enter the thermo­ M t - (M4 + M3) = 0
dynamic calculation, nor did the particular internal configuration of the mass-inflow mass-outflow mass-storage
rate rate rate
device. This is typical of thermodynamic energy analysis, in which important
system parameters can be set without the need for detailed knowledge of the
design. The problem will be solved if we can establish the relative flow rates. We put
/= Mj/Mj, and the energy balance becomes an equation for f

Liquefaction of oxygen. Oxygen enters a turboexpander at 200 K and W

hl "[(I “/)^4+^3]-^- = 0
60 atm. The expander discharges into a separator, from which saturated liquid
and saturated vapor at 1 atm emerge as separate streams. The system is heavily
insulated. The turboexpander shaft-power output is 1700 W, and the total The enthalpies are evaluated with the aid of Fig. B*5, and we find (using
oxygen-flow rate is 15 g/s. What percentage of liquefaction is achieved, and what is M = 32.00 g/gmole)
the net liquid-oxygen-production rate? See Fig. 5*11.
The idealizations are as follows: 2320
72.5 cal/g
3Z00
Steady flow steady state 160
Adiabatic control volume K= 5.0 cal/g (saturated liquid)
3Z00
One-dimensional flow at 1, 4, and 3
Potential and kinetic energies at 1, 4, and 3 negligible 1780
Thermodynamic equilibrium states at 1, 4, and 3 55.6 cal/g (saturated vapor)
32.00
132 Engineering Thermodynamics Energy analysis 133

The shaft-work output per unit of mass is Steady flow steady state
Adiabatic control volume (energy transfer as heat occurring inside, and
W _ 1700 J/s 1 cal neglecting energy transfer as heat across the boundaries indicated)
1.13 x 102 J/g x 27.2 cal/g One-dimensional flow at 1, 2, 3, and 4
Mi 15 g/s 4181
Kinetic and potential energy changes negligible
Solving for / and substituting the numbers, Equilibrium states at 1,2, 3, and 4 with properties related by thermodynam­
ic equations of state
27.1 + 5.0 - 72.5
/ 0.80
5 . 0 - 55x5 With these idealizations, the energy balance, on a rate basis, is

The system therefore achieves 21 percent liquefaction and delivers saturated Mi hY 4- M3/i3 — ( M 2 h 2 + Af4/?4) — 0
liquid oxygen at 1 atm at the rate of 3.1 g/s. energy-inflow energy-outflow energy-
rate rate storage
Do not be led to believe that liquid oxygen can be made “ for nothing'5 in a rate
process from which useful electric power is obtained. Energy is required to sepa­
rate oxygen from air, to compress it to 60 atm, and to run the refrigerator which
By conservation of mass, M 1~ M 1 and M M
precools it to 200 K. Only a portion of this would be recovered from the
The enthalpies are found from the given states using Figs. B*6 and B*8:
turboexpander.

h3 = 137 Btu/lbm (saturated liquid at 100 psia, —55°F)

CO a evaporator. Three hundred lbm/h of C02 (liquid) will enter a heat ex­
/?4 = 299 Btu/lbm
changer as a saturated liquid at 100 psia and emerge at 75 psia and 20°F. This
evaporation and superheating process is to be accomplished by passing dry air hx = 5.5 cal/g (21.5°C, ^ 1 atm)
through the other side of the exchanger. The air will enter at 70°F, slightly above
h2 = 2.5 cal/g (10°Ci 1 atm)
atmospheric pressure, and must emerge at 50°F at atmospheric pressure. Specify
the air-flow rate required and the heat-transfer rate within the exchanger. See
Fig. 5-12. The enthalpy differences are then
We make the following idealizations:
h4 - h3 - 299 - 137 = 162 Btu/lbm
hi ~ h2 = 5.5 — 2.5 = 3.0 cal/g = 5.4 Btu/lbm
N
Hk \
______________________________________________________ W* N
2 Saturated*
tmm
1 liquid liue The required air-flow rate is therefore
Air M(l< 9
(Mhh 1
/
ill ( (vf t
3 f 4 / Saturated ■ . 162
CO,2 sicta / vapor line Mair = — x 300 lbm/h = 9000 lbm/h
(M h)
-------------■----------------- j(M/t)4 2< J f&
i.

/I An- f
( 'K
h
To determine the heat-transfer rate within the exchanger, a second energy
( a ) The first control volume (b) The process representation
balance is required. Either side of the exchanger may be used. Having the most
accurate enthalpy-difference information for the C02, we select this side
(Fig. 5* 12c) and idealize as follows:
\

r
3c COa «d«
Steady flow steady state
(Mh)s % ' ( M h )4 One-dimensional flows at 3 and 4
\
/
(c) The second control volume
Kinetic and potential energy changes negligible
Figure 5’12. Thermodynamic equilibrium at 3 and 4
134 Engineering Thermodynamics Energy analysis 135

The energy balance, on a rate basis, is electrons in metallic conductors move at very slow drift velocities. Therefore only
the electrostatic potential energy of the electrons will be considered. Idealizations
Q + MC02^3 — ^C02^4 are as follows:
energy-input energy-output
rate rate
Steady flow steady state
One-dimensional flows
Substituting the numbers, Only electron potential energy important

Q MC02(/74 h 3 ) = 300 X 162 = 48,600 Btu/h

== -
Denoting the number of electrons crossing the boundary per unit of time by N
and the charge of an electron by e, an energy balance, made on a rate basis, gives
Determination of the physical dimensions of a heat exchanger which could trans­
fer energy from one stream to the other at this rate over the temperature differ­
[ ( N e S)3 + Q i] - [ ( N e S\ + Q 2 ] = 0
ences involved is a problem for the heat-transfer analyst and requires more than energy-inflow energy-outflow energy-
thermodynamics. rate rate storage
rate

A thermoelectric generator. A thermoelectric generator consists of a series

of semiconductor elements, heated on one side and cooled on the other. Electric- In terms of the current i = — N e ,
current flow is produced as a result of energy transfer as heat. A schematic dia­
gram of a typical device is shown in Fig. 5-13. In a particular experiment the i(S 4 — + Qi ~ Q 2 — 0

current was measured to be 0.5 A and the electrostatic potential at 3 was 0.8 V
above that at 4. Energy transfer as heat to the hot side of the generator was taking Solving for Q 2 and substituting the numbers,
place at a rate of 5.5 W. Determine the rate of energy transfer as heat from the
q2 = 5.5 W + 0.5 A x (-0.8 V) x 1 W/VA = 5.1 W
cold side and the energy-conversion efficiency.
We shall treat this problem by the control-volume method, since mass
(electrons) flows across the indicated control surface. The electrons flowing The term i($ 3 — #4) represents the useful power output of the device; it is equal to
possess electrostatic potential energy and kinetic energy. In addition, the electrons 0.4 W. The energy-conversion efficiency is then
within the “electron gas” passing through the conductors execute randomly
oriented motions, giving the “gas” internal energy in exactly the same way that ,■^-^>,04.0073
molecules of a gas give it internal energy. Moreover, the electron gas will have a Q i 5.5
pressure and a specific volume, so it will have an enthalpy. The randomly oriented
motions of the electrons within the gas are responsible in part for “noise” in This low efficiency is typical of such solid-state direct-energy converters.
electronic circuits. We shall assume that there is no noise in this system or, in
other words, that the internal energy of the electron gas is insignificant compared
An arc heater. Air is to be heated to 8000 K in a steady-flow electric-arc
to the electrostatic potential energy. The kinetic energy is also negligible, since
device. The air will enter at 10“ 2 atm at atmospheric temperature and will emerge
at the same pressure. Cooling water is provided to maintain low electrode temper­
atures, and it is estimated that half the electric-energy input will be transferred as
heat to the cooling water. The air-flow rate is to be 10,000 lbm/h. Specify the
required arc power. See Fig. 5-14.
(NeS). (2Ve8)4
The air will be ionized but electrically neutral. We assume that thermody­
+I namic equilibrium has been obtained by the time the air emerges. The electric-
—► oooo
current flow will again be handled as the flow of mass with electrostatic potential

z
Electron flow
energy. We idealize that the internal energy of the flowing electron “gas” is small
0.8 volts compared to its bulk potential energy. Electrons move through solids at very low
drift velocities, so the kinetic energy of the electrons at the points at which we
Figure 5'13. A thermoelectric generator draw the control-volume boundaries will be neglected. (It should be noted that the
136 Engineering Thermodynamics Energy analysis 137

(iVe£)g The first term should be recognized as the electric-power input.

h3
6 ©©© An energy balance on control volume 2 leads to
M...h
wrtl 3 31

3 L i Q = Mw(h4 - h3)
j
2
Khi Q
► Mah2 Using the design estimate that Q = i(SJ6 — $ 5 ) f 2, we combine the energy balances
i Mwh4 and obtain
j
4
Mwh4 i J 4 Power = i ( S J6 — 5) = 2M a ( h 2 ~ /q)
5 ©© (b) Control volume £
(iVe£).
The enthalpy at state 2 is obtained from the equation of state, Fig. B-9, as 19,000
(a) Control volume 1 ▲ Btu/lbm. This value is relative to the enthalpy at absolute zero of a gas obeying the
o
;
equation of state h = c P T at low temperatures. For air c P & 0.24 Btu/(lbm*R), so
I an estimate of the enthalpy at state 1 might be 0.24 x 500 = 120 Btu/lbm. This is
T negligible in comparison to the enthalpy of the highly energetic air at state 2. Our
A
m power calculation then yields
w
Si
i-V'
Power - 2 x 10,000 lbm/h x (19,000 - 120) Btu/lbm
I

]o
Air l
(c) The process representation .........
- 38 x 107 Btu/h - 1.11 x 105 kW - 111 MW
Figure 5'14.
Charging of a high-pressure tank. A gas is pumped into a tank having
volume V . The gas in the tank is initially at pressure P 0 and temperature T 0. The
kinetic energy of the electrons striking the anode will be extremely high and could inlet temperature is T v and the inflow rate M 1 is constant. Using the perfect-gas
not be neglected were we to make our boundary cut through the air immediately equation of state, derive an expression for the temperature in the tank as a func­
adjacent to the anode.) We make the following idealizations: tion of time, assuming that the gas inside is perfectly mixed and in a state of
thermodynamic equilibrium and that no energy transfer as heat takes place from
Steady flow steady state the tank to the gas. See Fig. 5-15.
One-dimensional flows Our idealizations are as follows:
Kinetic energy of air and water negligible
Only electrostatic potential energy of electrons important The gas may be treated as a perfect gas with constant specific heats
Control volume 1 adiabatic Steady inflow (but not steady state!)
Air in thermodynamic equilibrium at 1 and 2 Uniform state inside the tank (perfect internal mixing)
Water in thermodynamic equilibrium at 3 and 4 Adiabatic control volume
Equilibrium state within tank at every instant, equilibrium state at 1
We again denote the number of electrons flowing per unit of time as N and their
charge as e. The energy balance, made on a rate basis on control volume 1, gives Flow-regulating valve
P
(iVedf 5 + Ma + Mw h3) — (NqS $ + Ma h2 + ^4) = 0 / li" in*
1
energy-inflow rate energy-outflow rate energy- T
storage M
rate s
*»——«i 1 11
rr
(in tlK f.mk
In terms of the current i = — ATe,
(a) The control volume (b) The process representation
i(Sg ^5) Ma(h2 ~ + Mw(h4 — h3) Figure 5'15.
138 Engineering Thermodynamics Energy analysis 139

Kinetic energy of inflow gas negligible Estimated water flow, 40 m3/s

Inlet state steady (but not the internal state!) and one-dimensional flow at River inlet l atm, 10°C
the inlet Discharged at 1 atm, 10.2°C, 200 m below the intake

The energy balance, made over the time interval from the start of filling (time We know from experience that the energy transfer as heat to such a power plant is
zero) to some later time t, is negligible. The enthalpy of water is given approximately by

+ Pj iq)t — 0 = AU h2-h1=cv(T2-Tl)+l(P2-P1)
energy inflow energy increase P
outflow in energy
storage
where c v = 4.2 kJ/(kg-K) and p = 1000 kg/m3. We also estimate that the inlet
and discharge ducts have the same flow area, so that the kinetic energy of the
Then, AU = Mu — M 0 u 0
water entering the plant is essentially the same as that leaving. With this informa­
tion, what is our estimate of the power output? See Fig. 5-16.
A mass balance on the control volume is also needed. Over the same time period,
We make the following idealizations:
Mxf - 0 = M — M0 Change in kinetic energy of flow streams negligible
mass inflow mass increase in
outflow mass storage Steady flow steady state
Adiabatic control volume
Solving for M and substituting into the energy balance,
Note there is no assumption about friction or turbulence or losses within the
(5-9) control volume; these are all internal effects and need not be considered explicitly
Mj h 1 t = (M0 + M[ t)u — M 0 u 0
in a steady-flow steady-state analysis. They are implicitly considered through their
effect on state 2. We would have to make some such assumption if we wanted to
Note that the enthalpy property is involved in the energy-inflow term, while predict state 2. The energy balance, on a rate basis, is
only the internal energy is involved in the energy-storage term.
m|/jj + j z i j = W + Nl[h 2 +
The Pv product does not represent energy of matter; it is simply an extra term in
the energy balance necessitated by our taking the control-volume rather than energy-input rate energy-output rate

control-mass point of view.

We next bring in the equation of state. With the datum at 0 R in Eqs.
(4-21) and (4-22), we introduce these into Eq. (5-9), obtaining
M(h + — z
M l c P T 1 t — ( M 0 + M l t)c v T — M 0 c v T 0

The temperature T of the gas in the tank can be computed from this equation as a
function of time. It is interesting that for very large t the temperature will
approach the value
T n m = - 7) = kT\

Since the ratio k is greater than unity, the limiting internal temperature will be
somewhat greater than the temperature of the incoming gas. LV?“> 2
“(h+T'z\

A hydroelectric power plant. Suppose we wish to assess the capabilities of (as) The control volume (b) The process representation
a foreign hydroelectric power plant and have acquired the following field data: Figure 5-16.
 140 Engineering Thermodynamics Energy analysis 141

If we take the discharge state 2 as the elevation datum, then z2 = 0 and pressure. We begin our analysis of this rather complicated problem by a process
z1 = 200 m. The various terms in the energy balance are then (g = 9.8 m/s2) representation (Fig. 5 * 17) to orient our thinking. The reason for the positioning of
state 4 will be evident momentarily.
9 We have enough information to establish the condenser heat-transfer rate
zi = 9.8 m /s2 x 200 m - = I960 J/kg = 1.96 kJ/kg
9c per unit of mass. For control volume 1 we idealize

h2 — hx = c0(T2 - T , ) + i ( P 2 - Pi) = 4-2 x (10.2 - 10.0)-0.84 kJ Steady flow steady state

Kinetic and potential energies negligible
W Equilibrium states at 2 and 3
9

ON
S'*
Hence n 0.84 - 1.12 kJ/kg One-dimensional flows at 2 and 3

II

1
til ~
The energy balance for CV 1, made on a rate basis, gives
Then, W - 1.12 x 1000 X 40 = 44,800 kJ/s = 44,800 kW - 44.8 MW
Mh2 = Mh3 + Qc
A heat pump. The heat pump shows promise of becoming a common house­ energy-input energy-output
hold heating system; a simple heat pump consists of the components shown in rate rate

Fig. 5*17. In an experiment with Freon 12 as the working fluid, the following Then, using Fig. B-7,
measurements were recorded:
Qs
P2 = p3 = 140 psia h9 h 115 — 31 = 84 Btu/lbm
Xr
p4 = px = 10 psia
T2 - 260 F We next analyze the valve (control volume 2), with the idealizations
Tx = ~ 200 F
Saturated liquid at 3 Steady flow steady state
W= 10 kW Kinetic and potential energies negligible
Adiabatic control volume
Determine the condenser and evaporator rates of energy transfer as heat and the Equilibrium states at 3 and 4
flow rate of the Freon 12. One-dimensional flows at 3 and 4
In this experiment no pressure drop through the heat exchangers was
measurable. This is frequently true, and a good idealization is that the process The energy balance for CF2, on a rate basis, then is simply
undergone by a fluid in passing through a heat exchanger is one of constant
Mhz = MhA
Warm house energy-input energy-output
rate rate
CV. c
CV. Saturated-liquid line

or h3 = h4 = 31 Btu/lbm
CV r 3 J Mho a S'
2
•s Condenser
j Compressor
3
9
Valve W /
* Note that the energy balance here tells us something about the end states of a
\ / I1 /
V. /
, Evaporator process; with these idealizations the enthalpy of the fluid emerging from a valve
L MhA i-—. n_--------- [ Mhl J
4 4 * will be the same as the enthalpy of the entering fluid (though the enthalpy of the
1 fluid within the valve may be quite different).
CV CV Saturated-vapor line An energy balance (rate basis) on control volume 3, with idealizations as
3
for control volume 1, yields
Cold outdoors

(a) The heat pump (6) The process representation Qe + M/i4 - Mhx
energy-input energy-output
Figure 5‘17. rate rate
142 Engineering Thermodynamics
Energy analysis 143

So the amount of energy transferred as heat to each lbm of Freon 12 passing

cop could be evaluated without reference to the amount of flow or the total
through the evaporator is
energy-transfer rates. We now compute these from the measured shaft power:

Qe . _ lOkW x 3412Btu/(kW-h)
hi — /i4 = 76 — 31 = 45 Btu/lbm
M
^ 39 Btu/lbm
Now for control volume 4 (the compressor) we idealize = 875 lbm/h

Steady flow steady state The rates of energy transfer as heat are therefore
Kinetic and potential energies negligible
Adiabatic control volume qe = 875 x 45 = 39,400 Btu/h
Equilibrium states at 1 and 2
Qc = 875 x 84 - 73,500 Btu/h
One-dimensional flows at 1 and 2
The figure 39,400 Btu/h is comparable with that of a small commercial freezer.
The energy balance for CV4, on a rate basis, then gives
The energy pumped into the house (73,500 Btu/h) is comparable to that provided
W+Mht= Uh2 by a household furnace.
energy-input energy-output Heat pumps and refrigerators are sometimes rated in terms of tonnage.
rate rate
One ton of refrigeration is defined as 12,000 Btu/h and is roughly the rate of
energy transfer as heat required to freeze 1 ton of ice in a day. Considered as a heat
So the compressor work per lbm of fluid which it handles is nnmn this unit would have a rating of 73.500/12.000 % 6 tons.

W
TV - h 2 - h t = 115 - 76 = 39 Btu/lbm
M
5-5 PRODUCTION BOOKKEEPING
We can check our calculations by an overall energy balance (control volume 5),
made on a rate basis, assuming steady flow and steady state:
In all our past examples we have done the energy bookkeeping in whatever way
W + Qe Qc seemed most convenient at the time. For steady-state problems we simply wrote
energy-input energy-output
rate rate
Energy energy
M(39 + 45 - 84) = 0 input = output
rate rate
The coefficient of performance ( c o p ) of a heat pump is defined as
while for unsteady problems we usually wrote
rate of energy transfer to house
cop
compressor shaft power Energy energy increase in
input ~ output + energy storage
For our system
These expressions both reflect the idea that energy can never be produced. There is
M(84 Btu/lbm) one particular way to do bookkeeping that is especially helpful in second-law
cop = 2.15 analysis, where we will deal with entropy bookkeeping. It happens that entropy
W A?(39^tu/lbm)
can be produced, but can never be destroyed. We will do all our entropy book­
Note that the rate of energy transfer into the house is more than twice the electric­ keeping using the concept of production:
al power which must be paid for to obtain this heating rate. Note also that the
Production = output — input + increase in storage
144 Engineering Thermodynamics Energy analysis 145

As logical as this definition is, some students find it confusing at first. An easy way tion is equal to the applied force. Similarly, the rate of angular momentum pro­
to obtain the signs on the right-hand side correctly is to examine each term with duction is equal to the applied moment.
the other two set to zero: The student should look back over the energy balance examples presented
earlier and recast them in production bookkeeping. Many people find that they
prefer to write all the physical principles mentioned above in production form.
1. If the input and storage are zero, surely if anything comes out it must have been
produced inside, so output has a plus sign.
2. If something goes in, but nothing comes out and nothing accumulates inside,
then something must disappear (negative production). So, input has a negative SELECTED READING
sign, which is reasonable since input is negative output.
Jones, J. B., and G. A. Hawkins, Engineering Thermodynamics, secs. 2.7-2.13, John Wiley &
3. If nothing goes in or comes out, but the amount stored inside gets bigger, some
Sons, Inc., New York, 1960.
must have been produced. So, storage has a positive sign.
Mooney, D. A., Introduction to Thermodynamics and Heat Transfer, chap. 6, Prentice-Hall,
For example, the production bookkeeping for energy is Inc., Englewood Cliffs, N.J., 1955.
Van Wylen, G. J., and R. E. Sonntag, Fundamentals of Classical Thermodynamics, 2d ed.,
Energy energy energy increase m secs. 5.4-5.10, John Wiley & Sons, Inc., New York, 1973.
+
production output input energy storage
0

Throughout the remainder of the text we shall use the symbol e? to denote QUESTIONS
production; will denote the amount of production of energy, and 0>s will
denote the amount of production of entropy. The first law of thermodynamics What is the difference between a control mass and a control volume?
says 5-2 How would you distinguish between positive and negative energy transfers?
5-3 Why, in calculus, does dx represent an increase in x? What is the meaning of Ax?
&e = 0 (5 *10 ) 5-4 In the first control-mass example, why was it necessary to idealize that states 1 and 2
were states of thermodynamic equilibrium, and where was this idealization actually
The second law of thermodynamics says used? Why was it not necessary to make a similar idealization about intermediate
states?
5*5 What is a process representation?
^s>0 (5 *11 ) 5*6 In the first control-mass example, why was it necessary to idealize that the alteration
in molecular behavior introduced by the gravitational field is negligible, and where
These laws are easy to remember in this basic form. Then to use them all one was this idealization actually used? What change in the center of mass of the H20
needs to do is to keep one’s energy and entropy books properly. would produce a change in the potential energy of position equal in magnitude to the
In dealing with infinitesimal processes we shall use the notation d(PE and change in the internal energy for the process? What is the difference between the
rf^s. The d symbol is appropriate because tf0> represents an amount of production, idealization that the bulk potential-energy change for the process is negligible and
not the change in production. the idealization that the gravitational field does not alter the molecular behavior?
The first and second laws are then 5*7 Why is the enthalpy change equal to the energy transfer as heat to a unit of mass
undergoing a constant-pressure process, but not for other processes?
d&*E = 0 d&>s > 0 5*8 What is the latent heat of vaporization as related to thermodynamic properties?
5*9 Why do the conversion factors between G and C/(s*m) differ for H and M?
5*10 Explain the last statement of the thermal-magnetization example.
In flow problems we will work with the rates of energy and entropy pro­ 5*11 What was assumed about the state of the paramagnetic material during the thermal-
duction, which we shall denote by CPE and tPs. Then, the first and second laws are magnetization process?
5*12 Why does the term Pr appear in the control-volume energy balance and not in that
&E = 0 &s > 0 for the control mass?
5*13 Explain why Pv is not energy stored in matter.
The conservation-of-mass principle says that the mass production, or rate 5*14 What is the difference between Pv and P dv, and when do terms of these types appear
of mass production, is zero, -0 or d0>M = 0 or 0>M = 0. In mechanics, in energy-conservation equations?
Newton’s second law can be framed by stating that the rate of momentum produc- 5*15 Why is enthalpy a useful property to have tabulated?
146 Engineering Thermodynamics Energy analysis 147

5*16 Derive the continuity equation M = ApV. equilibrium between the copper and the water is again obtained. How much energy
5-17 Why is the control-volume transformation useful? transfer as heat takes place between the water and its vessel, and how much between
5-18 What is steady state? What is steady flow? Why do these idealizations greatly sim­ the water and the copper (Figs. B*1 to B*3, Table B-7)?
plify control-volume analysis? 5*8 One lbm of C02 is expanded adiabatically in a piston-cylinder system from 400 psia
5*19 What is a one-dimensional flow? and 100-F to the saturated-vapor state at 100 psia. How much work is done by the
5-20 In the first control-volume example, why was it necessary to idealize that the bulk C02 and on what (Fig. B*6)?
motion does not alter the molecular behavior as seen by an observer riding with the 5*9 One lbm of 02 is compressed adiabatically in a piston-cylinder system from the
fluid, and where was this idealization actually used? saturated-vapor state at 2.5 atm to a pressure of 17.5 atm and a temperature of
5*21 What is a rate basis for an energy balance? 175 K. How much work is done on the 02 and by what (Fig. B*5)?
5*22 In the nozzle example, the energy stored in the fluid changes as it passes through the 5*10 One-half lbm of C0 is heated in a 0.5-ft3 vessel from 0 to 200 F. Determine the
2
control volume. Why, then, is the term marked 44 energy-storage rate ” equal to zero ? initial and final states, and the amount of energy transfer as heat to the C02.
5*23 In the turbine example, why is it not necessary to know the state of the fluid inside the 5*11 One-half lbm of C02 is heated at constant pressure from the saturated-vapor state at
turbine? 100 psia to 200CF. Determine the amounts of energy transfer as heat and work
5-24 Do the idealizations for the oxygen-liquefaction example rule out the possibility of involved in this process.
any energy transfer as heat taking place to the fluid inside the control volume? 512 An adiabatic piston-cylinder system contains a 1000-W immersion heater and 4 kg of
5-25 Why is the control volume of Fig. 5* 12a idealized as adiabatic, while that of H20 initially at 1 atm and 96 percent quality. The heater is operated for 7 min,
Fig. 5* 12c is not? during which the pressure is held constant. Find the final volume of the system.
5*26 At what speed do electrons move in a copper wire (see your physics book)? 5*13 A simple engine-uses a perfect gas as the working fluid in a piston-cylinder system.
5*27 Why do we handle electron-flow problems by the control-volume method? The gas is first heated at constant pressure from state 1 to state 2, then cooled at
5*28 In the tank-charging example, why is the idealization made that the gas in the tank is constant volume to state 3 where T3 = T u and then cooled at constant temperature,
in equilibrium at every instant, and where is it used? thereby returning to state 1. Derive expressions for the amounts of energy transfer as
5*29 Explain the statement immediately following Eq. (5-9). work and heat (per lbm of gas) for each process in terms of the temperatures and
5*30 What can you say about the house and outdoor temperatures in the heat-pump pressures at each state' and the constants of the gas. Suppose — 300 K,
example? P l = 0.2 MPa, T 2 = 800 K, and k = c p /c v = 1.4. Calculate the cycle efficiency (net
5*31 Outline a good energy-analysis methodology. work oulput/energy input as heat).
5*32 Why does it pay to be judicious in selecting a control volume or control mass? Is 5*14 A simple engine uses a perfect gas as the working fluid in a piston-cylinder system.
there sometimes more than one choice? The gas is first heated at constant volume from state 1 to state 2, then heated at
constant temperature to state 3 where P 3 = P u and then cooled at constant pressure,
returning to state 1. Derive expressions for the amounts of energy transfer as heat and
work (per lbm of gas) for each process in terms of the temperatures and pressures at
PROBLEMS each state and the constants of the gas. Assuming 7j = 300 K, P 1 = 0.2 MPa,
T 2 = 800 K, and k = c F /c v = 1.4, calculate the cycle efficiency (net work
5*1 Two lbm of copper at 300 K are cooled to 250 K at 1 atm. How much energy is output/energy input as heat).
transferred as heat, and how much work is done on the copper (Table B*7)? 5*15 When the engine of Prob. 5*13 is reversed, it becomes a refrigeration device. Calcu­
5*2 How much energy transfer as heat is required to evaporate completely 1 lbm of late the amount of energy transfer as heat from the cold space for this cycle (per kg
nitrogen for a constant-temperature process, with T = 161.09 R (Fig. B*4)? of gas), and the cycle cop (energy transfer as heat from cold space/net work input).
5*3 Nitrogen in a 1-ft3 container is heated from the saturated-vapor state at 50 psia to 5*16 Do Prob. 5*15 for the engine cycle of Prob. 5*14.
300 R. How much energy transfer as heat is involved (Fig. B*4)? 5*17 A low-temperature refrigeration cycle uses iron-ammonium alum (Fig. B* 12) as the
5*4 Three lbm of nitrogen is heated at constant pressure from the saturated-liquid state at working substance. The alum is first heated at constant H = 3000 G from state 1
100 psia to a temperature of 400 R. How much energy transfer as heat is required? where = 90 G to state 2, where M2 = 70 G. It is then heated at constant M until
How much work is done by the nitrogen, if any, and on what (Fig. B*4)? H = 10,000 G at state 3, and then cooled at constant H to state 4 where M4 = M:. A
5*5 One lbm of Freon 12 is heated in a constant-volume container from the critical point final cooling process at constant M returns the alum to state 1. Calculate the amounts
to 700°F. How much energy is transferred as heat to the Freon, and from where of energy transfer as heat for the four processes (J/kg), and the cycle cop (energy
(Fig. B*7)? transfer as heat from cold space/net energy input as work).
5*6 Iron-ammonium alum is magnetized at 1 K by increasing the external field H slowly 5*18 An engine operating on the reverse cycle to that described in Prob. 5*17 is proposed
from zero to 10,000 G. How much energy is transferred as heat for this process, and for use in a deep space probe which can have no part at greater than 2 K. Calculate
in which direction? How much work is done on the alum, and by what (Fig. B*12)? the net work output per g of alum, the cycle efficiency (net work output/energy input
5*7 One lbm of copper and 0.5 lbm of saturated H20 vapor at 1 atm pressure are initially as heat), and the required amount of alum for 1 W of power if the cycle can be
in equilibrium. The water is then heated at constant pressure and held at 400°F until repeated every 22 s.
148 Engineering Thermodynamics Energy analysis 149

5*19 Consider the piston-cylinder-spring system shown below. 5*28 Oxygen flows at the rate of 100 kg/s through a line to a large booster rocket. The lox
enters the line as a saturated liquid at 2 atm, and the pressure drop is negligible.
Piston area 1 in2 Specify the maximum permitted heat-transfer rate (“heat leak in”) to the lox if a
Vacuum in spring chamber maximum of 0.5 percent vapor can be tolerated at the booster end of the line (Fig.
Spring force F = ka, k = 300 lbf./in
B • 5).
The cylinder initially contains C02 at 80°F, and a is initially 2 in. The cylinder walls 5*29 The throttling calorimeter is a device for measuring the state of a liquid-vapor
are then slowly cooled, and the piston moves to the left until a = 4 in. Calculate the mixture. The procedure is to bleed off a little of the mixture, throttle it through a
energy transfer as heat from the gas for this process. valve, and make the measurements shown. Explain why P x and 7\ do not fix the state
/— Vacuum
7
r<3
t•

CO*
pi
ir • m- . .

P
a Prob. 5'19. 2
T.

5*20 Twenty lbm/min of mercury vapor enters a condenser at 800 ;F, 0.5 psia. The mercury Mam flow

emerges as a saturated liquid at 0.4 psia. Calculate the rate of energy transfer as heat
Bleed flow
from the mercury side of the condenser (Fig. B*10, Table B-3).
Prob. 5-29.
5*21 Oxygen passes through an adiabatic steady-how compressor at the rate of
1000 kg/'h, entering as a' saturated vapor at 2.5 atm and emerging at 17.5 atm and of the u wet ” mixture, and how P 2 and T 2 measurements allow one to determine state
175 K. Determine the shaft work per unit of mass of02 (compare Prob. 5 *9) and the 1. How much throttling is necessary for this scheme to work? Compute the quality at
required motor hp. state 1 for the measurements below, assuming the fluid is water (Tables B-1 and B-2).
5*22 Five hundred lbm/min of C02 passes through an adiabatic steady-flow turbine,
entering at 400 psia and 100°F and emerging as a saturated vapor at 100 psia. What ?! = 100 psia P 2 - 5 psia
is the shaft-work output per lbm of C02 (compare Prob. 5 * 8), and what is the power
(kW) delivered by the turbine? ?i = 327.81°F T 2 = 200°F
5*23 Ten lbm/min of mercury enters a small turbine at 30 psia and 1400°F and emerges at
2 psia and 800°F. What is the shaft-power output if the heat losses (energy transfer as 5*30 A valve in an insulated liquid-oxygen fuel line causes a pressure drop of 0.2 MPa. The
heat from the turbine casing) are negligible? What is the shaft-power output if the inlet state is saturated liquid at 2 atm. What is the discharge quality, and how much is
heat losses amount to 20 percent of the power output for the adiabatic device the temperature reduced (Fig. B - 5) ?
(Fig. B-10)? 5*31 Mercury emerges from the nuclear boiler of a space power system at 500 psia and
5*24 Steam flows through a small steam turbine at the rate of 10,000 kg/h, entering at 0.95 quality and is “flashed” by passing through a flow restriction (valve) into the
600°C and 2.0 MPa and emerging at 0.01 MPa with 4 percent moisture. The flow superheat region to a pressure of 50 psia. What is the temperature of the mercury in
enters at 50 m/s at a point 2 m above the discharge and leaves at 80 m/s. Compute this superheated state (Fig. B-10, Table B*3)?
the shaft-power output, assuming that the device is adiabatic but considering kinetic 5*32 Determine the air-flow rate that could be used in the air-C02-exchanger example if
and potential energies. How much error would be made were these secondary terms the C02 states and the inlet air state are as given but the air emerges as cold as
neglected? What are the diameters of the inlet and discharge pipes (Fig. B*2, Tables possible.
B* 1 and B*2)? 5*33 A mixture of C02 containing 20 percent solid by mass, 20 percent liquid, and 60
5*25 If the state at the discharge of the nozzle in the turbine of Prob, 5-24 is 6 percent percent vapor enters a pipe and emerges all vapor at the inlet pressure and 0°F. The
moisture and 0.01 MPa, what is the velocity at this point? flow rate is 4 Ibm/s. What is the rate at which energy is transferred as heat to the
5*26 Air enters an adiabatic nozzle at 3 atm pressure and 100CF and emerges at 1 atm and pipe?
30"F. The inlet velocity is negligible, and the nozzle is adiabatic. What is the 5*34 Work the nozzle example using the control-mass approach.
discharge velocity (Fig. B • 8)? 5*35 Work the mercury-turbine example using the control-mass approach.
5*27 The collecting panels of a solar boiler receive energy as heat at the rate of approxi­ 5*36 Work the tank-charging example using the-control-mass approach.
mately 300 Btu/h per ft2 of collecting surface during the day. How many square feet 5*37 Ten lbm/min of saturated liquid mercury at 415°F and 2 lbm/min of mercury vapor
of collector would be required for a small desert power plant producing 10 kW of at 700°F and 1 psia enter an adiabatic mixing device; the mercury emerges mixed in a
electric power if the electric power output is 8 percent of the collected solar energy? single stream at 0.3 psia. What is the temperature of the emergent stream, and (if it is
(This is a typical energy-conversion efficiency for such a system.) a mixture) what is its quality (Fig. B-10)?
150 Engineering Thermodynamics Energy analysis 151

5*38 Oxygen is used in a low-temperature refrigerator. The hardware is similar to that of 1018 (electrons/s)/cm2 moving at right angles to the wall strikes the wall and all
the heat-pump example. The condenser pressure is 20 atm and the 02 is evaporated electrons are stopped, what cooling rate [W/m2] must be provided to prevent a
at 2 atm. Liquid emerges from the condenser in the saturated state and vapor from rise in the temperature of the wall? The electrostatic potential energy of the electrons
the evaporator at a temperature of 100 K. The compressor outlet temperature is 4
at the point of impact is negligible compared to their kinetic energy.
225 K. Determine the cop of this refrigerator, where 5*43 Freon 12 will be used as the propellant for a small portable jet rocket for maneuver­
ing parts during the assembly of a space station. The device will consist of a small
cop = (rate of energy removal from cold space)/(compressor power input) spherical tank containing saturated Freon 12 at 80:F, a valve, and a nozzle. The user
What is the required oxygen-flow rate for a total cooling rate Q E of 3000 W? Saturated vapor
5*39 A small solar engine for desert water pumping uses steam as the working fluid. The
hardware is shown in the figure. Water enters the pump as a saturated liquid at 50°C

E
n
O

Saturated liquid Prob. 5-43.

Boiler
Pump Turbine will attach the jet to the package, open the valve momentarily, and let some gas
escape through the nozzle. Energy transfer as heat from the walls to the Freon 12
W will keep the pressure constant in the cylinder during a short burst, and the flow
Condenser through the nozzle may be considered steady. The valve will throttle the Freon 12 to
20 psia, and the nozzle discharge state will be 2 psia and - 80: F. The thrusting force
•»

1 4 is approximately given by F = MV/g c , where M is the mass-flow rate and V the exit
<2c Prob. 5'39 velocity. Use requirements call for a thrust of 10 lbf. Determine the specific impulse of
this device, SI = F/M, in lbf/(lbm*s). By comparison, a good chemical rocket has an
and is pumped up to 0.2 MPa by a small centrifugal pump. The boiler evaporates the SI of the order of 250 lbf/(lbnvs). Specify the size of tank required to hold enough
water at 0.2 MPa, and saturated vapor at this pressure enters the small turbine. Freon 12 for 1000 s of operation, assuming that the heat-transfer rate is sufficient to
The steam leaves the turbine with 6 percent moisture at 50C‘C and is subsequently keep the pressure constant for short-duration bursts. Compute the total amount of
condensed. The flow rate is 140 kg/h and the pump is driven by a ^-hp motor energy which must be transferred from the walls to the Freon 12 during this 1000 s of
operating at full load. Making suitable idealizations, determine the power output operation in order to maintain the pressure (Fig. B*7, Table B*5). This requires a
of this plant (net hp) and the energy-conversion efficiency (net shaft-work careful energy analysis.
output/energy transfer to fluid in boiler), and estimate the area of solar collectors 5*44 A small power system proposed for use in the Arctic has the hardware of Prob. 5*39
that would be required, assuming that the collectors can pick up 800 W/m2. and uses C02 as the working fluid. However, a supercritical cycle is employed;
5-40 A proposed nuclear power system for space use employs mercury as the working condensation occurs underground at — 60°F, and saturated C02 liquid leaves the
fluid, using hardware similar to that in Prob. 5*39 above, except that a nuclear condenser at this temperature. The pump raises the pressure to 1600 psia, and the
reactor replaces the sun as the energy source. The mercury enters the pump as a liquid emerges from the pump at — 40°F. A solar collector is used to heat the C02 to
saturated liquid at 800°F, is compressed, and is then evaporated at 400 psia and 160°F, and the pressure drop through the “supercritical boiler” is 200 psia. The
superheated to 1400°F in the reactor-boiler. The turbine discharge is at 800°F with 3 C02,at 1400 psia and 160°F, then enters the turbine and emerges at — 40°F and 0.90
percent moisture; pressure drops through the reactor and condenser may be neg­ quality. Find the energy-conversion efficiency (net shaft-energy output/solar-energy
lected for this thermodynamic analysis. The power required to operate the pump will input) for this system. Specify the pump power, turbine power, and solar-energy-
be 2 percent of the turbine-shaft power. Determine the energy-conversion efficiency collection rate required for a 10-kW plant, assuming that the electric generator has an
for this system (net shaft power/reactor-power input), and the mercury-flow rate and efficiency of 92 percent. Make appropriate idealizations to allow solutions (Fig. B*6).
reactor power required for 10 kW of net electric power, assuming a 95-percent- 5*45 The hardware for a proposed SNAP system for generation of electric power for space
efficient electric generator will be employed (Fig. B*10, Table B*3). vehicles is shown on the following page.
5-41 Consider an electric resistor through which flows a steady current i. The resistor is The boiler is a nuclear reactor in which the working fluid is heated by passage
cooled in order to maintain a steady state. From thermodynamic considerations, over the nuclear fuel elements. Q B represents the rate of energy transfer as heat from
show that the rate at which energy must be transferred from the resistor as heat is the rods to the fluid and is equal to the reactor power. The condenser is a heat
Q ~ i AS, where AS is the voltage drop across the resistor. What are the restrictions exchanger in which energy transferred as heat from the fluid is radiated away to space
on this result imposed by the idealizations? at the rate Q c . Pressure drop through the boiler, condenser, and ducting are negli­
5*42 In a linear accelerator electrons are accelerated until their kinetic energy is 10 MeV gible, and the pump, valve, turbine, and ducting are adiabatic devices.
per electron. If the beam is accidentally diverted, it will strike the 3-mm-thick copper Mercury is proposed as the working fluid. The mercury will leave the condens­
walls of the cavities and can cause serious damage. Assuming that a beam carrying er as a saturated liquid at 30 psia. The pump will raise the pressure to 400 psia.
152 Engineering Thermodynamics Energy analysis 153

where evaporation will occur. The mercury will leave the reactor at 95 percent quality heat or shaft work to or from the system. For your device, what is the exit tempera- e

(at 400 psia). The valve provides a pressure drop for load control. ture at 1.9 psia?
The manufacturer of the electromagnetic pump can provide a pump that will 5-48 You are required to determine the state of a mixture of liquid and vapor mercury
do the job for a work input of about 0.5 Btu/Ibm of mercury pumped. The turbine used in a power plant for a space application. Only P and T measurements can be
manufacturer can build a turbine with an isentropic efficiency of 60 percent for the made. Design a system to fix the mixture state. The system must be reliable, inexpen­
range of flows probably involved. The isentropic efficiency is sive, and simple.
5*49 Freon-12 vapor flows at 10 ft/s at 300 psia and 360°F. It is desired to accelerate the
/?4 h 5
-
flow to 500 ft/s at a pressure of 200 psia in a steady-flow device. What hardware is
ns = ------ 7— required and what is the exit temperature?
K ~ *5,v
5*50 Consider the steady, one-dimensional, adiabatic, frictionless flow of an ideal gas in a
where /i4 and h 5 are the enthalpies entering and leaving the actual turbine, and h 5 s is passage of variable area. Suppose that the gas emerges from a chamber at tempera­
the enthalpy at a hypothetical reference state fixed by the inlet entropy (x)and outlet ture T0 with negligible kinetic energy and is accelerated to velocity V in a passage of
pressure. appropriate design. At this point it now has temperature T, sound speed a, and Mach
number M = V/a. For the ideal gas, a2 = g c kRT. Show that
Boiler B

Valve
o n
G T0 1 +Li M 2
T
Turbine
Purnp
5-51 The figure shows a gas-cooled fast breeder reactor. Helium enters the steam generator
at 640°C with a flow rate of 1 x 106 kg/h. It leaves at 330°C. Water enters the steam
p Condenser
WT. generator at 40°C, 21 x 106 N/m2 (/) = 185 kJ/kg). The steam leaves at

1 5 High-strength
Control rod drive concrete container
Hg mechanism
*
«.

Qc Prob. 5'45. *O
•.>
•r

Control
Helium
(a) Suppose the component manufacturers can indeed deliver as they prom­ rod
t --- *----- lh- s' '
Steam
ise. Determine the component energy flows per Ibm of mercury, assuming that the Fuel
valve is wide open so that P3 = P4. Determine the net work output per unit of mass region
' 1!
r-.r f1-rt iFr -ii F

! Jl *1 II 1
I H 0 1

and the overall system efficiency (efficiency of conversion of the reactor power to Blanket
l i t J L L i __J
- Steam
mechanical shaft power). Then, specify the required mass-flow rate if the net shaft Flow
generator

power is to be 10 kW. Calculate the pump power, reactor power, turbine power, and baffle
condenser cooling rate (kW) for this flow; discuss briefly the distribution of the input 4 •* :o
Water
Gas CD*
reactor energy. i u
LHelium
blower
(b) Suppose the velocity of the stream at section 5 is limited to a maximum of ) *

100 ft/s. Calculate the required duct diameter at this point. o

(c) Suppose the valve is partially closed such that the turbine inlet pressure is Reactor Power-generation
b loop loop Prob. 5-51
reduced to 100 psia, while the same evaporating and condensing pressures and flow
are maintained. Determine the net power output in this configuration, the condenser 20 x 10b N/m2, 550°C. The water inlet pipe has a 0.1 m diameter, and the steam exit
cooling rate, and the overall system efficiency. pipe is 0.18 m in diameter and 6 m above the inlet. Neglecting heat losses, determine
5*46 A geothermal power plant in California uses steam produced underground by natural the steam-flow rate and the flow velocities at the inlet and exit. Are the kinetic and
sources. Steam enters the adiabatic turbine at 180°C and 0.6 MPa and emerges at potential energy changes negligible? Use the perfect-gas equation of state for the
0.01 MPa with 8 percent moisture (92 percent quality). It is condensed at 0.01 MPa and helium, and tabulated properties for steam.
then pumped back up to atmospheric pressure. The plant produces 12.5 MW of electric
power. Assuming an electric generator efficiency of 0.95, and neglecting the pump
power, determine the steam flow rate and the condenser heat-transfer rate. Why do
you think the system has a condenser? Why does it need the pump?
5-47 It is desired to reduce the pressure of cesium vapor from 50 psia at 2400 R to 1.9 psia.
Suggest a means for doing this in a steady-flow device without any energy transfer as