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RFID
Design
Fundamentals
and
Applications
Albert Lozano-Nieto
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have been made to publish reliable data and information, but the author and publisher cannot assume
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Trademark Notice: Product or corporate names may be trademarks or registered trademarks, and are used
only for identification and explanation without intent to infringe.
Lozano-Nieto, Albert.
RFID design fundamentals and applications / author, Albert Lozano-Nieto.
p. cm.
“A CRC title.”
Includes bibliographical references and index.
ISBN 978-1-4200-9125-0 (hardcover : alk. paper)
1. Radio frequency identification systems. I. Title.
TK6570.I34L69 2011
006--dc22 2010029742
Preface.......................................................................................................................ix
About the Author....................................................................................................xi
3 Transponders.................................................................................................. 49
5 Interrogators................................................................................................. 119
vii
© 2011 by Taylor and Francis Group, LLC
Preface
ix
© 2011 by Taylor and Francis Group, LLC
x Preface
choose to read the entire book or just to focus on specific chapters of interest
without detriment.
This book contains eight chapters, each one of them a systematic approach
to studying the different components that constitute the RFID system.
Chapter 1 presents an overview of RFID with a focus on the main compo-
nents that make up the system. Chapter 2 discusses the types of antennas
used in transponders, also known as tags. Chapter 3 studies the different
parts that make up the transponder, such as its power-harvesting and analog
circuits, the different memory structure, and logic circuits. It also discusses
the mechanical characteristics of these circuits and their requirements for
handling and placement on the transponders. Chapter 4 describes the types
of antennas used for RFID interrogators, also known as readers, focusing on
their design and construction to meet specific requirements. Because of their
intrinsic differences, this chapter discusses separately the requirements for
antennas based on the frequency of transmission. Chapter€5 discusses the
structure and parts that make up the interrogator with a special emphasis
on the different types of modulation being used. The chapter also describes
the organization and characteristics of commercially available transponders.
Chapter 6 studies the different types of communication links between the
interrogator and its host computer, either proprietary protocols used by spe-
cific manufacturers or standardized communication protocols. Chapter 7
describes the air communications link that is the link between transponders
and interrogators. This chapter addresses the different elements of the com-
munication link, the different mode of operation for transponders operating
at different frequencies, as well as the principles of arbitration and anticol-
lision. The last chapter in the book, Chapter 8, presents an overview of the
different commands used by transponders. This chapter does not pretend to
be an exhaustive repository of the available commands for any transponder
in the market. Instead, it focuses on the commonalities between the most
frequently used functions in the commands employed by different manu-
facturers. The book finishes with a series of references that can be used by
interested readers to explore in depth some of the aspects described in this
book.
The majority of books on RFID today are focused on the deployment and
the commercial uses of RFID. This book, in turn, is focused on explaining
how the different components that make up the RFID system are designed
and how they interact with each other. The book is directed toward profes-
sionals and students in electronics, telecommunications, and new technolo-
gies. However, it will also be useful for those who want to experiment with
or enhance their knowledge of RFID systems.
xi
© 2011 by Taylor and Francis Group, LLC
1
Basic Principles of Radiofrequency
Identification
Contents
1.1 Basics of RFID..................................................................................................1
1.2 Passive versus Active RFID Systems............................................................5
1.3 Functional Classification of RFID Transponders.......................................6
1.4 Applications and Frequency Selection........................................................7
Object X
Information X
Object Y
Information Y
Automatic
Information 1 Object 1
Identification
System
Information 2
Object 2
...
...
Information Z
Object Z
FIGURE 1.1
Information transfer in an automatic identification system.
FIGURE 1.2
Several types of transponders used in RFID systems.
mostly used to tag pallets or cases of goods, the name transponder reflects
better the function of these devices.
The device that is used to capture and transfer information is commonly
called a reader, because in earlier RFID systems they were only able to read
the information sent by the transponders. However, with the development
of new functions and applications of RFID systems, the name interrogator
reflects better the function of this subsystem. Therefore, this book will use
the names transponder and interrogator when referring to these elements.
Transponders must have the circuitry needed to harvest power from the
electromagnetic fields generated by the interrogator, the necessary memory
elements, as well as the different control circuits. The simplest transponders
contain only read-only memory (ROM), while more sophisticated transpon-
ders also include random access memory (RAM) and nonvolatile program-
mable read-only memory (PROM) or electrically erasable programmable
read-only memory (EEPROM). ROM usually contains the identification string
for the transponder and instructions for its operating system. RAM is nor-
mally used for temporary data storage when the transponder communicates
with the interrogator. PROM or EEPROM is normally used to incorporate
additional functionality depending on the application. The memory capacity
of transponders ranges from a single bit to several kilobits. Single-bit tran-
sponders are typically used in retail electronic surveillance in which there
are only two possible states: article paid and article not paid. Memory sizes of
up to 128 bits are enough to store the individual transponder identification
number with several check bits. Memories up to 512 bits are normally user
programmable, in which in addition to the individual identification num-
ber the memory can hold additional information required by its application.
Higher capacity memories can be seen as carriers for the transport of data
files. They are also used in applications in which there are several sensors
attached to the transponder.
Interrogators have vastly different complexity levels depending on the
type of transponders they support as well as their specific purpose. In any
case, they all must provide the basic functionality to communicate with the
transponders, first by energizing them and second by establishing a com-
munications link. The complexity of the communications link can also vary
considerably depending on the desired reliability. The reliability of the com-
munications link between transponder and interrogator can be enhanced
by adding parity checks, error detection, and error detection and correction.
However, the use of these schemes will result in a lower transmission rate.
Figure€1.3 shows a picture of a basic interrogator in which it is possible to see
the coiled antenna and some of the electronic circuits.
RFID systems contain more elements in addition to the transponder and
interrogator. First, the communication between transponder and interroga-
tor is not possible—or becomes extremely deficient—without the appropri-
ate radiant elements that will transfer the information between these two
subsystems in the form of electromagnetic energy. Both transponder and
FIGURE 1.3
Basic RFID interrogator operating in the low-frequency (LF) range.
Interrogator Host
computer
Transponder
Edge
Server
Interrogator Host
computer
FIGURE 1.4
Basic structure of an RFID system.
sent by the€transponder with more detailed information that can identify the
transponder and provide additional information.
linked to the use of RFID-enabled cell phones that can emulate an active tag.
In this case, the problem of battery maintenance is solved as the user keeps
the cell phone charged as part of its regular maintenance.
A third type of transponder is called semipassive or battery-assisted tran-
sponder. These transponders also include a battery, but contrary to active
transponders, the battery is not used to generate the power to transmit the
signal to the interrogator. Instead, the battery is used to support secondary
functions like the data logging from different types of sensors. These tran-
sponders also harvest the energy from the electromagnetic field generated
by the interrogator to power its internal circuits other than the sensing and
data-logging parts.
TABLE€1.1
Commonly Used Frequency Band for RFID Systems
Typical Frequencies
Frequency Band Frequency Range Used in RFID Systems
Low Frequency (LF) 100 kHz – 500 kHz 125 kHz
134.2 kHz
High Frequency (HF) 10 MHz – 15 MHz 13.56 MHz
Ultra High Frequency 400 MHz – 950 MHz 866 MHz Europe
(UHF) 915 MHz United States
Microwaves (μW) 2.4 GHz – 6.8 GHz 2.45 GHz
3.0 GHz
major drawback is that due to the low frequency of the carrier, these sys-
tems can only communicate at low frequency rates. The main advantage of
LF RFID systems is that electromagnetic waves operating in the LF range
are the least affected by the presence of metals due to the penetration
depth of these frequencies. This makes them ideal to be used in applica-
tions in which the transponders are surrounded by large metallic masses.
Furthermore, LF waves can travel through water with minimal attenuation
compared to waves of higher frequencies. This property makes them the
frequency range of choice for the identification of animals due to their high
water content. Most of these applications are based on implanting these tran-
sponders in livestock and pets. Figure€1.5 shows a picture of two different
transponders that operate in the LF range in which it is possible to see the
multiple loops used by these transponders.
RFID systems operating in the HF range can support higher read rates
than LF systems. Although signals in the HF range are more affected by
metal and have more attenuation when traveling through water, the tran-
sponders used for HF systems can be manufactured at a lower cost than
the transponders operating in the LF range. This is due to the fact that the
antennas for HF transponders can be made smaller, as shown in the two
transponders seen in Figure€ 1.6. The need for less conductive material to
construct the antennas results in a lower cost. Finally, the global uniformity
across the world in the frequency of 13.56 MHz makes HF systems able to
operate in any country.
While HF RFID systems operate at the single frequency of 13.56 MHz,
UHF RFID systems can operate at different frequencies in the UHF band.
Moreover, different countries have established different frequency ranges
for their UHF RFID operation, making the compatibility between systems
more difficult. For example, in North America the assigned band is from 902
MHz to 928 MHz, while in Europe it is from 860 MHz to 868 MHz and in
Japan is from 950 MHz to 956 MHz. Other countries and regions have other
different allocated frequency ranges. Despite this challenge and due to the
developments in microelectronics that allowed the decrease in cost for these
FIGURE 1.5
Low-frequency (LF) RFID transponders require antennas of several hundred feet of coiled
wire.
FIGURE 1.6
High-frequency (HF) RFID transponders can use shorter, smaller antennas.
FIGURE 1.7
Ultra-high-frequency (UHF) RFID transponder.
FIGURE 1.8
Several types of antennas used by ultra-high-frequency (UHF) RFID transponders.
than for any other type of system. On the positive side, it is possible to achieve
very high read rates, and with the help from spread spectrum techniques, it
is possible to achieve very high reliability rates and noise immunity. The
higher end of the range, from 5.5 GHz to 6.8 GHz, is still currently under
research and development.
Contents
2.1 Review of Basic Antenna Theory for RFID Transponders..................... 14
2.1.1 Antennas for RFID Transponders Operating in
the LH and HF Regions................................................................... 14
2.1.2 Inductance of Coil Antennas Operating in
the LF and HF Regions.................................................................... 17
2.1.3 Antennas for RFID Transponders Operating in
the UHF Region................................................................................ 24
2.2 Antenna Tuning for RFID Transponders.................................................. 29
2.3 Antenna Matching for RFID Transponders.............................................. 33
2.4 Antennas in Commercial RFID Transponders......................................... 37
2.5 The Connection between the Chip and the Antenna in RFID
Transponders.................................................................................................43
2.6 Additional Factors That Affect the Performance of Antennas in
RFID Transponders...................................................................................... 47
13
© 2011 by Taylor and Francis Group, LLC
14 RFID Design Fundamentals and Applications
antenna matching. The following section describes the different methods for
�attaching the antenna to the chip on the transponder. The chapter finishes
with a review of other antenna factors that affect their performance.
µ0 I (2.1)
Bφ = (Weber / m2 )
2πr
µ 0 I N a2 (2.2)
Bz = (Weber / m2 )
2 (a 2 + r 2 )3/2
z
r
FIGURE 2.1
Magnetic field produced by loop antenna.
µ 0 I N a2 (2.3)
Bz = (Weber / m2 )
2 r3
dΨ
V =−N (2.4)
dt
Ψ=
∫ B• dS (2.5)
where
B = the magnitude of the time-variant magnetic field
S = the surface area of the coil
∙ = the inner product operator
Equation (2.5) indicates that the magnetic flux, and consequently the volt-
age induced in the coil, is dependent on the relative orientation between the
coil and the magnetic field. This has some important implications at the time
of using interrogators and transponders. Assuming that the magnetic field
B was generated by the interrogator using another loop antenna, the maxi-
mum received voltage will occur when both coils are placed parallel to each
other. Because the voltage generated in the coil that will be used to power the
chip in the transponder is proportional to the intensity of the magnetic field
(B), this voltage will also be dependent on (1/r3). This is important because
V0 = 2 π f N S Q B0 cos β (2.6)
where
V0 = the induced voltage in the coil
╇╛╛f = the frequency of the time-variant magnetic field
Bo = the intensity of the field
╛╛N = the number of loops in the coil
╛╛Q = the quality factor of the coil antenna
╇ S = the area of the coil
β = the angle between the plane of the coil and the direction of the field
Keeping in mind that the magnetic field generated by the coil in the interro-
gator is perpendicular to its plane, and that equation (2.6) will be maximized
when β€= 0, the induced voltage will be maximized when the interrogator
and transponder coils are placed parallel to each other. Once again, the limit-
ing factor in equation (2.6) comes from the intensity of the magnetic field (B0)
decreasing with the cube of the distance between coils (1/r3).
d 2 n2
L= ( µH ) (2.7)
18d + 40l
where
â•›d = the diameter of the coil in inches
n = the number of turns
╛╛l = the length of the coil in inches
Example 2.1:
(1.0)2 n2
10 =
18 ⋅ 1.0 + 40 ⋅ 1.25
Solving for n gives n = 26.07 turns. Given the limitations of the approximation
for equation (2.7) plus the stray capacitance issues mentioned earlier, a good start-
ing point would be to choose 26 turns. In this case, the value of inductance that
we would measure in practice is likely to differ from 10 μH. The designer would
have to adjust the number of turns after measuring the actual value of inductance.
A recommended procedure is to start by choosing a larger number of turns and
therefore a larger number of inductance, and proceed by removing turns until the
coil achieved the required inductance.
Although this type of structure to create the antenna for an RFID system
is not the most commonly used, it is nevertheless employed in some applica-
tions, especially in those that required a hermetically sealed transponder.
Figure€ 2.3 shows an RFID transponder operating in the LF frequency in
which it is possible to see the coil antenna and its windings.
FIGURE 2.2
Single-layer, air-core coil.
Antenna coil
Support circuits
FIGURE 2.3
Detail of coil antenna in a commercial radiofrequency identification (RFID) transponder for
the low-frequency (LF) range.
The practical problem associated with the use of this type of antenna is
the three-dimensional space that it requires. Such antennas are not practi-
cal for applications that require a flat transponder, such as a credit card,
and they are limited to applications that can support the tubular shape,
for example in animal implantation. For this reason, the majority of tran-
sponders in the LF and HF frequency regions use antennas formed on
a single plane, using several layers of conductor to achieve the desired
inductance. Figure€2.4 shows this configuration for a multilayer circular
coil with n turns.
a b
Wires to
form N
turns
FIGURE 2.4
Multilayer, circular-coil, N-turn antenna.
0.31 a 2 n2
L= ( µH ) (2.8)
6 a + 9 h + 10 b
where
â•›a = the radius of the coil in cm
n = the number of turns
â•›b = the winding thickness of the coil in cm
â•›h = the winding height in cm
0.3937 a 2 n2
L= ( µH ) (2.9)
8 a + 11b
ri
ro
FIGURE 2.5
Single-layer, spiral-coil antenna.
where
r+r
â•›a = the average radius of the coil in cm ( a = i o )
2
â•›b = ro – ri in cm
n = the number of turns in the spiral
This structure results in a thinner antenna, although the number of turns
in the antenna is limited to the number of turns that is possible to pack in a
single layer. This limits the inductance of the antenna as this value depends
on the square of the number of turns. Other forms of planar coil antennas
are the multilayer square-loop coil antenna with n turns and the multilayer
rectangular-loop coil antenna, also with n turns, shown in Figure€2.6.
The inductance for the planar multilayer square loop coil antenna with n
turns, shown in Figure€2.6(a), is
a b+h (2.10)
L = 0.008 a n2 2.3 log + 0.2235 + 0.726 (µH )
h + b a
where
n = the number of turns
â•›a = the distance from the center of the coil to the side in cm
â•›h = the thickness of the winding in cm
â•›b = the width of the winding in cm
b
(a)
b
(b)
FIGURE 2.6
(a) Multilayer, square-coil antenna. (b) Multilayer, rectangular-coil antenna.
Karen tunsi, että siitä päivästä alkain, jolloin Kai joutui kouluun, ei
hänellä ollut rauhaa ainoatakaan tuntia, sillä Winberg oli tullut hänen
ja pojan haltiaksi.
"No, mitenkä kävi, Kai?" kysyi Karen, kun he olivat tulleet sisään.
"No! Ja sitten?"
"Mitkä?"
"Taulut!"
"Vai niin!"
"Er ruhte aus! [Hän lepäsi. (Poika oli käsittänyt saksalaiset sanat
'er ruhte aus' tanskaksi 'han roede ud' = hän läksi soutamaan).] No,
sinä opit yhtä hyvin puhumaan saksaa kuin Ebbekin, sillä kerran kun
hän tuli liian myöhään kouluun, puolustautui hän sanoen: 'Ich sollte
erst die Kühe trinken!'" [Minun piti ensin juoda lehmät!]
Ensi alussa oli paljon naurun syytä, mutta kun Karen eräänä
päivänä elokuussa näki Kain istuvan karttansa ääressä ja kuuli hänen
luettelevan: "Königsau, Inseln Alsen, Sundewitt, Flensburger
Meerbusen, die Nordsee", ja näki sitten Tanskan kartan, johon oli
painettu Fyenin, Langelandin, Lollandin, Falsterin ja Sjaellandin
saarien yli "Inseln Preussen" [Preussin saaristo], niin hän ymmärsi,
että nyt oli aika ruveta joka päivä kitkemään pois sitä rikkaruohoa,
jota joka päivä kylvettiin.
"Niin, Egtved se on", sanoi äiti, "mutta hän on vieras maassa. Hän
ei ymmärrä asiata sen paremmin. Katsoppas, Kai! Kaikki se, minkä
näet tällä kartalla on Alsia ja Sundevedia, ja tässä näin me asumme."
Mutta nyt alkoi toinen isku seurata toistaan. Eräänä päivänä tuli
Kai juoksujalassa kotiin ja kertoi, että opettaja oli kieltänyt heitä
puhumasta tanskaa leikkipaikalla.
"Nyt se alkaa! Nyt se alkaa!" ajatteli hän. "Miten minä voin sitä
kestää, kun poika ensi kertaa saa selkäänsä?"
Tästä lähin oli Kailla joka päivä tilaisuus kertoa, että se ja se oli
saanut selkäänsä, koska hän oli puhunut tanskaa leikkipaikalla ja
kepille he olivat antaneet nimeksi: "Dänenhass." [Tanskalaisviha.]
Nyt he olivat jo melkein kaikki saaneet selkäänsä.
Hän oli juuri vasta tullut sisään ja istui tapansa mukaan pyöritellen
hattuansa peukaloiden välissä.
"Älä sano sitä", sanoi hän paksulla äänellä, "sillä täytyy kunnioittaa
esivaltaa, ja vanhempien velvollisuus on opettaa lapsiansa
kunnioittamaan ja ihailemaan opettajaansa."
23.
Ei siinä mikään auttanut! Pojan täytyi lähteä. Sakot hän kyllä olisi
maksanut, mutta poika olisi saanut siitä kärsiä.
"He löivät häntä, senkin tolvanat!" sanoi Klaus. "Hän saattoi tuskin
laahautua kotiin. Koetetaan riisua häneltä vaatteet päältä!"
Kai vaikeni.
"Kai!"
Ja Klaus, joka oli yhtä huolissaan kuin Karenkin, ajoi pian aika
ravia pihalta.
"Oi, jospa vain lääkäri tulisi! Jumala suokoon, että hän tulisi! Mutta
jos hän ei olisikaan kotona! Jos verensyöksy uudistuisi! Oi, rakas
Herra Jumala, armahda minua, äiti parkaa, joka olen sellaisessa
kuolemantuskassa!"
Millä tavalla hän oli taistellut, se oli vain hänen ja Jumalan välinen
asia.
Hän ei nähnyt sitä nuorta naista, jota hän oli rakastanut, vaan hän
näki ihmisen Karenin, ja hänelle hän kunnioittaen kumarsi.
Ja kuitenkin — sitä myöten, kuin hän astui yli maiden, hän kuuli
tuttuja ääniä hyvin kaukaa, ääniä vanhoilta ajoilta, mutta ne olivat
hyvin etäällä:
Herra Jumala, kuinka kauan aikaa sitten hän tuota laulua oli
laulanut!
Valdemar oli hetken vaiti, ikäänkuin hän itse olisi pelännyt sitä,
mikä nyt seuraisi.
"Minä tahdon olla hänelle hyvä isä", sanoi Borris, "mutta minä
tahdon taaskin olla sinulle rehellinen. Sillä tavalla kuin kerran olisin
voinut sinua rakastaa, niin sanomattomalla riemulla, en nyt enää voi
rakastaa sinua. Meidän suhteemme ei voi olla, niinkuin ei mitään olisi
tapahtunut, niinkuin kaikkea sitä, mikä meidän välillämme on, ei olisi
olemassa. Minun rakkauteni on — ehkä parempi, ehkä vähemmän
itserakas, mutta siihen on sekaantunut surua, sillä jotakin ehkä ei
kuitenkaan kokonaan voida sovittaa. Minun täytyy valmistaa sinua
siihen, että minulle voi tulla synkkiä hetkiä, joita minun jälleen on
vaikea voittaa. Tahdotko sinä olla kärsivällinen minun kanssani?
Uskallatko sinä suostua, nyt kun sinä tiedät totuuden? Minä lupaan
sinulle, että Jumalan nimessä teen kaikki mitä voin voittaakseni sitä."
Karen seisoi hiljaa liikahtamatta. Hän tunsi Valdemarin
sieluntuskan hiipivän jäätävällä kylmyydellä omaan sydämeensä. Se
tunkeutui aivan sydänjuureen saakka. Nyt vasta hän tiesi, kuinka
paljon hän oli rikkonut Valdemaria vastaan ja mitä hän hänelle oli
tehnyt.
Ei, Valdemar ei ollut enää sama kuin ennen, ja syy oli kokonaan
Karenin.
"Valdemar! Valdemar!"
Tällä kertaa se tuli niin hiljaa, että Valdemar sitä tuskin kuuli.
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