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Engineering Materials
Nabisab Mujawar Mubarak

Mohammad Khalid
Rashmi Walvekar
Arshid Numan Editors
Contemporary
Nanomaterials
in Material
Engineering
Applications
This series provides topical information on innovative, structural and functional
materials and composites with applications in optical, electrical, mechanical, civil,
aeronautical, medical, bio- and nano-engineering. The individual volumes are
complete, comprehensive monographs covering the structure, properties, manufac-
turing process and applications of these materials. This multidisciplinary series is
devoted to professionals, students and all those interested in the latest developments
in the Materials Science field, that look for a carefully selected collection of high
quality review articles on their respective field of expertise.
More information about this series at http://www.springer.com/series/4288

Nabisab Mujawar Mubarak Mohammad Khalid
• •
Rashmi Walvekar Arshid Numan

•
Editors
Contemporary Nanomaterials
in Material Engineering
Applications
123
Editors
Nabisab Mujawar Mubarak Mohammad Khalid
Department of Chemical Engineering Graphene & Advanced 2D Materials
Faculty of Engineering and Science Research Group (GAMRG)
Curtin University School of Science and Technology
Miri, Sarawak, Malaysia Sunway University
Petaling Jaya, Selangor, Malaysia
Rashmi Walvekar
Department of Chemical Engineering Arshid Numan
School of Energy and Chemical Engineering Graphene & Advanced 2D Materials
Xiamen University Malaysia Research Group (GAMRG)
Sepang, Selangor, Malaysia School of Science and Technology
Sunway University
Petaling Jaya, Selangor, Malaysia
ISSN 1612-1317 ISSN 1868-1212 (electronic)

ISBN 978-3-030-62760-7 ISBN 978-3-030-62761-4 (eBook)
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-62761-4
© Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021
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Preface
It was 1964 when Dr. Richard Feynman (Noble Laureate in Physics) delivered his
famous lecture, “There is Plenty of Room at the Bottom.” In this lecture, he gave
the concept of nanomaterials and predicted the possibility to put the entire 24
volumes of the Encyclopedia of Britannica under the head of a pin. Since then,
there is rapid development in the field of nanotechnology and today, what was
considered impossible is now a reality.
In the past few decades, nanomaterials and nanotechnology emerged from
fundamental concepts into a vast range of applications covering every aspect of life.
The unique properties of nanomaterials, especially contemporary nanomaterials
(CNMs), have played a prominent role in the nanotechnology revolution. The most
eye-catching features of these structures are their electronic, mechanical, optical,
and chemical characteristics, which open numerous avenues to future applications.
However, continuous discovery of new CNMs and rapid development in nan-
otechnology make it difficult for the industries to stay up-to-date with the
fast-changing technology landscape. Further, it is a challenging task to bring
CNMs from laboratory to market. Therefore, the latest developments and findings
of CNMs need to be highlighted to bridge the gap between the latest research and
its technical realization. Currently, the literature on CNMs is scattered into original
articles and review papers. This book would categorize this subject and provides an
overview and critical commentary that will be an invaluable reference for
researchers, scientists, and students, studying and working with nanomaterials for
engineering applications.
v
vi Preface
This book intends to introduce readers to a broad view of nanomaterials, from

fundamental principles to fabrication techniques, and from characterization to
applications. It is primarily intended as a reference book for graduate students in
materials science and other related engineering fields. It will also serve as a ref-
erence book for professionals that are interested in this field.
Miri, Sarawak, Malaysia Nabisab Mujawar Mubarak

Petaling Jaya, Malaysia Mohammad Khalid
Sepang, Malaysia Rashmi Walvekar
Petaling Jaya, Malaysia Arshid Numan
Contents
Importance of Nanomaterials in Engineering Application . . . . . . . . . . . 1

Lau Yien Jun, Fahad Saleem Ahmed Khan, Nabisab Mujawar Mubarak,
Lau Sie Yon, Chua Han Bing, Mohammad Khalid, and E. C. Abdullah
Graphene and Its Composites . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
Marlinda Ab Rahman, Suresh Sagadevan, and Mohd Rafie Johan
Carbon Nanotubes and Their Composites: From Synthesis
to Applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
Mahesh Vaka, Rashmi Walvekar, and Swarnalatha Yanamadala
Synthesis of Nanoclay Composite Material . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69
Pratap Kumar Deheri and Biswabandita Kar
Metal-Organic Frameworks (MOFs) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105
Nurul N. M. Ishak, N. N. M. Khiruddin, N. Nasri,
and T. B. S. A. Ravoof
Conducting Polymers and Their Composites . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147
Ankit Jadhav, Sundus Saeed Qureshi, Harshit Jadhav, Sabzoi Nizamuddin,
Abdul Sattar Jatoi, Shaukat Ali Mazari, Israr Ahmed,
Humair Ahmed Baloch, M. T. H. Siddiqui, and Nabisab Mujawar Mubarak
Two-Dimensional Transition Metal Carbides and Nitrides (MXenes):
Synthesis to Applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 179
Muhammad Zahir Iqbal and Saman Siddique
Chalcogenides Nanocrystals and Its Applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 201
Arunachalam Arulraj, U. Mehana Usmaniya, Govindan Senguttuvan,
Vadivel Sivakumar, and Mohammad Khalid
Quantum Dots Synthesis and Application . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 229
Jaison Jeevanandam, Satheesh Kumar Balu, Swetha Andra,
Michael K. Danquah, Manisha Vidyavathi, and Murugesan Muthalagu
vii
viii Contents
Synthesis of Thin Film and Its Application . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 267

Sohail Ahmed and Shahzad Abu Bakar
Synthesis, Spectroscopic Characterization and Applications
of Tin Dioxide . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 285
Hawazin Alghamdi, Benjamin Concepcion, Shankar Baliga,
and Prabhakar Misra
Perspective Future Development of Nanomaterials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 319
Jamal Akhter Siddique and Arshid Numan
Importance of Nanomaterials
in Engineering Application
Lau Yien Jun, Fahad Saleem Ahmed Khan, Nabisab Mujawar Mubarak,
Lau Sie Yon, Chua Han Bing, Mohammad Khalid, and E. C. Abdullah
Abstract Nanomaterials have gained prominence in technological advancement

due to their exceptional tunable properties and enhanced performance over their bulk
counterparts. These nanomaterials are revolutionising various industrial applications
due to their outstanding, and unique characteristics. In this chapter, a summary of
the fundamental engineering concept of nanomaterial, particularly carbon nanomate-
rials are included. Besides, this chapter also highlights the engineering applications
of nanomaterials in diverse industrial fields, such as biomedical, food processing,
biotechnology, environmental remediation, construction, renewable energy, elec-
tronics, and energy storage. Lastly, the potential effects of nanomaterials on human
health are briefed. In short, nanomaterials are expected to bring breakthrough
development field of the leading cutting edge of nanotechnology.
Keywords Nanotechnology · Nanomaterials · Engineering applications
1 Introduction
Nanomaterials are defined as the materials that possess one or more external dimen-
sions with a dimensional size ranging from 1 to 100 nm. Richard Feynman, who was a
Nobel Prize winning American physicist, was broadly credited with the kick-starting
L. Y. Jun · F. S. A. Khan · N. M. Mubarak (B) · L. S. Yon · C. H. Bing

Department of Chemical Engineering, Faculty of Engineering and Science, Curtin University,
98009 Miri, Sarawak, Malaysia
e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected]
M. Khalid
Graphene & Advanced 2D Materials Research Group (GAMRG), School of Science and
Technology, Sunway University, No. 5, Jalan Universiti, Bandar Sunway, 47500 Petaling Jaya,
Selangor, Malaysia
E. C. Abdullah
Department of Chemical Process Engineering, Malaysia-Japan International Institute of
Technology (MJIIT) Universiti Teknologi Malaysia (UTM), Jalan Sultan Yahya Petra (Jalan
Semarak), 54100 Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia
© Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 1

N. M. Mubarak et al. (eds.), Contemporary Nanomaterials in Material
Engineering Applications, Engineering Materials,
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2 L. Y. Jun et al.
of the modern interest in nanotechnology [21]. In the year 1959, he gave a visionary
talk at an annual meeting of an American Physical Society, entitled “There’s plenty
of room at the bottom”. In his speech, he laid the conceptual foundations of manipu-
lating individual atoms and molecules at the atomic level using tiny and precise tools.
In the year 1974, a Japanese Professor Norio Taniguchi had termed this field as “nan-
otechnology”, which describes the level of precision in manufacturing materials at
the nanometre scale [87].
In the past decades, nanomaterials are growing explosively worldwide as an
important product of nanotechnologies owing to their extraordinary physiochem-
ical properties. Nanomaterials offer unique functional applications as they possess a
high surface to volume ratio, as well as superior mechanical, chemical, and physical
properties. Figure 1 illustrated the comparison of the sizes of nanomaterials.
It is essential to fabricate nanomaterials with high functionality and suitable prop-
erties for various applications. Generally, there are two approaches to synthesise
nanomaterials, which are the “Top-down” and “Bottom-up” methods. For “Top-
down” approach, it involves making structures and devices from bulk materials
without specific control at the atomic level. One of the main benefits of “Top-down”
method is the large scale production in the industrial setting [29]. Nevertheless, the
main shortcomings of this method are high cost and energy consumption, lengthy
processing time, and the deformation of surface structures [88]. The examples of
“Top-down” method including mechanical milling, cutting, chemical etching, laser
ablation, electro-explosion, and lithography.
On the contrary, the “Bottom-up” method involves the assembly of atomic scale
materials to generate a controlled nanostructure. The advantages of this method are
economical technique, controllable particle size, surface properties, and deposition
parameters [8]. Nonetheless, the disadvantages of this method are difficulty in mass
production, and chemical purification of nanomaterials is required [38]. The physical
Fig. 1 Comparison of nanomaterial sizes

Importance of Nanomaterials in Engineering Application 3
and chemical processing “Bottom-up” methods are by spinning, atomic layer depo-
sition, vapour-phase deposition, electrolytic deposition, self-assembled monolayer,
spray pyrolysis, and sol–gel method.
2 Type of Nanomaterials
They are various type of nanomaterials, which can be classified into organic and inor-
ganics categories, as shown in Fig. 2. For organic groups, it consists of carbon-based
nanomaterials, such as fullerene, single-walled carbon nanotube (CNT), graphene
and buckyball. On the other hand, the inorganics group can be further categorised
into metal, metal oxide and quantum dots categories. The commonly used metal and
metal oxide nanomaterials are gold (Au), aluminium (Al), silver (Ag), copper (Cu),
zinc (Zn), aluminium oxide (Al2 O3 ), silicon oxide (SiO2 ), iron oxide (Fe2 O3 ), tita-
nium dioxide (TiO2 ), and copper oxide (CuO). Moreover, the examples of quantum
dots are cadmium selenide (CdSn) and zinc sulphide (ZnS).
Nanomaterials can be classified further into several classes based on their shapes
and number of dimensions. For instances, zero-dimensional (0-D), one-dimensional
(1-D), two-dimensional (2-D) and three-dimensional (3-D). 0-D nanomaterials
exhibit in spherical and clusters forms, such as fullerene, gold and silver nanoparti-
cles. Besides, 1-D nanomaterials show in tube, wire, fibre or rod forms, for example,
carbon nanotube (CNT). Additionally, 2-D nanomaterials are in films or sheets forms,
such as graphene or graphene oxide (GO). Furthermore, 3-D nanomaterials are in
3-D structure, such as diamond and graphite. These nanomaterials can be exhibit in
amorphous or crystalline structures. Figure 3 displayed the types of nanomaterials
in various dimensions. In this section, carbon-based nanomaterials are highlighted
due to their wide applicability in diverse fields.
Fig. 2 Types of nanomaterial

4 L. Y. Jun et al.
Fig. 3 Type of nanomaterials with different dimensions
2.1 Fullerene (0-D)
Fullerenes are molecular composed of carbon, which are also known as Buckyball
or Buckminister fullerene (C60 ). Their first discovery in the year 1985 by Kroto
et al. [48], was awarded Nobel prize in chemistry 10 years later. They are made of
carbon atoms in the form of tube, ellipsoid or hollow spherical shapes. Fullerene
exhibited in several unique properties such as exceptional durability, high electron
affinity, extraordinary radical scavengers, and ease of modification. Nevertheless,
the insolubility of fullerene in the polar solvent has restricted its applicability. The
attention of fullerene has reduced gradually recently with the increasing focus on the
research of CNT and graphene-based materials.
2.2 Carbon Nanotubes (1-D)
CNTs are cylindrical carbon structures with diameters in the range of a nanometre.
CNTs are mainly categorised as single-walled carbon nanotube (SWCNT) and multi-
walled carbon nanotube (MWCNT) based on their structure and geometry. SWCNT
is formed by rolling up a single sheet of graphene, while MWCNT is formed by
rolling up multiple sheets of graphene. CNTs have received considerable attention in
diverse fields of science since their discovery. This is because of their exceptional and
desirable characteristics, such as extraordinary mechanical, thermal, and electrical
properties. Besides, the surface properties of the CNTs can be engineered and tailored
easily according to the application required [34, 42]. A wide range of application
possibilities has been explored with CNTs, such as their use in pharmaceutical,
medicine, biosensor, bioremediation, biofuel cell development, agriculture and food
processing industries [43, 55, 61, 96].
2.3 Graphene and Its Derivatives (2-D)
Graphene is a single layer of sp2 hybrid bonded carbon atoms packed in the form of
a two-dimensional and hexagonal honeycomb structure. The discovery of graphene
by Konstantin Novoselov and Andre Geim in 2004 has received immense attention
to exploring its potential applications [67]. The most commonly used method for
synthesis of graphene and its derivatives are chemical vapour deposition (CVD),
epitaxial growth, and mechanical exfoliation methods [50]. Graphene and its deriva-
tives have unique chemical, physical, electronic, optical, and thermal properties [93].
Due to these excellent features, graphene and its derivatives have gained attention in a
broad spectrum of applications, prominently in the biomedical, electronic, biosensor,
energy storage and environmental pollution control [36, 99].
2.4 Graphite (3-D)
Graphite is a layered honeycomb structure, where multiple layers of graphene sheets

are bonded through weak Van der Waals forces, with sp2 hybridised crystal structure.
It is also known as one of the world’s softest minerals. Pristine graphite can be
classified into three major types, which are a crystalline flake, vein or lump, and
amorphous graphite [92]. Nevertheless, pristine graphite is not often used due to their
brittle nature, shear-planes and inconsistent mechanical properties [25]. The most
common application of graphite is in lithium-ion batteries, lubricants, refractories,
and lead pencils [39, 44].
3 Nanomaterial for Engineering Application
For the past few decades, the rapid development of nanotechnology has made a
massive revolution in various industrial applications [20, 91]. The emergent features
of nanomaterials, such as superior mechanical, chemical, optical, thermal and elec-
trical properties, make them received tremendous attention among researchers in
multidisciplinary fields [55, 61, 96]. Today, the use of nanomaterials is increasing
with widespread commercial applications in consumer products, such as cosmetics,
food agriculture, electronics and automobile, and so forth. Also, the technical appli-
cations of nanotechnology have extended to techniques in various fields, such as
6 L. Y. Jun et al.
Fig. 4 Application of
nanomaterials in various
industries fields
biotechnology, construction, renewable energy, and biomedical. Moreover, nanotech-

nology also provides solutions to environmental challenges, particularly in the
areas of wastewater treatment and air pollution treatment. Figure 4 displayed the
applications of nanomaterials in various industry sectors.
Nanomaterials have a noticeable impact on various applications in biomedical
fields, such as therapy, biosensor, diagnosis, novel approaches for treatment, as
well as prevention. In addition, nanomaterials can be used in various forms, such
as thin film coating, reinforced or filler materials, or connecting materials. As
compared to conventional materials, nanomaterials can produce lighter, stronger,
bacteria-resistant, and corrosion-resistant materials. Examples of nanomaterials used
in everyday applications are sports equipment, cosmetics, and automobiles. More-
over, nanomaterials play an important role in electrical and electronics applica-
tions as it can provide a larger storage capacity with lower power consumption.
In recent years, nanotechnology is employed in environmental remediation applica-
tions, particularly in the fields of wastewater treatments. Also, in the food industry,
nanomaterials are used for antimicrobial and antioxidant agents, to prolong the shelf
life and the freshness of food. Furthermore, nanotechnology has also made a signif-
icant impact on renewable energy, particularly energy conversion and storage. Few
of the nanomaterials applications are briefly described in the next section, whereas
the application of nanomaterials based on various fields is listed in Table 4.
Fig. 5 Nanomaterials
employed in cosmetic
products Metal and
Metal
oxides
Solid
Carbon
Lipids
Nanomaterials
in Cosmec
Industries
Synthec Vesicular
Polymers Lipids
Nanoclays
and Silica
3.1 Cosmetics and Personal Products
The primary use of nanomaterials in cosmetics is to improve the distribution of

cosmetic constituents into the skin. The minor size of lipids vesicles can allow these
materials to be immersed more rapidly into skin. Scientific researches to validate
these statements have given differing outcomes. These can be because of the study
surroundings, for instance, size and strength of nanoparticles that make it challenging
to attain steady results even within the similar lab [35]. Varying physico-chemical
properties of vesicles can also cause changes in the interaction with the skin. Few
vesicles that cannot infiltrate the skin can conveniently release their constituents onto
the skin’s surface in a way that eases uptake and penetration into the skin’s layers [65].
Moreover, nanomaterials can be employed to impart stability to formulations that
have constituents that can decompose because of oxidation and various other reasons.
Nevertheless, carrier nanoparticles might have strength concerns upon application
to the skin.
Nanoparticles of zinc oxide (ZnO) and titanium oxide (TiO2 ) are commonly
employed in sunscreen drug products. However, they can also be used in cosmetic
goods (where the subsequent product can be cosmetic or drug) [68]. These nano-
materials effectively block ultra-violet (UV) rays but also result in a translucent
formulation that is attractive to the customer (Fig. 5).
Silver nanoparticles have been used as preservative/anti-bacterial agents in
customer products. Cosmetic goods in the United States cannot provide anti-bacterial
claims as this claim is linked with physiological function; therefore, it uses in drugs
8 L. Y. Jun et al.
Table 1 Recent studies on cosmetic product using nanomaterials

Nanomaterial Description pH Penetration References
Quantum dot-655/COOH Shape: Ellipsoid 9 Negative [78]
Diameter: 6–12 nm
Hydrodynamic diameter: 18 nm
Skin: Pig
Quantum dot-655/PEG Skin: Human stratum corneum 8.3 Negative [18]
TiO2 nanparticles Particle size: 200 nm – Negative [23]
Skin: Pig
TiO2 nanparticles in oil/water Paricle size: 10 × 50 nm – Negative [79]
Skin: Pig
ZnO nanoparticles Skin: Human epidermal – 0.03% [102]
Size: 15–30 nm – Negative [64]
Duration: 24 h
Skin: Human
are limited. Furthermore, nano-silver is also not listed Cosmetic Directive of the Euro-
pean Union (Annex-5) [70], which is the list of approved preservatives permitted in
cosmetic products (Table 1).
3.2 Automobiles and Transportation
According to the United Nations, it is estimated that globally vehicle fleet will be
double from 750 × 108 million today to around 1.5 × 109 by 2030 [31]. It raised
the question linked to the safety of passengers, traffic regulation system, contam-
inant reduction and adequate recycling at the end of value added chain to protect
scarce resources are turning more crucial. In regard to these concerns, nanotech-
nology contributes significantly to essential development and fabrication of advanced
processes and materials in a different sector, particularly in the automobile industry.
For example, new era tyres attained their high durability, mileage as well as grip via
nano-scale soot particles and silica [63]. Materials with nano-scale layer and particles
have valuable impacts on the interior and exterior surfaces, on the body/engine and
drive. Nanomaterials are employed to different body parts, tyre, engines, interiors,
emissions, electronics and chassis. The nanomaterials linked with automobiles are
briefly described below:
a. Light-Weight Body Parts
One of the most known topics associated with automobiles is its weight reduction.
The light weight automobiles will increase fuel efficiency, decrease manufacturing
cost and cut down the carbon dioxide (CO2 ) emissions. It is estimated that through
reducing the automobile weight by 10%, there will be 7% fuel economy [17]. More-
over, issues like stability, smooth drive and crash resistance could also be improved by
vehicle weight reduction. Considerable number of development had been conducted

on this path but failed to manage efficiency and safety. In addition, materials close to
engine parts must hold significant thermal resistance, but outer and structural parts
must be build of materials that possess excellent mechanical stability. Yet, materials
employed such as thermoplastics have shown low mechanical and thermal resistance,
and thus it can only be considered after modified via reinforcements.
Carbon nanotubes are light-weight and approximately 150 times stronger than
steel. Consequently, CNTs are an appropriate alternative of steel in automobile parts.
Incorporation of nano-scale clay in the polymer matrix can produce a nanocomposite
that can be used to produce automobile part close to the engines due to high thermal
stability [62]. Moreover, clay nanocomposite reinforced with polyamide, polycar-
bonates and polypropylene are known used polymer nanocomposites. Once these
nanomaterials are combined with polymers, their thermal resistance as well as flame
retardance will incline [60]. With the use of hybrid solution and nanocomposite, a
vehicle that weights typically 900 kg of steel can be reduced to 300 kg. Nanocom-
posite plastic provides on average 25% weight savings over highly filled plastics and
80% over steel. Volkswagen uses long fiber reinforced thermoplastic (LFRT) that
provides better design flexibility, high strength/weight and impact resistance, and
corrosion reduction in comparison to metals [59].
b. Paint-Coating
The primary concerns related to conventional paints are in-efficient flame retardant,
paint transfer efficiency, limited adhesive and surface finish to water and dust parti-
cles. Most of these issues can be solved with the incorporation of different nanopar-
ticles into these paints [71]. Nanoparticles like boehmite (AlOOH), silicon dioxide
(SiO2 ) and zirconium dioxide (ZrO2 ) are entrenched in UV curable lacquers which
offering in enhanced abrasion resistance. TiO2 and ZnO nanoparticles will support
to enhance UV resistance features and also reflecting those noxious rays [45, 84]. In
addition, a combination of nanoparticles with fluoro-methyl group extend its pore
volume and surface area that support surface roughness.
c. Scratch–Resistance
The brand-new appearance of vehicle body shell must be ensured after number
of years of operation and washes. The vehicle coating can be affected due to the
scratch/abrasion on the surface. Thus, it is a difficult task for science society to come
up with scratch/abrasion resistant coatings without damaging their other features [54,
100]. Nanotechnology plays a vital role in regards to scratch and abrasion resistant
coating. Glasel and co-workers produced scratch and abrasion resistant film with the
support of siloxane encapsulated silicon dioxide (SiO2 ) nanoparticles [7]. Because
of the identical distribution of nanoparticles in polymers, scratch resistant feature
can be enhanced without affecting other properties. Similarly, nano-alumina have
displayed adequate reaction in this aspect.
10 L. Y. Jun et al.
Compared to conventional paints, nano-varnish have shown good paint bril-

liance and scratch resistance. The purpose of this technological effect is the rein-
forced ceramic particles which are combined to varnish layer, nano-scale. Degussa
AEROSIL R9200 is the known commercially used nanoparticles in the varnish [3].
d. Tyres
Carbon black is the first nanomaterial used as a reinforcing element that was mixed
with the tyre. The two main ingredients are soot and silica that are employed as a
reinforcing element in the tyre [53]. Substantial fuel efficiency, as well as sustained
durability, is attained through the use of soot at nano-scale, as it has coarser surface
compared to those employed in normal tyres. Nanoparticles hold extensive surface
energy, an association of soot nanoparticles with normal rubber in the tyres is signif-
icant, which leads to improved rolling resistance and lowers inner fraction [90].
The combination of nano-silica (10%) to styrene butadiene rubber (SBR)/natural
rubber support to enhance the grip and wear resistance of the tyre. Moreover, it has
been reported tensile and hardness properties can be improved through multi-walled
carbon nanotubes (MWCNTs) (3%) mixing with SBR or natural rubber [56].
e. Other Uses in Automobiles

Apart from above-mentioned automobiles parts, nanomaterials have wide-spectrum
application in automobile sector such as nano-fluids, nano-filters, fuel cells, cooling
systems, nano-electronic mechanical system (NEMS), and damping and braking
system [76]. CNTs are employed for the storage of hydrogen fuel in fuel cells, as it
can store a significant amount of hydrogen and can be easily retrieved. The efficiency
of the batteries can be enhanced via a metal electrode of lithium ion batteries with
nanoparticles. Similarly, magnetorheological fluids can support powerful and smooth
damping and braking [74]. Magnetorheological fluids contain magnetic nanoparti-
cles dissolved in a solvent and at the time of minor pressure change/magnetic field
happens, the particles will align, consequently fluid viscosity increases (Table 2).
3.3 Agriculture
The primary usage of nanomaterials in agriculture is to incline the crops and lands
productivity, specifically under sub-optimal situations, started in the early twenty-
first century [33]. Nevertheless, nanotechnology stays a moderately under-discovered
area in agricultural science [94]. Different nanomaterials with promising potential to
modernise the agricultural sector have been introduced, analysed through a significant
number of merits and demerits [12]. They normally elevate food safety, crop and
quality growth and monitor environmental surroundings, moreover, cracking number
of agricultural issues, for instance, soil structure issues, pesticides delivery, plant
disease, pollutants detection and fertilisers [75]. Varied nanomaterials are considered
in the agricultural sector such as CNTs (single-walled CNTs, multi-walled CNTs),
Table 2 Nanomaterials applications in automobile sector [69]

Nanomaterials Merits Demerits Applications
Long fiber reinforced Extensive impact Production is Body parts
thermoplastic resistance, high challenging
stability
Silicon dioxide (SiO2 ) Lower paint toxicity, Uniform dispersion is Paint coating
support self-healing challenging
Copper dioxide (CuO2 ), Coefficient of friction Life-span is shorter Engines
Molybdenum disulphide can be lowered up to
(MoS2 ), Titanium dioxide 50%
(TiO2 )
Layered double Absorbs heat, enhances Stability concerns Paint coating
hydroxides (LDH) char growth
Carbon nanotubes (CNTs) High mechanical Expensive Body parts
stability and
light-weight
Soot, carbon black, silica Exntended durability, Uniform dispersion is Vehicle tyres
fuel efficiency is higher challenging
Copper oxide Upgrades heat transfer Agglomeration issues Engines
(nano-fluids) coefficient
Carbon nanotubes Zero-toxicity, good Relatively expensive Vehicle interior
(CNTs), copper (Cu), zinc efficiency
oxide (ZnO), Gold (Au)
silver (Ag), zinc (Zn), titanium dioxide (TiO2 ) and graphene oxide (GO) [33, 47].
Hence, methods of this promising methodology involve safeguard against diseases
and pathogens, enhanced efficiency of fungicides, pesticides, herbicides, leading to
improved plant growth and maintained discharge [13, 33]. Nanomaterial enhance
efficiency, production and agricultural safeguard, as they are valid in nearly every
component of the agricultural sector such as transportation, processing, production
and storage [19].
Practically, nanomaterials usage covers numerous purposes in agricultural. The
primary purpose is that of enhanced fertilisers’ delivery, resultant in elevated elements
uptake via plants cells and lessened nutrients loss. They offer synchronisation of
micro and macronutrients delivery [30]. Nano-structured fertiliser improves the
effectiveness of nutrient usages via larger surface areas, mark delivery mechanism,
slow and maintained discharge in response to biological demands and environ-
mental triggers. Nano-iron (Fe), nano-phosphorous (P), nano-zinc (Zn) and nano-
magnesium (Mg) are few common nano-fertilisers examples. Furthermore, CNTs can
be employed as nutrients delivery for micro/macronutrients to reduce their applied
quantities with promising consequences in agricultural since they have competitive
thermal, chemical, electrical and mechanical properties [47, 86]. The second purpose
is that of pest and insect management. Few nanoparticles have excellent capability in
control and management of pests because of its slow and active discharge of active-
compounds, for instance, zinc oxide, titanium dioxide and gold, considering them
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12 L. Y. Jun et al.
Table 3 Few examples of nanomaterials employed in the agricultural sector

Nanomaterial Function of Industrial name Application
nanomaterial
Zinc (Zn)-nanoparticles, Fertiliser Motawazen, Saula, Nano-fertilizers
copper (Cu)-nanoparticles, Solocross, Green
boron (B)-anoparticles, Iron Earth NanoPlant
(Fe)-nanoparticles, bio
humus
Copper doped Detection of – Nano-sensors
montmorillonite propineb fungicide
Copper (Cu)-nanoparticles, Bactericide, Bio-nano technology Nano-pesticides
Polymeric-nanoparticles, controlled release
Zinc (Zn)-nanoparticles and fungicide
Poly-epsilon caprolactone Controlled release – Nano-herbicides
as economical and reliable substitutes for synthetic chemicals with negative-side

effects. Nano-pesticides decline organic solvent discharge and undesired pesticides
movement. Moreover, nanomaterials can locate, detect as well as report pathogens
in crops as intelligent field systems and speedy analytic tools for pathogens detection
alerting growers to use the required materials earlier to on-set of symptoms [19, 83].
Another purpose is that of nano-fungicides. Chemical fungicides have a harmful
impact on plants with health and environmental concerns. Nano-fungicides offer a
worthful solution to afore-mentioned issues based on the size and shape of nanoparti-
cles. Ag-nanoparticles are well-known nano-fungicides because of its antimicrobial
characteristics. Similarly, ZnO-nanoparticles also show anti-fungal, anti-bacterial
and antimicrobial properties, whereas, TiO2 -nanoparticles possess anti-bacterial and
photo-catalytic activities that follow to plant safeguard [23, 46].
The last purpose comes in nano-sensors forms, vastly considered in the agricul-
tural sector because of its ability for pollutions monitoring in environment, aquifer
and soil. Monitoring crop health, soil conditions and plant pathogens detection can be
performed conveniently and precisely through nano-sensors [97]. The well-known
nanomaterial employed as a sensor is Ag-nanoparticles. Table 3 lists the common
nanomaterials used in the agricultural sector [27] (Table 4).
4 Risks of Nanotechnology
Despite the remarkable properties of nanomaterials, it is essential to evaluate their

toxicity and potential adverse impacts on human health, as well as the environment.
The toxicity of nanomaterials is dependent on the particle sizes, nature, shapes,
solubility, surface properties and chemical composition of the nanoparticles. The
possible exposures of nanomaterials with the human system are via inhalation,
ingestion, and skin penetration [80]. There are several researchers reported the
Table 4 Few other application of nanomaterials in various fields

Applications Examples References
Biomedical and health care • Gold nanoparticles for targeted delivery of [22, 51, 89]
drugs directly to cancer tumours
• Liposomes nanoparticles for controlled and
targeted drug delivery
• Quantum dots used for detection and
diagnosis of cancer
• Graphene and carbon-based nanomaterial as
wearable multifunctional sensor, for
monitoring skin temperature, wrist pulse,
breathing, and pressure mapping
Construction Materials • CNT, GO and SiO2 nanomaterials are used [2, 15, 52, 66, 85]
as reinforced cement composites
• CNT as reinforced metal matrix composite
to produce stronger, ultralight and
corrosion-resistant nanocomposite materials
• ZnO nanoparticles are used as coatings to
reduce ultraviolet radiation exposure
• Silver nanoparticles are embedded in paint
to provide antimicrobial properties to the
surface
• TiO2 nanoparticles are used as glaze coating
to provide anti-fouling properties
Electronical and electronics • Carbon-based nanomaterials as electrodes in [14, 40, 98]
supercapacitors, which has large storage
capacities and fast charged/discharged rates
Environmental remediation • Nanomaterials, such as CNT, graphene [26, 41, [57, 95]
oxide, as adsorbents to remove heavy metals
and pollutants from water bodies
• Incorporation of functional nanomaterials,
such as TiO2, Al2 O3, CNT and zeolites, into
filtration membranes to improve the
mechanical and thermal stabilities,
permeability, fouling resistance, as well as
adsorption capability of pollutants
Food packaging • Nanoclay for food packaging due to their [77, 81]
strong mechanical and thermal properties
• Nanoemulsion as edible coating for
preserving and storing food
• Gold nanoparticles as food sensors to
monitor the food quality and safety
(continued)
potential human health risks of nanomaterials, such as carcinogenicity, genotoxi-

city, pulmonary inflammation and circulatory effects [6, 73]. Table 5 summarises the
possible toxic effects and risks of nanomaterials.
14 L. Y. Jun et al.
Table 4 (continued)
Applications Examples References
Food processing • SiO2 nanomaterial as anti-caking agent to [10, 32, 72]
maintain the flow properties in powdered
products
• Titanium dioxide (TiO2 ) used as food colour
additives and flavour enhancers
• SiO2 -gallic acid nanoparticles as
antioxidants
• Silver (Ag) and zinc oxide (ZnO)
nanoparticles as antimicrobial agents in food
packaging industry
Food agriculture • Fertilisers coated with nanocapsules or [28, 47, 72]
nanoparticles for delivery of agri-chemicals
and fertilisers to enhance the absorption of
the nutrients by the plants
• Nanomaterial as a pest control agent to
increase the effectiveness towards pests
• Zinc oxide (ZnO) quantum dots used as
pesticide detection
• Magnetic nanoparticles for the smart
agrochemical and herbicide delivery system
• MWCNT nanomaterials to increase the plant
production rate and
• TiO2 nanomaterial as sensor for monitoring
soil condition, pesticides and crop growth
Renewable Energy • Carbon nanomaterial for direct conversion of [1, 37, 101]
sunlight into electricity
• Graphene used as metal-free catalyst in fuel
cells
• Metal–organic frameworks for hydrogen
storage
Sensor • Metal oxide nanomaterials for various [5, 11, 49]
sensor applications, such as gas sensor,
chemical oxygen demand (COD) sensor, and
biosensor
5 Conclusion
Today, nanomaterials have become one of the most focused research areas due to
their rapid development and their great potential for commercial purposes. The recent
advances in engineered nanomaterials have opened up new opportunities in diverse
industrial applications, ranging from biotechnology and biomedical to electronics
and energy storage applications. Despite the superior properties of nanomaterials,
the toxicity and potential associated risks of nanomaterials need to be addressed
and regulated satisfactorily before the complete realisation of nanotechnology in
industrial applications. Until now, there is a lack of standardised procedures to eval-
uate the safety and impact of nanomaterials on the environment. More research and
Table 5 Possible risks and toxic effects of nanomaterials

Nanomaterials Possible risks and toxic effects References
CNT • Pulmonary inflammation [9, 82]
Fullerene • Granulomas
• Fibrosis
• Genotoxicity
• Lung cancer
Al2 O3 • Oxidative stress [4, 24]
CuO • Genotoxicity
• Skin penetration
TiO2 • Malfunction of organ, such as liver, kidney, spleen, lung and
ZnO brain
Gold • Distribution into other organs, such as central nervous system [16, 58]
efforts are required to minimise the potential adverse impact of nanomaterials on the
environment and human health.
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behaviour was subject to the supervision of the γυναικονόμοι
(Commissioners for the oversight of Women). Meursius, Lect.
Attic. II. 5.—Reiske, Index Graec. in Demosthen. p. 66. A
regulation which existed even among the self-indulgent Sybarites.
Athenaeus, Deipnos. bk. XII. p. 521. Later it was poverty
especially that drove free Greek women to take up the calling of
prostitute. Demosthenes, In Neaeram p. 533., παντελῶς ἤδη ἡ
μὲν τῶν πορνῶν ἐργασία ἥξει εἰς τὰς τῶν πολιτίδων θυγατέρας δι’
ἀπορίαν, ὅσαι ἂν μὴ δύνωνται ἐκδοθῆναι. (Completely after a
while will the trade of prostitutes come to be the occupation of
the daughters of our fellow-citizenesses through poverty, that will
force all to it who cannot get a dower).
130 Lysias, Orat. I. in Theomnestum.
131 Suidas, δ ι ά γ ρ α μ μ α· τὸ μίσθωμα· διέγραφον δὲ οἱ
ἀγορανόμοι, ὅσον ἔδει λαμβάνειν τὴν ἑταίραν ἑκάστην—
μ ί σ θ ω μ α· ὁ μισθὸς ὁ ἑταιρικὸς. (“Scale”: the fee; for the
Market-Commissioners fixed the scale, how much each hetaera
was to receive.—“fee”: the pay of a hetaera).
132 Hesychius, s. v. τριαντοπόρνη· λαμβάνουσα τριᾶντα, ὅ ἐστι
λεπτὰ ἓν εἴκοσι. (under the word τριαντοπόρνη: girl who receives
a trias, which is twenty one lepta).
133 Suidas, s. v. χαλκιδῖτις. παρὰ Ἰωσήπῳ ἡ πόρνη, ἀπὸ τῆς
εὐτελείας τοῦ διδομένου νομίσματος. (under the word χαλκιδῖτις:
in Josephus = prostitute, from the smallness of the coin given.—
Eustathius, on Homer, II. bk. XXIII., p. 1329., Od. bk. X., p. 777.
134 Aristophanes, Thesmoph. 1207., δώσεις οὖν δραχμήν. (you
will give a drachma then).
135 Pollux, Onomast. IX. 59., οὔ φησιν εἶναι τῶν ἑταιρῶν τὰς
μέσας Σ τ α τ η ρ ι α ί α ς. (he denies that of the hetaerae the
middling ones were the Stater-girls).
136 Athenaeus, XII. p. 547., states it of the Peripatetic
philosopher Lycon: καὶ πόσον ἑκάστη τῶν ἑταιρουσῶν ἐπράττετο
μίσθωμα, (and how much pay each of the hetaerae-girls
charged).
137 Athenaeus, Deipnos. bk. XIII. chs. 44, 45.
138 Horace, Epist. I. 17. 36.—Aulus Gellius, Noct. Attic. bk. I.
ch. 8. Comp. above p. 63. note 1.
139 Aeschines, Orat. in Timarch. p. 134. ed. Reisk.,
Ἀποθαυμάζει γὰρ, εἰ μὴ πάντες μέμνησθ’, ὅ τ ι κ α θ ’ ἕ κ α σ τ ο ν
ἐ ν ι α υ τ ὸ ν ἡ β ο υ λ ὴ π ω λ ε ῖ τ ὸ π ο ρ ν ι κ ὸ ν τ έ λ ο ς· καὶ
τοὺς πριαμένους τὸ τέλος τοῦτο οὐκ εἰκάζειν, ἀλλ’ ἀκριβῶς εἰδέναι
τοὺς ταύτῃ χρωμένους τῇ ἐργασίᾳ· ὁπότε οὖν δὴ τετόλμηκα
ἀντιγράψασθαι, πεπορνευμένῳ Τιμάρχῳ μὴ ἐξεῖναι δημηγορεῖν,
ἀπαιτεῖν φησὶ τὴν πρᾶξιν αὐτὴν οὐκ αἰτίαν κατηγόρου, ἀλλὰ
μαρτυρίαν τελώνου τοῦ παρὰ Τιμάρχου τοῦτο
ἐ κ λ έ ξ α ν τ ο ς τ ὸ τ έ λ ο ς· ἀλλὰ τοὺς τόπους ἐπερωτήσει ὅπου
ἐκαθέζετο, καὶ τοὺς τελώνας, εἰ πώποτε παρ’ αὐτοῦ π ο ρ ν ι κ ὸ ν
τ έ λ ο ς εἰλήφασιν. (He expresses extreme surprise, though
possibly you don’t all remember, at the fact that every year the
senate sells the lease of the prostitution-tax; and that the
purchasers do not conjecture, but know precisely, those who
practise this calling. So when I have the audacity to counter-
plead, that Timarchus as having exercised the trade of
prostitution is not competent to address the people, he does not
deny the fact charged against his client by the accuser, but says,
‘I demand the evidence of any tax-collector who collected this tax
from Timarchus.’ ... but he will cross-examine as to the localities
where he was established in the business, and will question the
collectors as to whether they have ever levied prostitution-tax
upon him).
This passage shows at the same time in the clearest way that
Schneider is wrong, when in his Lexicon he explains
πορνοτελώνης, occurring in Pollux. Onomast. VII. 202., IX. 29., as
meaning a privileged or licenced whore-master, paying a duty to
the magistrates on his trade. Besides, anything like a sanitary
police supervision on the part of the Agoranomi at this period is
of course out of the question. For the word ἀσφαλῶς (safely) in
the fragment of Eubulus, (Athenaeus bk. XIII. p. 568), where it is
said of the brothel-girls:
παρ’ ὧν βεβαίως ἀ σ φ α λ ῶ ς τ’ ἔξεστί σοι
μικροῦ πριάσθαι κέρματος τὴν ἡδονήν
(from whom surely and safely you may buy your pleasure for a
small coin), admits of an easy explanation, if we consider that
these common women are contrasted here not with the hetaerae
but with the free women of the city, illicit intercourse with whom
was always dangerous for the voluptuary, being punished as rape
or adultery. The most telling proof is afforded by the passage of
Diogenes Laertius, bk. VI. ch. 4., where he says: “When
Antisthenes saw a man accused of adultery, he said to him,
Unhappy man, what serious risk you might have avoided for an
obol! (ὦ δυστυχὴς, πηλίκον κίνδυνον ὀβολοῦ διαφυγεῖν εδύνασο).
Also the passage of Xenarchus, (Athenaeus, bk. XIII. p. 569.), is
pertinent, where it is said, καὶ τῶν δ’ ἑκάστην ἐστὶν ἀδεῶς,
εὐτελῶς, (and of the women each can be enjoyed without fear,
cheaply). Hence too the verses of Menander (Lucian, Amor. 33.)
should read,
καὶ φαρμακεῖαι, καὶ νόσων χαλεπωτάτη
φθόνος, μεθ’ οὗ ζῇ πάντα τὸν βίον γυνὴ
(and medicines, and hardest of diseases—envy, wherewith a
woman dwells all her life long) and not, as the received text has
it,
καὶ φαρμακεῖα, καὶ νόσοι· χαλεπώτατος
φθόνος.
(and medicine, and disease; hardest is envy).
140 Comp. above p. 70. note 2. Harpocration, Lexicon X.
rhetor.—Eustathius, Comment. on Homer’s Iliad XIX. 282., p.
1185., Quod auro gaudeat Venus, de qua est in fabula, ille
quoque manifestum facit, qui tradit: Solonem Veneris vulgaris
templum dedicasse e mulierum quaestu, quas coemtas
prostituerat in cellis, in adolescentum gratiam, (That Venus, of
whom is question in the tale, rejoices in gold, is manifest from the
historian who relates, how Solon dedicated a temple of the
Common (Pandemian) Venus from the gains of the women that
he had bought and established in chambers as prostitutes, to
gratify the young men). Comp. Boeckh, Corp. Inscript. I. p. 470.
141 How clean and neat they were can be gathered from the
fact that a certain Phanostrata got the sobriquet of Phtheiropyle
(doorlouser), ἐπειδήπερ ἐπὶ τῆς θύρας ἑστῶσα ἐφθειρίζετο,
(because she used to stand at the door and pick the lice off her).
142 Athenaeus, Deipnos. bk. XIII. ch. 37. Comp. Palmerius,
Exercitat. p. 523.
143 Athenaeus, Deipnos. bk. XIII. ch. 27.—Suidas, s. v.
χαμαιτύπη· ἡ πόρνη, ἀπὸ τοῦ χαμαὶ κειμένη ὀχεύεσθαι, (under
the word χαμαιτύπη: harlot, from her copulating lying on the
ground).
144 Here they reckoned “Money for house-room”, ἐνοίκιον for
στεγανόμιον (Pollux, Onomast. I. 75.), the same in fact as the
pretium mansionis (price of house-room) of the Romans in their
inns. Comp. Casaubon, on Athenaeus I. ch. 14.
145 Bergler, on Alciphron VI. p. 25.
146 Zell, “Ferienschriften,” (Holiday Papers), First Series.
Freiburg 1826. No. 1., “Die Wirthshäuser der Alten,” (Inns of the
Ancients), pp. 3-53.
147 Athenaeus, Deipnosoph. bk. XIII. p. 567., Σὺ δὲ ὦ
Σοφιστὰ, ἐν τοῖς καπηλείοις συναναφύρῃ οὐ μετὰ ἑταίρων, ἀλλὰ
μετὰ ἑταιρῶν, μ α σ τ ρ ο π ε υ ο ύ σ α ς περὶ ταυτὸν οὐκ ὀλίγας
ἔχων. (But you, Sophist, wallow in the inns not with companions
but with female-companions (hetaerae), keeping a host of women
pandaring for your pleasure).
148 Lysistrat. 467.
149 Athenaeus, Deipnos. bk. XIII. p. 567.
150 Areopagit. p. 350. ed. Wolf.—Athenaeus, Deipnos. bk. XIII.
p. 567., ἐν καπηλείῳ δὲ φαγεῖν ἢ πινεῖν οὐδεὶς οὐδ’ ἂν οἰκέτης
ἐτόλμησεν. (But no one, not even a servant, would have dared to
eat or drink in an inn).
151 This can best be seen from the Speech of Demosthenes, In
Neaeram. ed. H. Wolf. Bâle 1572. fol., p. 519., where we read as
follows in the Latin translation: Iam peregrinam esse Neaeram, id
vobis ab ipso primordio demonstrabo. Septem puellas ab ipsa
infantia emit Nicareta, Charisii Elei liberta, Hippiae coqui eius uxor,
gnara et perita perspiciendae venustae parvulorum naturae et eos
sollerter educandi instituendique scia, ut quae artem eam
exerceret, atque ex ea re victum collegisset, filiarum autem eas
nomine compellavit, ut quam maximas ab iis, qui earum
consuetudinem, tanquam ingenuarum appetebant, mercedes
exigeret, posteaquam autem florem aetatis earum magno cum
quaestu prostituit: uno, ut dicam, fasce, corpora etiam earum,
cum septem essent, vendidit: Antiae, Stratolae, Aristoclae,
Metanirae, Philae, Isthmiadis et Neaerae. Quam igitur
unusquisque earum emerit, et ut ab iis qui eos a Nicareta
emerant, libertate donatae sint. (That Neaera was a foreigner by
birth, I will make it my first business to prove. Seven girls were
bought in earliest childhood by Nicareta, freed-woman of
Charisius of Elis, wife of his cook Nicias,—a knowing woman,
astute at noting the promise of beauty in children and skilful in
their clever upbringing and instruction, as might be expected of
one who practised that art as a profession and had made her
living thereby. Her daughters however she called them, that she
might demand the greater fees from such as sought to enjoy
their favours, as being free-born maidens. Then when they had
reached the flower of their age, she prostituted them with great
profit to herself, selling their persons, seven as they were, in one
bundle, so to express it,—whose names were Antia, Stratole,
Aristoclea, Metanira, Phile, Isthmias, and Neaera. Thus each of
them found a purchaser, and on such conditions that they were
presented with their freedom by the lovers who had bought them
from Nicareta).
152 Comp. the list, compiled chiefly from Athenaeus, of the
most renowned hetaerae in Musonius Philosophus, “De luxu
Graecorum” ch. XII. in Gronovius’ Thesaurus Antiq. Graecor. vol.
VIII. pp. 2516 sqq.
153 Athenaeus, Deipnos. bk. XIII. p. 577. μεταβάλλουσαι γὰρ
τοιαῦται εἰς τὸ σῶφρον, τῶν ἐπὶ τούτῳ σεμνυνομένων εἰσὶ
βελτίους. (For women of this class when they change and adopt
an honest life, are of better character than those who pride
themselves on this account).
154 Athenaeus, Deipnos. bk. XIII. p. 569., Καὶ Ἀσπασία δὲ ἡ
Σωκρατικὴ ἐνεπορεύετο πλήθη καλῶν γυναικῶν καὶ ἐπλήθυνεν
ἀπὸ τῶν ταύτης ἑταιρίδων ἡ Ἑλλὰς. (And Aspasia too, the
preceptress of Socrates, used to import multitudes of handsome
women, and Greece was filled with her hetaerae). Even the King
of the Sidonians, Strato, had his wants supplied from there.
Athenaeus, bk. XII. P. 531.
155 Hesychius, s. v. π έ ζ α ς μ ο ί χ ο υ ς· οὕτως ἐκάλουν τὰς
μισθαρνούσας ἑταίρας χωρὶς ὀργάνου. (under the expression
πέζας μοίχους,—common, prose fornicators: this was the name
given to hetaerae who were prostitutes without playing any
instrument). Comp. Photius, Lexicon, under same word.—
Procopius Anecdot. p. 41.—Cuperi Observat I. 16. p. 116.—
Casaubon, on Sueton. Nero. ch. 27.
156 Athenaeus, Deipnos., bk. XIII. p. 582.
157 Chares took flute-players, singing-girls and πέζαι ἑταίραι
with him, according to Athenaeus, Deipnos., bk. XII. p. 532.
158 Athenaeus, Deipnos., bk. XIII. p. 573. When Darius was
marching to take the field against Alexander, he had 350
παλλακὰς (concubines) in his train (Athenaeus, XIII. p. 557.), of
whom 329 understood music. (ibid. p. 608).
159 “Vermischte Schriften,” (Miscellaneous Writings), Vol. IV.
pp. 311 sqq.
160 Athenaeus, Deipnos., bk. XII. p. 533. Θεμιστοκλῆς δ’, οὔπω
Ἀθηναίων μεθυσκομένων, ο ὐ δ ’ ἑ τ α ί ρ α ι ς χ ρ ω μ έ ν ω ν,
ἐκφανῶς τέθριππον ζεύξας ἑταιρίδων κ. τ. λ. (But Themistocles,
at a period when Athenians were not yet in the habit of getting
drunk, nor frequenting harlots, openly put in harness a four-horse
team of hetaerae, etc.).
161 Athenaeus, Deipnos., bk. XII. p. 532.
162 Comp. Bernhardy, “Grundiss der Griechischen Literatur,”
(First Sketch of Greek Literature), Pt. I. p. 40.
163 Hetaerae were bound by law to wear gay, party-coloured
clothes, Suidas, s. v. ἑταιρῶν ἄνθινον. Νόμος Ἀθήνησι, τὰς
ἑταίρας ἄνθινα φέρειν· (under the expression ἑταιρῶν ἄνθινον—
flowered robe of hetaerae: it was a law at Athens that the
hetaerae must wear flowered robes); at Locri Zaleucus prescribed
the same costume, Suidas, s. v. Ζάλευκος (under the word
Zaleucus); it was also law among the Syracusans, Athenaeus,
Deipnos., bk. XII. ch. 4. Comp. Petit, “Legg. Attic.,” (Laws of
Athens), p. 476. The same is stated of the Lacedaemonians by
Clemens Alexandrinus, Paedog., bk. II. ch. 10. Comp. Wesseling,
on Diodorus Sic., IV. 4.—Sidon. Apoll., Epist., XX. 3. Iamblichus,
De Vita Pythagor., ch. 31.—A. Borremans. Var. Lect., ch. 10. p. 94.
—Artemidorus, Oneirocrit., bk. II. ch. 3.
164 Aulus Gellius, Noct. Attic., bk. I. ch. 6.
165 Aulus Gellius, Noct. Attic., bk. X. ch. 23.
166 Livy, Hist. I. 4., II. 18.
167 Cicero, Orat. pro Coelio, ch. 20., Si quis est, qui etiam
meretriciis amoribus interdictum iuventuti putet, est ille quidem
valde severus, negare non possum: sed abhorret non modo ab
huius seculi licentia, verum etiam a maiorum consuetudine atque
concessis. Quando enim factum non est? quando reprehensum,
quando non permissum? (If any is found to think that young men
should be forbidden to indulge simple intrigues with harlots, I can
only say he is an exceedingly stern moralist, I cannot deny he is
right in the abstract. But his view is opposed not merely to the
free habits of the present age, but also to the usage and
permitted licence of our fathers? When, I ask, has this not been
done? when rebuked, when not allowed?
Horace, Sat., bk. I. 2. vv. 31-35.,
Quidam notus homo, cum exiret fornice: Macte
Virtute esto, inquit sententia dia Catonis.
Nam simul ac venas inflavit tetra libido,
Huc iuvenes aequum est descendere; non alienas
Permolere uxores.
(When a certain well-known citizen came out of a brothel,
“Bravo! go on and prosper!” was the word of Cato, great and
wise. For when fierce desire has swollen the veins, right it is that
young men should resort hither, and not grind their neighbours’
wives),—a passage that involuntarily reminds us of the fragment
of Philemon quoted above.
168 They had indiscriminate intercourse with the women, who
did not hold it disgraceful to appear half-naked (γυμναὶ) and to
practise both among themselves and in common with the men
gymnastic exercises, and this in the presence of spectators, even
in that of young men. These were actually enjoined to practise
copulation, and to have the whole body polished and freed from
hair by professional male artistes). Athenaeus, Deipnos., bk. XII.
pp. 517, 518.
169 The law was in the first instance made only with a view to
the future, in order to ensure the state a sufficiently large number
of citizens; Sozomenes, Histor. Eccles., I. 9., Vetus lex fuit apud
Romanos, quae vetabat coelibes ab anno aetatis quinto et
vigesimo pari iure essent cum maritis.—Tulerant hanc legem
veteres Romani, cum sperarent, futurum hac ratione, ut urbs
Roma et reliquae provinciae imperii Romani hominum multitudine
abundarent. (There was an old law among the Romans, which
forbad bachelors after the age of 25 to enjoy equal political rights
with married men.—The old Romans had passed this law in the
hopes that in this way the city of Rome, and the provinces of the
Roman empire as well, might be ensured an abundant
population). For the same reason Caesar, after the African War
when the city was much depopulated through the great number
of the slain, established prizes for such citizens as had the most
children).—Dio Cassius, Bk. XLIII. 226.—All this availed little. The
Censors Camillus and Posthumius were soon obliged to introduce
a tax on celibacy,—the “old-bachelors’ tax” (Aes uxorium).—
Festus, p. 161., L. Valerius Maximus, bk. II. ch. 9.—Augustus
endeavoured in vain by the Lex Julia de maritandis ordinibus
(Julian Law concerning marriage in the different classes) to
counteract the tendency; till the Lex Papia Poppaea originating
with the Senate (B.C. 9.) was ratified; (Tacitus, Annal. III. 25.—
Dio Cassius, (LIV. 16., LVI. 10.), though even this did not long
remain in force. Comp. Lipsius, Excurs. ad Tacit. Annal. III. 25.—
Heineccius, Antiquit. Roman. Jurispr. (Antiquities of Roman Law),
I. 25. 6. p. 209.—Hugo, “Geschichte des römischen Rechts,”
(History of Roman Law), I. p. 237., II. p. 861.
170 Instit Divin., I. 20. 6., Flora cum magnas opes ex arte
meretricia quaesivisset, populum scripsit haeredem, certamque
pecuniam reliquit, cuius ex annuo foenere suus natalis dies
celebraretur editione Ludorum, quos appelant Floralia. (Flora
having acquired great riches by the harlot’s calling made the
people her heir, and left a certain sum of money, the interest of
which was to be applied to celebrating her birth-day by the
exhibition of the games which are called Floralia.—I. 20. 10.,
Celebrantur cum omni lascivia. Nam praeter verborum licentiam,
quibus obscoenitas omnis effunditur, exuuntur etiam vestibus
populo flagitante meretrices, quae tunc mimarum funguntur
officio et in conspectu populi, usque ad satietatem impudicorum
hominum cum pudendis motibus detinentur. (They are solemnized
with every form of licentiousness. For over and above the
looseness of speech that pours forth every obscenity, harlots strip
themselves of their clothing at the importunities of the mob, and
then act as mimes,—pantomimic actors,—and in full view of the
crowd indulge in indecent posturings, till their shameless
audience is satisfied). It may be noted that scarcely 40 years
after the introduction of the Floralia, P. Scipio Africanus in his
Speech in defence of Tib. Asellus could say: Si nequitiam
defendere vis, licet: sed tu in uno scorto maiorem pecuniam
absumsisti, quam quanti omne instrumentum fundi Sabini in
censum dedicavisti. Ni hoc ita est: qui spondet mille nummum?
Sed tu plus tertia parte pecuniae perdidisti atque absumsisti in
flagitiis. (If you choose to defend your profligacy, well and good!
but as a matter of fact you have wasted on one strumpet more
money than the total value, as you declared it to the Census
commissioners, of all the plenishing of your Sabine farm. If you
deny my assertion, I ask who dare wager a thousand sesterces
on its untruth? You have squandered more than a third of the
property you inherited from your father, and thrown it away in
debauchery).—Gellius, Noct. Attic., VII. 11.—As not only did
hetaerae build a temple to Aphrodité, but a similar one was also
erected in their honour at Abydos (Athenaeus, XIII. p. 573.), and
Phryné wished to rebuild Thebes at her own cost, on the
condition that an inscription should be set up to the effect,
“Alexander destroyed it; Phryné the hetaera restored it”, there is
not the slightest reason for counting the above story as merely
one of the ridiculous inventions common in the Fathers.
171 Valerius Maximus, II. 10. 8.—Seneca, Epist 97.—Martial,
Epigr. I. 1 and 36.
172 Read the Speech of Cato in Livy, Hist., bk. XXXIV. 4., where
the following passage is found amongst others: Haec ego, quo
melior lactiorque in dies fortuna rei publicae est, imperiumque
crescit, et iam in Graeciam Asiamque transcendimus, omnibus
libidinum illecebris repletas, et regias etiam attrectamus gazas, eo
plus horreo, ne illae magis res nos ceperint, quam nos illas. (All
these changes, as day by day the fortune of the State is higher
and more prosperous and her Empire grows greater, and our
conquests extend over Greece and Asia, lands replete with every
allurement of the senses, and we appropriate treasures that may
well be called royal,—all this I dread the more from my fear that
such high fortune may rather master us than we master it).
Scarcely 10 years later the same author says (bk. XXXIX. 6.):
Luxuriae enim peregrinae origo ab exercitu Asiatico invecta in
urbem est. (For the beginnings of foreign luxury were brought
into the city by the Asiatic army). Juvenal, Sat. VI. 299.:
Prima peregrinos obscoena pecunia mores
Intulit et turpi fregerunt secula luxu
Divitiae molles.
(Foul money it was that first brought in foreign manners;
wealth weakened and broke down the vigour of the age with
base luxury). But pre-eminently applicable are the following
words (III. 60 sqq.) of the same poet:
Non possum ferre, Quirites!
Graecam urbem, quamvis quota portio faecis Achaeae?
Iam pridem Syrus in Tiberim defluxit Orontes,
Et linguam et mores et cum tibicine chordas
Obliquas, nec non gentilia tympana secum
Vexit et ad Circum iustas prostare puellas.
(I cannot bear, Quirites, to see Rome a Greek city,—and yet
how mere a fraction of the whole corruption is found in these
dregs of Achaea? Long since has the Syrian Orontes flowed into
the Tiber, and brought along with it the Syrian tongue and
manners and cross-stringed harp—and harper, and exotic
timbrels, and girls bidden stand for hire at the Circus).
173 The usual derivation of the word lupanar (brothel) is from
Lupa, the wife of Faustulus (Livy, I. 4.); thus Lactantius, Divin.
Instit., bk. I. 20 sqq., says, fuit enim Faustuli uxor et, propter
vulgati corporis vilitatem, Lupa inter pastores, id est meretrix,
nuncupata est, unde etiam lupanar dicitur. (For she was the wife
of Faustulus, and because of the easy rate at which her person
was held at the disposal of all, was called among the shepherds
Lupa, (she-wolf), that is harlot, whence also Lupanar—a brothel—
is so called). Comp. Isidore, bk. XVIII. etymol. 42. Jerome, in
Eusebius’ Chronicle. However it is a fruitless effort to try and
connect lupar and lupanar with lupus, the wolf. If we are not
mistaken, the root-word is the Greek λῦμα, filth, and so,
shameless person; from this comes lupa, just as from λῦμαρ was
formed lupar, the oldest form for lupanar, which has maintained
itself in the adjective luparius, and in lupariae in Rufus and A.
Victor as synonyms of lupanar. Indeed Lactantius speaks of the
hetaerae Leaena and Cedrenus as γυναῖκας λυκαίνας.
174 The common derivation of fornix (brothel) is from furnus or
fornax (an oven), or else makes it identical with fornix, an
archway. Isidore, bk. X. 110., writes: a fornicatrix is one whose
person is public and common. These women used to lie under
archways, and such places are called fornices, whence also
fornicariae (whores). Granted that the women used to resort in
numbers to the arches in the town-walls through which sorties
were made (Livy, XXXVI. 23., XLIV. 11.), yet several passages in
ancient authors prove clearly that the fornices were houses
(especially Petronius, Satir. 7., Martial XI. 62.). The ancient
Glosses have:—“fornicaria”: πορνὴ ἀπὸ καμάρας ᾗ ἵστανται, (a
harlot, from the chamber where they take their stand). But in all
probability the brothels took their name from the circumstance of
their being situated in the neighbourhood of the town-wall and its
arches; for which reason the women were also called
Summoenianae (women of the Summoenium,—district under the
walls). Martial, XI. 62., III. 82., I. 35., XII. 32. Or should we say
that fornix was formed from πορνικὸν?
175 Adler, “Beschreibung der Stadt Rom,” (Description of the
City of Rome), pp. 144 sqq.
176 Martial, bk. VII. Epigr. 30., bk. X. Epigr. 94.
177 Martial, bk. II. Epigr. 17.
178 Hence Martial’s expression (XII. 18.), clamosa Subura (the
clamorous Subura).
179 Horace, Satir. I. 2. 30., Contra alius nullam nisi olenti in
fornice stantem. (On the other hand another man cares for no
woman but such as stand in the foul-smelling brothel).—Priapeia,
Quilibet huc, licebit, intret
Nigra fornicis oblitus favilla.
(All that please, none will say nay, may enter here, smeared
with the black spot of the brothel).—Prudentius, Contra
Symmachum, bk. II., spurcam redolente fornice cellam, (a filthy
chamber in the stinking brothel).—Seneca, Controv., I. 2., Redoles
adhuc fuliginem fornicis. (You reek still of the soot of the brothel).
—Juvenal, Sat VI. 130., says of the Empress Messalina:
Obscurisque genis turpis, fumoque lucernae
Foeda lupanaris tulit ad pulvinar odorem.
(And disfigured and dim-eyed, fouled with the smoke of the
lamp, she bore back the stink of the brothel to the imperial
couch).
180 Juvenal, Sat. VI. 122., 127.—Petronius, Sat. 8.—Lipsius,
Saturn. I. 14. Hence Cella and Cellae (chambers) are constantly
used in the sense of lupanar (brothel).
181 Martial, bk. XI. 46., Intrasti quoties inscripta limina cellae,
(As oft as you have crossed the thresholds of a “chamber” with
inscription over). Seneca, Controv., bk. I. 2., Deducta es in
lupanar, accepisti locum, pretium constitutum est, titulus
inscriptus est, (You were taken away to a brothel, you received
your stand, your price was fixed, your name written up).—
Meretrix vocata es, in communi loco stetisti, superpositus est
cellae tuae titulus, venientes recepisti, (You were called a harlot,
you took your stand in a public brothel, your name-ticket was put
up above your chamber, you received such as came).—Nomen
tuum pedendit in fronte, pretia stupri accepisti, et manus, quae
diis datura erat sacra, capturas tulit, (Your name hung on your
door, you took the price of fornication, and your hand, that was
meant to offer sacred gifts to the gods, held the fees). This last
passage interpreters have wished to understand as if the name-
ticket were fastened on the woman’s forehead; but, not to
mention that in this case tibi would have to be read for tuum, it is
a perfectly well known fact that frons (front, forehead) was used
in Latin for the face of a door (Ovid, Fasti, I. 135., Omnis habet
geminas, hinc atque hinc, ianua frontes, (Every door has two
faces, inside and out). Seneca says pependit (it hung there), and
afterwards is promoted onto the list of the Leno (Brothel-keeper)!
182 This is seen most clearly from the following passage in the
“Vita Apollonii Tyrii”, (Life of Apollonius of Tyre), p. 695., Puella
ait, prosternens se ad pedes eius: miserere, domine, virginitatis
meae, ne prostituas hoc corpus sub tam turpi titulo. Leno vocavit
villicum puellarum et ait, ancilla, quae praesens est et exornetur
diligenter et scribatur et titulus, quicunque Tarsiam deviolaverit,
mediam liberam dabit: postea ad singulos solidos populo patebit.
(Says the girl, throwing herself at his feet: “Sir! have pity on my
maidenhood, and do not prostitute this fair body under so ugly a
name.” The Brothel-keeper (Leno) called the Superintendent
(villicus) of the girls and says, “Let the maid here present be
decked out with every care, and a name-ticket written for her;
the man that takes Tarsia’s virginity shall pay half a “libera” (?),
afterwards she shall be at the disposal of all comers at a “solidus”
or “aureus”, gold coin worth 25 denarii, say 20 shillings—each).
So we see even in the name there prevailed a certain luxury; and
a young girl of handsome person would fain have a handsome-
sounding name to match.
183 Petronius Satir. 20.—Barth, on Claudian, note 1173.—
Martial, XIV. 148., 152.—Juvenal, VI. 194. From this the women
themselves were often called lodices meretrices (blanket harlots)
in contradistinction to the Street-walkers.
184 Martial, XIV. 39-42. XI. 105.—Apuleius, Metam., V. p. 162.
—Horace, Satir. II. 7. v. 48.—Juvenal, Sat. VI. 131.—Tertullian, Ad
Uxor., II. 6., Dei ancilla in laribus alienis—et procedet de ianua
laureata et lucernata, ut de novo consistorio libidinum
publicarum, (The handmaid of God in strange dwellings,—and she
shall go forth from the door that is laurel-decked and lamp-lit, as
it were from a new assembly-hall of public lusts), where the
expression consistorium libidinum (assembly-hall of lusts) for
brothel is noticeable.
185 Petronius, Satir. 95., Vos me hercule ne mercedem cellae
daretis, (Ye would not, by heavens, give even the hire of the
chamber). The fee amounted usually to an As. Petronius, Satir. 8.,
Iam pro cella meretrix assem exegerat, (Already had the harlot
demanded the As for the chamber). Martial, I. 104., Constat et
asse Venus, (And an As is the recognised price of Love). II. 53., Si
plebeia Venus gemino tibi vincitur asse, (If you win for yourself a
base-born Love for a couple of Asses). Comp. the inscription in
Gruter, “Inscript. antiq. totius orbis Romani”, (Ancient Inscriptions
of the whole Roman world). Amsterdam 1616., No. DCLII. 1.—
Heinsius on Ovid, Remedium Amoris 407.
186 Seneca, Controv. I. 2., Nuda in litore stetit ad fastidium
emptoris, omnes partes corporis et inspectae et contrectatae
sunt. Vultis auctionis exitum audire? Vendit pirata, emit leno.—Ita
raptae pepercere piratae, ut lenoni venderetur: sic emit leno, ut
prostituerit. (Naked she stood on the shore at the pleasure of the
purchaser; every part of her body was examined and felt. Would
you hear the result of the sale? The pirate sold, the pandar
bought.—For this the pirates spared their captive, that she might
be sold to a pandar; for this the pandar bought her, that he might
employ her as a prostitute).—Quintilian, Declam. III., Leno etiam
servis excipitur, fortasse hac lege captivos vendes, (A pandar too
is supplied with slaves; perhaps in this way you will sell your
captives).—Lex § 1. de in ius vocando: Prostituta contra legem
venditionis venditorem habet patronum, si hac lege venierat, ut,
si prostituta esset, fieret libera, (Law § 1. Of the right of appeal:
A female slave prostituted contrary to the condition of sale has
the seller for patron, if she was sold on this condition, that,
should she be prostituted, she should become free). These sales
took place in the Subura. Martial, VI. 66.
187 Seneca, Controv., I. 2., Stetisti cum meretricibus, stetisti sic
ornata ut populo placere posses, ea veste quam leno dederat,
(You stood with the harlots, you stood decked out so as to please
the public, wearing the dress that the leno had given you). The
dress of the public women was always gay-coloured and very
bold; they had to wear the male toga (gown). Cicero, Philipp. II.,
Sompsisti virilem togam, quam statim muliebrem reddidisti. Primo
vulgare scortum: certa flagitii merces, nec ea parva. (You
assumed the man’s toga, which straightway you made a
woman’s. First a common strumpet; sure was the profit of your
shame, and not small either.)—Tibullus, IV. 10. Martial, II. 30.
Hence public women were also called togatae (wearing the toga
or man’s gown). Martial, VI. 64. Horace, Sat I. 2. 63., Quid
interest in matrona, ancilla, peccesque togata? (What difference
does it make whether it is with a married woman, or a serving-
maid, or a toga’d harlot (togata), that you offend?) Ibidem 80-
83.,
Nec magis huic inter niveos viridesque lapillos
(Sit licet hoc, Cerinthe, tuum,) tenerum est femur aut crus
Rectius; atque etiam melius persaepe togatae est.
(Nor amidst all her showy gems and green jewels is her thigh
more soft (though it is your belief, Cerinthus, that it is) or her leg
straighter; nay! very often that of the toga’d harlot is the better
limb).
It is well-known what trouble Bentley gave himself to explain
this locus implicatissimus (most intricate passage), as he calls it,
because he supposed the common reading to be corrupt and
accordingly altered the text, all to bring out a comparison of
Cerinthus’ thigh—a comparison that never was in Horace’s mind
at all. Several years ago in our Work, “De Sexuali Organismorum
Fabrica,” (On the Sexual Fabric of Organisms), Spec. I., Halle
1832. large 8vo., p. 61., we disentangled the matter and showed
exactly how it stood, proving that the “Sit licet hoc, Cerinthe,
tuum” (Though this be your (opinion), Cerinthus) must be taken
as a parenthesis, consequently that the usual reading is the right
one. But as the book would seem to have come into few hands,
and least of all into those of Philologists, we may be allowed to
take this opportunity of once more developing our view. The
comparison is between the matron and the “togata”, and it is
maintained that the matron, i. e. the noble Roman lady,
possesses for all her jewelry neither a softer thigh nor a straighter
leg than the “togata”, the girl of common stamp; that the latter in
fact can often make a better show of both, even though her leg is
as crooked as the matron’s is,—a peculiarity that every female leg
has, because in a woman the knee projects more forwards.
Aristotle, Hist. Anim., IV. 11. 6., even in his time notes this fact:
τὸ θῆλυ τῶν ἀῤῥένων καὶ γονυκροτώτερον. (the female is more
knock-kneed also than the male). Comp. same author’s
Physiognom., 3. 5. 6. Adamant., Physiognom., II. 107. ed. Sylb.
Polemo, Physiognom., p. 179. Anatomical investigation moreover
proves this most clearly. But as Cerinthus seems to be ignorant of
it, in spite of its being a well known Act, he lets himself be
deluded by the outward magnificence of attire and distinguished
birth, and believes the matron to be the better built, and it is for
this mistake the poet taunts him. Horace in this passage is merely
giving a commentary on v. 63 above. Now compare what Plautus,
Mostell., I. 3. 13, makes Scopha say to Philemation, Non vestem
amatores mulieris amant, sed vestis fartum (’Tis not the dress of
a woman that lovers love, but the lining of the dress); also
Martial, III. Epigr. 33.; and the folly of Cerinthus is made quite
obvious. The phrase—Sit licet hoc tuum (Though this be yours) in
the sense, “though you look at it this way, take the dazzle of
jewels as the criterion of a woman’s beauty”, surely needs no
further confirmation.
188 Seneca, Controv., I. 2., Da mihi lenonis rationes; captura
conveniet. (Give me the brothel-keeper’s accounts; the fee will
suit).
189 Seneca, Controv., I. 2., Deducta es in lupanar, accepisti
locum, pretium constitutum est. (You were taken to a brothel,
you took your place, your price was fixed). Ovid, Amores, I. 10.,
Stat meretrix cuivis certo mercabilis aere. (There stands the
harlot that any man can buy for a fixed sum). The fee was called
captura (fee) (compare Schulting, on Seneca, loco citato, and
Casaubon on Suetonius, Caligula 40.), quaestus meretricius
(harlot’s hire) (Cicero, Philipp. II. 18.) or simply quaestus (hire);
merces (cost) and pretium stupri (price of fornication); aurum
lustrale (brothel, literally den, money). The women used to
demand its payment. Juvenal, Sat. VI. 125. Excepit blanda
intrantes atque aera poposcit. (Blandly she welcomed her visitors
as they entered and asked for the fee). Hence the expression
“basia meretricum poscinummia” (harlots kisses that ask for
money) in Apuleius, Met., X. p. 248. For the rest prices were very
various among the brothel-harlots as they were with the others.
Comp. Martial, X. 75., IX. 33., III. 54. The lowest fee was one As
or 2 obols (three pence); hence girls of the sort were called by
the Romans also diobolares meretrices (two-obol harlots) (Festus)
or diobolaria scorta (two-obol whores) (Plautus, Poen., I. 2. 58.).
Comp. p. 90 above.
190 Plautus, Trinum., IV. 2. 47., Quae adversum legem accepisti
a plurimis pecuniam. (You who contrary to the regulation
accepted money from a great many men).
191 Hence the women were also called Nonariae (Ninth-hour
women). Persius, Sat. I. 133. The Scholiast observes on the
passage: Nonaria dicta meretrix, quia apud veteres a nona hora
prostabant, ne mane omissa exercitatione illo irent adolescentes.
(A harlot was called “Nonaria”, because in former times they used
to act as prostitutes from the ninth hour only, for fear the young
men should resort thither in the morning to the neglect of their
athletic exercises).
192 Nonius Marcellus, V. § 8., Inter meretricem et prostibulum
hoc interest: quod meretrix honestioris loci est et quaestus: nam
meretrices a merendo dictae sunt, quod copiam sui tantummodo
noctu facerent: prostibula, quod ante stabulum stent quaestus
diurni et nocturni causa. (This is the difference between a
meretrix (harlot) and a prostibulum (common strumpet): a
meretrix is of a more honorable station and calling; for meretrices
were so named a merendo (from earning wages), because they
plied their calling only by night; prostibula, because they stand
before the stabulum (stall, “chamber”) for gain both by day and
night).—Plautus, Cistell. fragm., Adstat ea in via sola: prostibula
sane est. (She stands there in the way alone: surely she is a
prostibula—common whore).
193 Plautus, Poenul., I. 2. 54.,
An te ibi vis inter istas vorsarier
Prosedas, pistorum amicas, reliquias alicarias,
Miseras coeno delibutas, servilicolas, sordidas,
Quae tibi olent stabulum, statumque, sellam et sessibulum
merum,
Quas adeo haud quisquam tetigit, neque duxit domum?
(It is your wish to pass your time there amongst those common
strumpets, bakers’ mistresses, refuse of the spelt-mill girls, drabs
besmeared with filth, slaves’ darlings, squalid creatures that reek
of their stand and trade, of the chair and bare stool, women that
no free man ever touched or took home?) This serves also to
explain the passage in Juvenal, III. 136., Et dubitas alta Chionem
deducere sella. (And you hesitate to hand down Chione from her
high seat).
194 Martial, XI. 45., I. 35. Usually however this appears only to
have been done, when the customer was gratifying unnatural
lusts.
195 Plautus, Asin., IV. 1. 19., In foribus scribat, occupatam esse
se. (Let her write on the door that she is engaged).
196 Martial, XI. 62.,
Quem cum fenestra vidit a Suburana
Obscoena nudum lena fornicem clausit.
(When she saw him from a window in the Subura, the foul
brothel-mistress shut the unoccupied “chamber”).
Juvenal, VI. 121.,
Intravit calidum veteri centone lupanar,
Et cellam vacuam atque suam.
(She entered the brothel cosy with its old patch-work quilt, and
the chamber that was vacant and her own.). Messalina had hired,
we see, a special “chamber” of her own, where she acted as a
prostitute under the name of Lycisca.
197 Juvenal, VI. 127.,
Mox, lenone suas iam dimittente puellas,
Tristis abit—tamen ultima cellam clausit.
(Presently when time is up and the brothel-keeper dismisses his
girls, sadly she takes her departure,—but she was the last to shut
her chamber).
198 III. 65., et ad circum iussas prostare puellas (and girls
bidden stand for hire at the Circus).
199 Of Heliogabalus Lampridius, (Vita Heliog. ch. 26.) relates:
Omnes de circo, de theatro, de stadio—meretrices collegit. (He
collected all the harlots,—from circus, theatre and stadium—race-
course). An old poem (Priapeia, carm. 26,) says:
Deliciae populi, magno notissima circo
Quintia.
(The darling of the people, Quintia, so well known in the Great
Circus). Comp. Buleng. De Circo ch. 56. Supposing this view to be
correct, we might read in the passage of Juvenal, III. 136., as
several Critics do, “alta Chionem deducere cella” (to lead Chione
down from her lofty “chamber”).
200 Already in Livy, II. 18., we read the account: Eo anno
Romae, cum per ludos ab Sabinorum iuventute per lasciviam
scorta raperentur, etc. (That year at Rome, when during the
games harlots were carried off in their wantonness by the youth
of the Sabines, etc.) Plautus, Casin. Prolog., 82-86.; this passage
is repeatedly cited in this connection, but really has only a remote
bearing on the matter. But in confirmation Isidore, XVIII. 42.,
says: Idem vero theatrum idem et prostibulum, eo quod post
ludos exactos meretrices ibi prosternerentur. (But theatre and
brothel were identical, for after the games were over, harlots used
to prostitute themselves there). Comp. Buleng. De Theatro I. 16.
and 49. Lipsius, Elect., I. 11. Of course these statements may
refer equally well to the Floralia or, as Isidore lived so much later,
to the lascivious representations of brothel-life of which Tertullian
tells us. The latter writes, De Spectaculis ch. 17., Ipsa etiam
prostibula, publicae libidinis hostiae, in scena proferantur, plus
miserae in praesentia feminarum, quibus solis latebant: perque
omnis aetatis, omnis dignitatis ora transducuntur, locus, stipes,
elogium, etiam quibus opus est, praedicatur. (Nay, the very
harlots, victims of the public lust, are brought forward on the
stage, more wretched still in the presence of women, who alone
used to be ignorant of such things; and they are discussed by the
lips of every age and every condition, and place, origin, merits,
even what should never be mentioned, are freely spoken of). In
1791 in a public theatre in Paris just such things were
represented as Juvenal in his Sixth Satire speaks of as being
acted at Rome. Gynaeology Pt. III. p. 423. That whores were to
be found in the Theatre as well as in the Circus is shown by
Lampridius, Vita Heliogab., ch. 32., fertur et una die ad omnes
circi et theatri et amphitheatri et omnium urbis locorum
meretrices ingressus. (And access is given on one day to all the
harlots of circus, theatre and amphitheatre and all the places of
the city). Comp. ch. 26., and Abram. on Cicero’s Speech for Milo
ch. 24. p. 177. Perhaps at all these spots “chambers” (cellae)
were put up, to which the word locorum (places) above may very
well refer.
201 Horace, Epist. I. 14. 21.,
Fornix tibi et uncta popina
Incutiunt urbis desiderium, video; et quod
Angulus iste feret piper et thus ocius uva;
Nec vicina subest vinum praebere taberna
Quae possit tibi; nec meretrix tibicina, cuius
Ad strepitum salias terrae gravis.
(The brothel and greasy cookshop make you long for the city, I
can see; and the fact that this little nook (i.e. Horace’s Sabine
farm) will yield the pepper-plant and thyme sooner than the
grape, and no neighbourly tavern is at hand to give you wine, and
no harlot flute-player to whose din you may thump the floor with
your heavy feet). Martial, VII. 60., complains of the great number
of such places. Here and at the money changer’s shops, but
especially the latter, the Procurers were to be found. Plautus,
Trucul. I. 1. 47.,
Nam nusquam alibi si sunt, circum argentarias
Scorti lenones quasi sedent quotidie.
(For if they are nowhere else, at any rate round the banks
harlots and pandars sit as it were daily). Comp. Stockmann “De
Popinis” (Of Cookshops). Leipzig 1805. 8vo.
202 Codex Theodos. bk. IX. tit. VII. 1. p. 60. edit. Ritter.
203 Horace, Epodes, XVII. 20., Amata nautis multum et
institoribus (A woman much loved by sailors and traders).—
Petronius, Satir. 99.—Juvenal, Sat. VIII. 173-175. Seneca,
Controv., I. 3.
204 Columella, Res Rustica, I. ch. 8., Socors et somniculosum
genus id mancipiorum, otiis, campo, circo, theatris, aleae,
popinae, lupanaribus consuetum, nunquam non easdem ineptias
somniat. (That slothful and sleepy tribe of domestic slaves,
habituated to ease, games, circus, theatres, dice, cookshop,
brothels, would ever be dreaming the same sort of follies).
205 Suetonius, Claudius, ch. 40., Nero, ch. 27—Tacitus, Annal.,
XIII. 25.
206 Paulus Diaconus, XIII. 2., Horum mancipes tempore
procedente pistrina publica latrocinia esse fecerunt: cum enim
essent molae in locis subterraneis constitutae, per singula latera
earum domuum tabernas instituentes, meretrices in eis prostare
faciebant, quatenus per eas plurimos deciperent, alios qui pro
pane veniebant, alios qui pro luxuriae turpitudine ibi festinabant.
(The owners of these as time went on turned the public corn-
mills into mischievous frauds. For the mill-stones being fixed in
places underground, they set up stalls on either side of these
chambers and caused harlots to stand for hire in them, so that by
their means they deceived very many,—some that came for
bread, others that hastened thither for the base gratification of
their wantonness).
207 Festus, p. 7., Alicariae meretrices appellabantur in
Campania solitae ante pistrina alicariorum versari quaestus gratia.
(Harlots were called alicariae (spelt-mill girls) in Campania, being
accustomed to ply for gain in front of the mills of the spelt-
millers).—Plautus, Poenul., I. 2. 54., Prosedas, pistorum amicas,
reliquias alicarias. (Common strumpets, bakers’ mistresses, refuse
of the spelt-mill girls).
208 Catullus, LVIII. 1.,
Illa Lesbia, quam Catullus unam
Plusquam se atque suos amavit omnes,
Nunc in quadriviis et angiportis
Glubit magnanimos Remi nepotes.
(The fair Lesbia, that Catullus loved above all women, more
than himself and all his friends, now at cross-ways and in alleys
skins the high-souled sons of Remus). We see from this that it
was partly such freed-women girls that, past their prime and
come down in the world, no longer visited by rich admirers, had
to seek their living on the streets.—Plautus, Cistell.,
Intro ad bonam meretricem; adstat ea in via
Sola; prostibula sane est.
(I am going in to a “good” harlot; she stands in the road alone,
—she is surely a common whore).—Plautus, Sticho: Prostibuli est
stantem stanti suavium dare, (It’s a strumpet’s way to give a kiss
standing to a standing lover); whence it might be concluded that
only street-whores were called “Prostibula”.—Prudentius,
Peristeph., XIV. 38.,
Sic elocutam publicitus iubet
Flexu in plutea sistere virginem.
(When she had uttered this public address, he bids the maiden
stand at the turn of the street).
209 Martial, I. 35., Abscondunt spurcas et monumenta lupas.
(The monuments too hide filthy strumpets). Hence they were
called bustuariae (women that haunt tombs). Martial, III. 93.,
Admittat inter bustuarias moechas. (Let him admit her among the
fornicators of the tombs). Comp. Turnebus, Advers., XIII. 19.
210 Prudentius, Symmach., I. 107.,
Scortator nimius, multaque libidine suetus
Ruricolas vexare lupas, interque salicta,
Et densas sepes obscoena cubilia inire,
(An inordinate fornicator, wont to vex the rustic harlots with
multiplied lusts, and amidst the willow-plantations and thickset
hedges to creep into foul lairs); where Barth, Advers., X. 2., for
ruricolas (haunting the country, rustic) would read lustricolas
(haunting wild dens),—those who prostituted themselves in wild-
beasts’ dens, desert places. Hence also a brothel is called lustrum
(den) and cellae lustrales (den-like chambers), and harlots’ hire
aurum lustrale (den-money).—Credenus, De Romulo et Remo: ὁ
τοίνυν πάππος Ἀμούλιος διὰ τὴν πορνείαν παροξυνθεὶς εἰς τὰς
ὕλας αὐτοὺς ἐξέθετο, οὓς εὑροῦσα γυνὴ πρόβατα νέμουσα ἐν τῷ
ὄρει ἀνεθρέψατο. Εἴθιστο δὲ τοῖς ἐγχωρίοις λυκαίνας τὰς τοιαύτας
καλεῖν γυναῖκας διὰ τὸ ἐπίπαν ἐν τοῖς ὄρεσι μετὰ λύκων
διατρίβειν, διὸ καὶ τούτους ὑπὸ λυκαίνης ἀνατραφῆναι
μυθολογεῖται. (So their grandfather Amulius exasperated by his
wife’s adultery took the children into the woods and exposed
them there; but his wife, as she was pasturing sheep, found
them, and reared them on the mountain. Now it was the custom
of the inhabitants of those parts to call women of this kind “she-
wolves” (λυκαίνας) on account of their living entirely on the
mountains with the wolves, whence also the tale is told that these
babes were fostered by a she-wolf).
211 Horace, Sat. I. 2. 1., Ambubaiaram collegium (Society of—
Syrian—Singing-girls).—Suetonius, Nero, ch. 27.
212 Plautus, Cist., I. 1. 39.,
Eunt depressum, quia nos sumus libertinae,
Et ego et mater tua, ambae meretrices sumus.
(They go about to depreciate us, because we are freed-women,
both I and your mother, we are both courtesans).—Livy, XXXIX.
9.
213 They were called for this reason vestita scorta (dressed out
whores). Juvenal, Satir. III. 135.—Horace, Sat. I. 2. 28.,
Sunt qui nolint tetigisse, nisi illas
Quarum subsuta talos tegat instita veste.
(There are men who will refuse to touch any woman but those
whose frilled tunic has a flounce touching their heels).—Comp.
Burmann on Petronius, pp. 64 and 95.—Ferrarius, De re vestiar.
(On costume), bk. III. ch. 23.
214 Horace, Odes II. 11. 21., Quis devium scortum domo eliciet
Lyden? (Who will entice from her home the sequestered harlot
Lydé?).
215 Annal., II. 85. In fact mention had been made of Vestilia,
member of a Praetorian family, as being a public prostitute.
216 Bk. IV. Epigr. 71. Already in his time Ovid dared to say:
casta est, quam nemo rogavit. (she is chaste—whom no man has
solicited).
217 Although the goddess Isis was worshipped at Rome as
early as Sulla’s time (Apuleius, Metam., XI. p. 817. edit.
Oudendorp), she did not possess a public temple there till the
Triumvirate (711 A. A. C.) Dio Cassius, bk. XLVII. 15. p. 501.,
XLIII. 2. p. 692., LIV. 6. p. 734., XL. 47. p. 252. edit. Fabricius.—
Tertullian, Apologet., ch. 6. Spartian, Caracalla, 9. Suetonius,
Domitian, 12.
218 Ovid, Ars Amandi, I. 27.—Burmann on Propertius, p. 348.
Josephus, Antiq. Jud. XVIII. 4. Hence in Juvenal, Sat. VI., 488.,
Isiacae sacraria lenae (sanctuaries of Isis—the brothel-mistress).
219 Tibullus, bk. I. carm. 3. 27.
Nunc dea, nunc succurre mihi; nam p o s s e
mederi,
P i c t a docet t e m p l i s m u l t a t a b e l l a t u i s.
(Now goddess, even now help me; for that thou canst heal,
many a painted tablet in thy temples shows). Gerning, “Reise
durch Oestreich und Italien” (Journey through Austria and Italy).
Vol. II. pp. 188-199.—St. Non, “Voyage pittoresque” (Picturesque
Tour), Vol. II. pp. 170 sqq. Hardly anything is yet known as to the
connection of the worship of Isis with the healing of disease, least
of all with regard to establishments for the sick; for the
particulars collected by Hundertmarck (“De principibus Diis Artis
medicae tutelaribus” (Of the principal Gods that presided over the
Medical Art). Leipzig 1735. 4to. and “Diss. de Artis Medicae
incrementis per aegrotorum apud Veteres in Vias Publica et
Templa expositionem” (Treatise on advances in medical Art due to
the practice of the Ancients of exposing the sick in Public Ways
and Temples). Leipzig 1739. 4to.) are quite insufficient.
220 Juvenal, Sat VI. 121, 131. Tacitus, Annal., XI. ch. 37.—Dio
Cassius, IX. p. 686. Messalina adulteriis et stupris non contenta
(iam enim etiam in cella quadam in palatio et ipsa sessitabat et
alias prostituebat) maritus simul multos ritu legitimo habere
cupivit. (Messalina not satisfied with adultery and fornication (for
already in a certain chamber within the very palace she was in
the habit of sitting as a prostitute herself and also of making
other women do the same), was eager to have many husbands at
once under sanction of the laws).—Xiphilinus, LXXIX. p. 912.,
Denique in palatio habuit cellam quandam, in qua libidinem
explebat, stabatque nuda semper ante fores eius, ut scorta
solent. (At last she had in the palace a certain chamber, in which
she was wont to satiate her lustfulness, and used to stand always
stripped before its doors, as whores do). Suetonius, Caligula, ch.
41., Ac ne quod non manubiarum genus experiretur, lupanar in
palatio constituit: distinctisque et instructis pro loci dignitate
compluribus cellis, in quibus matronae ingenuique starent. (And
that there might be no species of gain left that she had not tried,
she established a brothel in the palace; and a number of
chambers were set apart and furnished in conformity with the
dignity of the locality, and there matrons and men of birth stood
for hire).
221 Ulpian, Lex ancillarum ff. de haered. petit. (Law as to
female-slaves making claim of heirship). Pensiones, licet a
lupanario praeceptae sint: nam et multorum honestorum virorum
praediis lupanaria exercentur. (Rents, even though they be
received from a brothel; for many honourable men have brothels
kept on their estates).
222 Paulus Diaconus, Hist. miscell., bk. XII. ch. 2., Aliam rursus
abrogavit huiusmodi causam. Si qua mulier in adulterio capta
fuisset, hoc non emendabatur, sed potius ad augmentum
peccandi contradebatur. Includebant eam in angusto prostibulo et
admittentes qui cum ea fornicarentur, hora qua turpitudinem
agebant, tintinnabula percutiebant, ut eo sono illius iniuria fieret
manifesta. Haec audiens Imperator, permanere non est passus,
sed ipsa prostibula destrui iussit. (Again he repealed another
regulation of the following nature. If any should have been
detected in adultery, by this plan she was not in any way,
reformed, but rather utterly given over to an increase of her ill
behaviour. They used to shut up the woman in a narrow room,
and admitting any that would commit fornication with her, and at
the moment when they were accomplishing their foul act, to
strike bells, that the sound might make known to all the injury
she was suffering. The Emperor hearing this, would suffer it no
longer, but ordered the very rooms to be pulled down).
223 De adult. lex X. (On adultery, law X.), Mulier quae
evitandae poenae adulterii gratia lenocinium fecit, aut operas
suas scenae locavit, adulterii accusari damnarique senatus
consulto potest. (A woman who in order to avoid the penalty
attached to adultery has practised procuration, or has sold her
services to the stage, can be accused on the charge of adultery
and condemned in virtue of a decree of the Senate).—Suetonius,
Tiberius, 35., Feminae famosae, ut ad evitandas legum poenas
iure ac dignitate matronali exsolverentur, lenocinium profiteri
coeperant: quas ne quod refugium in tali fraude cuiquam esset,
exsilio affecit. (Infamous women, in order to be relieved of the
legal status and dignity of matrons and thus escape the penalties
assigned by the laws, began to follow procuration as a calling.
These he exiled, that none might find a way of escape in such a
subterfuge).
224 Tacitus, Annal., II. 85., Nam Vistilia, praetoria familia
genita, licentiam stupri apud aediles vulgaverat, more inter
veteres recepto, qui satis poenarum adversum impudicas in ipsa
professione flagitii, credebant. (For Vistilia, born of a family of
Praetorian rank, had publicly notified before the aediles a permit
for fornication, according to the usage that prevailed among our
fathers, who supposed that sufficient punishment for unchaste
women resided in the very nature of the calling.) Comp. Lipsius,
Excurs. O. p. 509.—Schubert, De Romanorum aedilibus (On the
Roman Aediles), bk. IV. Königsberg 1828., p. 512.
225 Livy, bk. X. 31., bk. XXV. 2.
226 Seneca, De vita beata ch. 7.—The aediles in fact exercised
police supervision over the public welfare, and in particular over
weights and measures and the sale of goods (Suetonius, Tiberius,
ch. 34.), games of chance, etc. Martial, V. 85. bk. XIV. 1. Comp.
Schubert, loco citato, bk. III. ch. 45.
227 Aulus Gellius, Noct. Attic., bk. IV. 14.;—where an action at
law is cited, in which the aedile Mancinus had wished to force his
way at night into the lodging of Mamilia, a courtesan, who had
thrown stones and chased him away. In the result we read:
Tribuni decreverunt aedilem ex eo loco iure dejectum, quo eum
venire cum coronario non decuisset. (The tribunes gave as their
decision that the aedile had been lawfully driven from that place,
as being one that he ought not to have visited with his officer).
This happened, as is seen by comparison with Livy, bk. XL. ch.
35., in the year B. C. 180.
228 Suetonius, Caligula, ch. 40., Vectigalia nova atque inaudita
... exercuit; ... ex capturis prostitutarum quantum quaeque uno
concubitu mereret. Additumque ad caput legis, ut tenerentur
publico et quae meretricium et qui lenocinium fecissent, nec non
et matrimonia obnoxia essent. (He levied new and hitherto
unheard of imposts; ... a proportion of the fees of prostitutes,—so
much as each earned with one man. A clause was also added to
the law, directing that both women who had practised harlotry
and men who had practised procuration should be rated publicly;
furthermore that marriages should be liable to the rate).
229 Lampridius. Alexander Severus, ch. 24., Lenonum vectigal
et meretricum et exoletorum in sacrum aerarium inferri vetuit,
sed sumptibus publicis ad instaurationem theatri, circi,
amphitheatri et aerarii deputavit. (He forbad that the tax on
harlots and on male debauchees should be paid into the sacred
Treasury of the State, but allotted it as a public contribution
towards the repair of the theatre, circus, amphitheatre and
treasury). Also at Byzantium a similar duty was paid under the
name of χρυσάργυρον (tribute of gold and silver), which however
the Emperor Anastasius abolished, and at the same time ordered
the tax-rolls to be burned. (Zonaras, Annal.—Nicephorus, Hist.
eccles., bk. XVI. ch. 40.).
230 Compare Ch. G. Gruner, “Dissertatio de Coitu eiusque variis
formis quatenus medicorum sunt.” (Treatise on Coition and its
Different Forms in their Medical Aspect). Jena 1792. 4 vols.
German edition: “Üeber den Beischlaf” (On Coition). Leipzig 1796.
8 vols. Comp. Salzburg med. chir. Zeitung. Jahrg. 1796. III. 5.—
Forberg, p. 118, loco citato.
231 Epistle to Titus, ch. I. v. 5. Πάντα μὲν καθαρὰ τοῖς
καθαροῖς· τοῖς δὲ μιασμένοις ... οὐδὲν καθαρὸν, ἀλλὰ μεμίανται
αὐτῶν καὶ ὁ νοῦς καὶ ἡ συνείδησις. (To the pure all things are
pure; but to them that are defiled ... nothing is pure; but both
their mind and their conscience are defiled.)
Also Clement of Alexandria, one of the Fathers of the Church,
who speaks largely on this special point of Paederastia, says
(Paedagog., Bk. III. ch. 3.) εἰ γὰρ μηδὲν ἄπρακτον ὑπολείπεται,
οὐδὲ ἐμοὶ ἄῤῥητον. (For if nought is left undone by them, neither
shall aught be left untold by me).
232 Antonius Panormites, “Hermaphroditus”. First German
edition, with explanatory appendices, by Frider. Carol. Forberg.
Coburg 1824. 8 parts. The Editor’s Appendices treat (pp. 205-
393): De figuris Veneris (Concerning the modes of Love), and in
particular, ch. I. De fututione (Of Copulation)—pp. 213-234; ch.
II. De paedicatione (Of Sodomy)—pp. 234-277; ch. III. De
irrumando (Of vicious practices with the mouth)—pp. 277-304;
ch. IV. De masturbando (Of masturbation)—pp. 304-321; ch. V.
De cunnilingis (de eis qui cunnos mulierum lingunt, Of men who
lick women’s private parts)—pp. 322-345; ch. VI. De tribadibus
(Of women who practise vice with one another)—pp. 345-369;
ch. VII. De coitu cum brutis (Of unnatural copulation with
animals)—pp. 369-372; ch. VIII. De spintris (Of pathic
Sodomites)—p. 373. All the important passages in ancient authors
are here noted in every case, and given in the original.
The following work was unfortunately not procurable by us: C.
Rambach, Glossarium Eroticum,—a Commentary to the Poets and
Prose-writers of Classical Antiquity and Supplement to all Lexicons
of the Latin Language. 2nd. edition. Stuttgart 1836.
233 Patentiora sunt nobis Italis Hispanisve, quis neget? Veneris
ostia. (With us, Italians or Spaniards, the orifices of Love are
more open,—who can deny the fact?). Aloysia Sigaea Satira
sotadica, p. 305. Compare Martial, I, Bk. XI. epigram 22. Less
frequently, and only for later times, may the reason have existed
which Martial specifies in the case of the young wife, Martial Bk.
XI. epigr. 78:
Paedicare semel cupido dabit illa marito,
Dum metuit teli vulnera prima novi.
(She—the newly-wed wife—will allow her longing husband just
once to lie with her as with a man, while she still dreads the first
wounds of the unfamiliar weapon). Comp. Priapeia, carmen II.
234 For this reason the Greeks called the pathic sodomite also
σφιγκτὴρ or σφίγκτης. Hesychius: σ φ ί γ κ τ α ι οἱ κίναιδοι καὶ
ἁπαλοὶ. (σφίγκται = sodomites and effeminate men). Photius:
σ φ ί γ κ τ α ι Κρατῖνος τοὺς κιναιδώδεις καὶ μαλθάκους. (σφίγκται
used by Cratinus = sodomitish and womanish men). Strato in
Antholog. MS.:
Σφιγκτὴρ οὐκ ἔστιν παρὰ παρθένῳ, οὐδὲ φίλημα
Ἁπλοῦν, οὐ φυσικὴ χρωτὸς εὐπνοΐη.
(With a virgin there is no sphincter, no frank kiss, no natural
fragrance of the skin).
Hesychius sub verbo:
μεγαρικαὶ σφίγγες·
Καλλίας πόρνας τινὰς οὕτως εἴρηκειν.
(Hesychius (Lexicon) on the phrase μεγαρικαὶ σφίγγες says:
Callias speaks of certain harlots by this title).
Suidas sub verbo:
μεγαρικαὶ σφίγγες.
αἱ πόρναι οὕτως εἴρηνται,

ἴσως δὲ ἐντεῦθεν καὶ σφίγκται οἱ μαλακοὶ
ὠνομάσθησαν· ἢ καὶ ἀπὸ
Μαίας οὕτω λεγομένης ἐν Μεγάροις·
Ἀλλ’ ἔστιν ἡμῖν Μεγαρική τις μηχανή.

ἀντὶ τοῦ, πονηρά· διεβάλλοντο
γὰρ ἐπὶ πονηρία οἱ Μεγαρεῖς.
(Suidas (Lexicon) on the phrase μεγαρικαὶ σφίγγες says: harlots
are so called, and perhaps for the same reason debauched men
are entitled σφίγκται; or else from a saying current in Megara to
this effect:—But we have a certain Megarian trick,—that is a
knavish one. For the Megarians were ill spoken of for their
knavishness).
235 Epistle to the Romans, ch. I. vv. 24-26, 27.
236 Athanasius, Oratio contra Gentes, ch. 26. in “Opera Omnia
studio Monachorum Ord. St. Benedicti.” (Complete Works of St.
Athanasius, edit. by the Monks of the Order of St. Benedict).
Padua 1777. folio.—Vol. I. p. 1.
237 Amores, chs. 20, 21. The hetaera Glycera would seem,
according to Clearchus’ report, to have said, καὶ οἱ παῖδες εἰσι
καλοὶ, ὅσον ἐοίκασι γυναικὶ χρόνον. (And boys are beautiful for so
long as they resemble a woman). Athenaeus, Deipnos. bk. XIII.
p. 605 D. According to Hellanicus, as Donatus, on Terence’s
Eunuch., I. 2. 87. notifies, the custom of emasculating boys would
seem to have come from the Babylonians. Herodotus, III. 92.,
says that the Babylonians were bound to deliver every year as
tribute to the Persian king 500 castrated boys.
238 As a matter of curiosity a tale of Phlegon, De Rebus
mirabilibus, ch. 26., may find a place here. According to the
report of the physician Dorotheus a Cinaedus (pathic sodomite) at
Alexandria in Egypt bore a child, which was preserved at that
place. The text reads, Δωρόθεος δέ φησιν ὁ ἰατρὸς ἐν
Ὑπομνήμασιν, ἐν Ἀλεξανδρείᾳ, τῇ κατ’ Αἴγυπτον, κίναιδον τεκεῖν·
τὸ δὲ βρέφος ταριχευθὲν, χάριν τοῦ παραδόξου, φυλάττεσθαι.
(Now Dorotheus the Physician says in his Memoirs, that at
Alexandria in Egypt a cinaedus brought forth; and that the babe
was mummified and kept as a curiosity). The same thing is
reported in the following chapter of a slave with the Roman army
in Germany under the command of T. Curtilius Mancias. These
stories may possibly borrow some probability from modern
investigations as to the “foetus” within the “foetus”. The
expression “to sow seed on barren rocks” occurs, it may be
mentioned, very frequently in connection with paederastia in the
Fathers.
239 Juvenal, Sat. VI. 366 sqq.,
Sunt quas eunuchi imbelles ac mollia semper
Oscula delectent et desperatio barbae.
Et quod abortivo non est opus, illa voluptas
Summa tamen, quod iam calida matura iuventa
Inguina traduntur medicis, iam pectine nigro.
Ergo exspectatos ac iussos crescere primum,
Testiculos, postquam coeperunt esse bilibres,
Tonsoris damno tantum rapit Heliodorus.
(Women there are to find delight in unwarlike eunuchs and
kisses ever soft and the lack of a beard that can never grow, and
this especially because then there is no need for any abortive. But
the pleasure is greatest when the organs are delivered full-grown
to the surgeons, just in the heat of youth, just when the down of
puberty is darkening. Then when the testicles, long looked for
and at first encouraged to grow, begin to be of double balanced
weight, lo! Heliodorus whips them off,—to the barber’s loss).
Martial, VI. 67.,
Cur tantum Eunuchos habeat tua Gellia, quaeris
Pannice? vult futui Gellia, non parere.
(Why your Gellia is fain to have eunuchs only, do you ask,
Pannicus? Because she wishes to be f-ck-d, not to be a mother).
In longam securamque libidinem exsectus spado, (A eunuch
castrated with a view to long-continued and harmless lust), says
St. Jerome. The information given by Galen (De usu Partium bk.
XIV. 15. edit. Kühn, vol. IV. p. 571) is notable, to the effect that
the athletes at Olympia were castrated, that their strength might
not be wasted by coition. Have the words “Olimpia agona”
(Olimpic—Olympic—games) been in some way misunderstood in
the passage?
240 Genesis XIX. 4., Levit., XVIII. 2., XXIX. 13.
241 Welcker, Aeschylus—Trilogy, p. 356.
242 Athenaeus, Deipnosoph., p. 602., τοῦ παιδεραστεῖν παρὰ
πρώτων Κρητῶν εἰς τοὺς Ἕλληνας παρελθόντος, ὡς ἱστορεῖ
Τίμαιος. (The practice of paederastia having been introduced
among the Greeks first by the Cretans, as Timaeus relates).—
Heraclitus Ponticus, fragment, περὶ πολιτείας III. p. 7.—Servius on
Virgil—Aeneid bk. X. 325., de Cretensibus accepimus, quod in

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Rashmi Walvekar Arshid Numan

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This book intends to introduce readers to a broad view of nanomaterials, from

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Importance of Nanomaterials in Engineering Application . . . . . . . . . . . 1

Synthesis of Thin Film and Its Application . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 267

Abstract Nanomaterials have gained prominence in technological advancement

Keywords Nanotechnology · Nanomaterials · Engineering applications

L. Y. Jun · F. S. A. Khan · N. M. Mubarak (B) · L. S. Yon · C. H. Bing

© Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 1

Fig. 1 Comparison of nanomaterial sizes

Fig. 2 Types of nanomaterial

Fig. 3 Type of nanomaterials with different dimensions

2.1 Fullerene (0-D)

2.2 Carbon Nanotubes (1-D)

2.3 Graphene and Its Derivatives (2-D)

2.4 Graphite (3-D)

Graphite is a layered honeycomb structure, where multiple layers of graphene sheets

3 Nanomaterial for Engineering Application

biotechnology, construction, renewable energy, and biomedical. Moreover, nanotech-

3.1 Cosmetics and Personal Products

The primary use of nanomaterials in cosmetics is to improve the distribution of

Table 1 Recent studies on cosmetic product using nanomaterials

3.2 Automobiles and Transportation

a. Light-Weight Body Parts

vehicle weight reduction. Considerable number of development had been conducted

Compared to conventional paints, nano-varnish have shown good paint bril-

e. Other Uses in Automobiles

Table 2 Nanomaterials applications in automobile sector [69]

Table 3 Few examples of nanomaterials employed in the agricultural sector

as economical and reliable substitutes for synthetic chemicals with negative-side

Despite the remarkable properties of nanomaterials, it is essential to evaluate their

Table 4 Few other application of nanomaterials in various fields

potential human health risks of nanomaterials, such as carcinogenicity, genotoxi-

Table 5 Possible risks and toxic effects of nanomaterials

αἱ πόρναι οὕτως εἴρηνται,

Ἀλλ’ ἔστιν ἡμῖν Μεγαρική τις μηχανή.

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