THE UNIVERSITY OF THE WEST INDIES

ST. AUGUSTINE, TRINIDAD & TOBAGO, WEST INDIES

FACULTY OF ENGINEERING

Department of Electrical & Computer Engineering

BSc. in Electrical & Computer Engineering

ECNG 1013

Introduction to Thermodynamics

Rankine Cycle Demonstration Unit Vapour Power Plant

Keedanu Halls

816035983

G2

Course Lecturer: Dr. Anthony Adeyanju

Lab Demonstrator: Mr. Xian Ramdass

Date Performed: September 27, 2024

Date Submitted: October 11, 2024

Title:

Rankine Cycle Demonstration Unit Vapor Power Plant

Summary:

This lab proves the concept of the Rankine cycle using a unit vapour power plant that
simulates the plants in industry. The thermal efficiency of the unit vapour power will be
calculated by finding the enthalpy at different stages in the vapour cycle and placing them
into the Carnot efficiency equation. The overall plant efficiency will also be calculated
comparing the electrical power produced with the fuel used by the unit. Skills like
extrapolation and reading steam tables will be showcased.

Description of Apparatus:

Figure 1 Showing the main components in an actual power plant

Unit Steam Power Plant – simulates the thermodynamic system in power plants but it is not a
closed system, and water is added via hand, not pump. The design also has a throttle.

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Figure 2 showing the apparatus set up in the lab

Figure 3 showing unit steam power plant used in the lab

1. Pump – pressurises and compresses water to send it into the boiler.

2. Boiler – converts the water entering the boiler into superheated steam
3. Turbines – the superheated steam turns the turbines to produce work.
4. Generator – work from the turbines allow electromagnetic induction in the generator
to produce electricity.
5. Condenser – cools the steam from the turbines back into water that enters the pump to
restart the cycle.

Theory:

The Rankine cycle is the ideal vapour cycle used in power plants. It converts heat into
mechanical energy which is subsequently converted to electrical energy. Ideally it is

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reversible; there is no fluid friction, heat loss or pressure drops, and the cycle has 4 main
processes.

• Isentropic compression in the pump

• Isobaric heat addition in the boiler
• Isentropic expansion in the turbine
• Isobaric heat subtraction in the condenser

At state 3 water enters the pump, raising its pressure to the operating pressure of the boiler.
Approximately no heat is added during the compression. In the boiler the liquid water (now at
state 4) is heated at constant pressure until it is a superheated vapour (state 1). The steam
from state 1 enters the turbine, expanding and producing work that turns the turbine shafts
connected to a generator. The vapour loses pressure and temperature after this expansion,
putting it into state 2. This state 2 vapour will enter the condenser which cools the water back
into state 3 completing the cycle.

All these changes can be illustrated on a temperature vs entropy plot.

Figure 4 showing T – s plot for the Rankine cycle

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The area between the numbers shows the heat change in that process. For example, heat
added to the vapour in the boiler is the area between point 2 and point 3.

All the components in the Rankine cycle are steady flow, meaning relative to the heat and
work transfer, kinetic and potential energies are negligible. Using of the conservation energy
yields:

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𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡 − 𝑉𝑖𝑛2
̇ − 𝑊𝐶𝑉
𝑄𝐶𝑉 ̇ = 𝑚̇(ℎ𝑜𝑢𝑡 − ℎ𝑖𝑛 ) + + 𝑔(𝑧𝑜𝑢𝑡 − 𝑧𝑖𝑛 )
2

The specific enthalpy of a system is the total energy of the system due to the temperature and
pressure per unit mass of that system. The variables hx represents its value at various states.

At constant volume:

̇
𝑄𝐶𝑉 ̇
𝑊𝐶𝑉
− + ℎ𝑖𝑛 − ℎ𝑜𝑢𝑡 = 0
𝑚̇ 𝑚̇

This equation is expressed differently at the various states because the conditions are
different. We can use this equation to solve for the efficiency of the Rankine cycle. Let’s look
at the ideal cycle first using figure 1.

Take gas exiting the boiler as state 1. When the gas expands through the turbine subsequently
entering state 2 there is no heat transfer.

1→2 is adiabatic, so the conservation of energy equation is written as:

̇
𝑊𝑜𝑢𝑡
𝑊𝑜𝑢𝑡 = + (ℎ1 − ℎ2 )
𝑚

𝑊𝑜𝑢𝑡 = (ℎ1 − ℎ2 )

From state 2 → 3 the vapour is condensed, no work occurs:

−𝑄̇ 𝐶𝑉 𝑊𝐶𝑉
̇
− + ℎ2 − ℎ3 = 0
𝑚̇ 𝑚̇

̇
𝑄𝑜𝑢𝑡
𝑄𝑜𝑢𝑡 = = (ℎ 2 − ℎ3 )
𝑚

𝑄𝑜𝑢𝑡 = (ℎ2 − ℎ3 )

From state 3 → 4 the liquid is compressed (adiabatic) and pumped:

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 ̇
𝑄𝐶𝑉 −𝑊̇ 𝑖𝑛
− + ℎ3 − ℎ4 = 0
𝑚̇ 𝑚̇

̇
𝑊𝑖𝑛
𝑊𝑜𝑢𝑡 = = (ℎ4 − ℎ3 )
𝑚

𝑊𝑜𝑢𝑡 = (ℎ4 − ℎ3 )

From state 4→1 liquid water from the pump is supplied heat in the boiler, no work occurs:

𝑄𝑖𝑛̇ ̇
𝑊𝐶𝑉
− + ℎ4 − ℎ1 = 0
𝑚̇ 𝑚̇

𝑄𝑖𝑛̇
𝑄𝑖𝑛 = = (ℎ1 − ℎ4 )
𝑚

𝑄𝑖𝑛 = (ℎ1 − ℎ4 )

From the Carnot cycle we know thermal efficiency:

𝑊𝑜𝑢𝑡 − 𝑊𝑖𝑛
𝜂=
𝑞𝑖𝑛

(ℎ1 − ℎ2 ) − (ℎ4 − ℎ3 )
𝜂𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑘𝑖𝑛𝑒 =
ℎ1 − ℎ4

Because of the difference of the apparatus in this experiment with a power plant the Rankine
efficiency is found slightly differently. This is the equation.

ℎ2 − ℎ3
𝜂=
ℎ1 − ℎ4

If we calculate the specific enthalpy values at each state, we can calculate the efficiency of
the cycle. To find the enthalpy values at each state the superheated steam formula is utilised.

hs = hg at ps + 1.88(Ts – Tsat at ps)

Ps was determined in the experiment and hg and Tsat can be extrapolated from steam software
tables.

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Procedure:

1. The boiler was filled with 6000 cm3

2. The filling equipment was removed
3. The steam admission valve was closed
4. The computer was switched on
5. The gas regulator was switched on
6. The gas isolation valve was turned on
7. The master switch was turned on
8. The blow was inspected to see if it worked
9. The burner was verified to have lit in 45 seconds
10. The boiler pressure was verified to have risen within 3 minutes
11. By opening and closing the steam admission valve the system was preheated
12. The steam admission valve was opened.
13. The load switch was engaged
14. The load rheostat was adjusted to achieve steady state boiler pressure, generator
voltages and amperage values.
15. All the data mentioned in summary were recorded.

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Results:

Table 1 showing values recorded from the unit power plant

Variable Values
Boiler outlet pressure (P1) 100 psig | 7.91001 bar
Boiler outlet temperature (T1) 171 ֯C
Turbine inlet pressure (P2) 8 psig | 1.56524 bar
Turbine inlet temperature (T2) 120 ֯C
Turbine outlet (exhaust) pressure (P3) 3 psig | 1.22041 bar
Turbine outlet temperature (T3) 111 ֯C
Generator terminal voltage (V) 6.9V|
Generator output current (I) 0.2A
Fuel mass flow rate to boiler 5.9 L/min | 9.833 x 10-5m3/s

Note Bar calculations: (Pabsolute = Gauge pressure in psig + atmospheric pressure in psia)/14.5

E.g: P1 in bar = (100 + 14.696) /14.5 = 7.91 bar

Specimen Calculations

Table 2 showing the values used to calculate missing enthalpy values

Pressures (Mpa) Temperatures (sat) Enthalpy hg

0.15 111.4 2693.4
0.1565 = P2 T(sat) h2
0.16 113.3 2696.2
0.12 104.8 2683.4
0.1220 = P3 T(sat) h3
0.13 107.1 2687.0
0.1220 = P4 Hg =hf

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Boiler

From figure 3 process 1→2 is a throttling process with no enthalpy change. And throttling
encourages the superheating of a vapour. Therefore h1 = h2 should hold true, but it is unlikely
for a tabletop plant to read these conditions. So h2 will be found with the steam table
equations and h1 will be set equal to h2.

Turbine Inlet

extrapolating for hg:

0.1565 − 0.15 ℎ𝑔 − 2693.4

=
0.16 − 0.15 2696.2 − 2693.4

0.65 × (2.8) + 2693.4 = ℎ𝑔

Thus hg =2698.02

extrapolating for Tsat:

0.1565 − 0.15 𝑇𝑠𝑎𝑡 − 111.4

=
0.16 − 0.15 113.3 − 111.4

0.65 × (1.9) + 111.4 = 𝑇𝑠𝑎𝑡

Thus Tsat = 112.635

h2 = hg at p2 + 1.88(T2 – Tsat at p2)

ℎ2 = 2698.02 + 1.88(120 − 112.635)

h2 = 2711.87

Turbine Outlet

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0.122 − 0.12 ℎ𝑔 − 2683.4
=
0.13 − 0.12 2687.0 − 2683.4

0.2 × (3.6) + 2683.4 = ℎ𝑔

Thus hg =2684.12

extrapolating for Tsat:

0.122 − 0.12 ℎ𝑔 − 104.8

=
0.13 − 0.12 107.1 − 104.8

0.2 × (2.3) + 104.8 = 𝑇𝑠𝑎𝑡

Thus Tsat = 107.1

H3 = hg at p3 + 1.88(T3 – Tsat at p3)

ℎ3 = 2684.12 + 1.88(111 − 107.1)

h3 = 2691.452

The specific enthalpy for subcooled liquid, h4 can be estimated as:

h4 = hf at p3

extrapolating for h4

0.122 − 0.12 ℎ𝑓 − 439.4

=
0.13 − 0.12 449.2 − 439.4

0.2 × (9.8) + 439.4 = ℎ𝑓

441.36 = ℎ𝑓 = ℎ4

Thermal Efficiency

ℎ2 − ℎ3
𝜂= × 100
ℎ1 − ℎ4

Substituting h1 = 2711.87, h2 = 2711.87, h3 = 2691.452, h4 = 441.36

2711.87 − 2691.452 20.418

𝜂= × 100 = × 100 = 0.899%
2711.87 − 441.36 2270.51

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Overall Plant Efficiency

𝐺𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑟𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡
𝜂=
𝐸𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑜𝑓𝑓𝑢𝑒𝑙𝑡𝑜𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑏𝑜𝑖𝑙𝑒𝑟

𝑉𝐼
𝜂=
𝑚̇𝑓 𝐶𝑉

Calorific value of LPG fuel, CV = 50.152×10^6 MJ/kg

Density of fuel = 2.155 kg/m3

Mass flow rate of fuel, ṁf = Volumetric flow rate (m3/s) × Density of fuel

𝑚̇𝑓 = 9.833 × 10−5 × 2.155

𝑚̇𝑓 = 2.119 × 10−4

(6.9)(0.2)
𝜂= = 0.0001299 = 0.013%
(2.119 × 10−4 )(50.152 × 106 )

Calculated Results

Table 3 Showing calculated results

Variable Value
Specific enthalpy at Boiler outlet, h1 2711.87 kJ/kg
Specific enthalpy at Turbine intlet, h2 2711.87 kJ/kg
Specific enthalpy at Turbine outlet, h3 2691.452 kJ/kg
Specific enthalpy for subcooled liquid, h4 441.36 kJ/kg
Thermal efficiency of the apparatus, 0.899 %
Overall plant efficiency, 0.013 %

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Discussion:

(Michael A. Boles, 2006)

In a well operated steam power plant, the Rankine cycle efficiency varies between 35% to
45%. The efficiency of the apparatus in this lab however was significantly lower, at 0.1%.
There are many reasons for this. Firstly, the quality of the equipment; the tabletop unit had
leaking pipes and poor worn out insulators allowing heat to escape. Whereas state-of-the-art
power plants are regularly maintained and serviced. Secondly, the lab apparatus did not
actually cycle; the condensed water wasn’t carried back into the boiler like real plants do.
This wastes resources and is one of the main reasons power plants are so efficient. Lastly, the
table-top unit simply cannot superheat the vapour as well as real nuclear/coal/natural gas
boilers. The table doesn’t use reheating techniques either. If the vapour isn’t dry and
superheated, its expansion and work done on the turbine will be less.

Power plants can fully utilise the techniques or conditions that increase Rankine efficiency.
The tabletop unit either doesn’t implement these techniques or do so inadequately. The basic
idea behind all the modifications to increase the thermal efficiency of a power cycle is the
same: Increase the average temperature at which heat is transferred to the working fluid in
the boiler, or decrease the average temperature at which heat is rejected from the working
fluid in the condenser. (in text citation)

• Increasing the average temperature during heat addition in boiler.

The hotter the boiler, the hotter the steam and the closer steam is to a superheat form (without
moisture). Superheated steam expands better in turbine than steam with moisture. The
temperature steam can be superheated to is limited by metallurgical parameters of the turbine
blades. If more heat resistant turbine materials, surface steam can be superheated even
further.

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Figure 5 showing the effect of superheating on the T - s plot

• Increasing boiler pressure.

The increase in pressure raises the boiling point of water, therefore more heat can be
transferred to the fluid before it becomes a vapour. The downside to this is that moisture of
vapour increases. This moisture can be removed with incorporating a reheating mechanism in
the boiler.

Figure 6 showing the effect of decreasing condenser pressure on the T - s plot

• Decreasing pressure of the condenser.

In the condenser steam has a saturation temperature that corresponds with the condenser
pressure. Lowering the pressure will drop the temperature of the steam. This method runs risk
of air leakage into the condenser and increases the moisture. But the moisture issue can be
fixed with the same reheating mechanism.

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Figure 7 showing the effect of increasing boiler pressure on the T – s plot

From these options, without major modification, table unit viability can increase by raising
the boiler temperature and decreasing the condenser temperature. If the table-top can be
altered the following plans are substantial upgrades:

• Adding new pipes to the system prevent leakage.

• Adding a condenser that is connected to boiler to create a cycle.
• Replacing the turbine blades with less a corrosive material

With these advantages available to power plants, it is clear why the efficiency difference is so
large.

Conclusion:

The specific enthalpy at points h1, h2, h3, and h4 were found as 2711.87 kJ/kg , 2711.87 kJ/kg ,
2691.452 kJ/kg and 441.36 kJ/kg. The thermal efficiency and overall plant efficiency of the
power unit in lab were found to be 0.899% and 0.013% respectively. This was a large
deviation from the percentages possible in industry because of deficiencies in the equipment.

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Bibliography
Michael A. Boles, Y. A. (2006). Thermodynamics An Engineering Approach.

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Appendix

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