5.

Cell structure and organisation

The cell is the fundamental structural and functional unit of all living beings.
It is the smallest part of the body of an organism which is capable of independent
existence and of performing the essential functions of life.
Shape of a Cell
The cells also vary in their shapes. They may be flattened, columnar, columnar,
polygonal, disc-like amoeboid, thread-like, cuboid or irregular. The cell shape is
always related and vary with the function they perform.

Size of a Cell
The cells shows variation in size, life span and cellular activities, e.g.,
Mycoplasma (smallest cell) or PPLOs (Pleuro-Pneumonia Like Organisms) is only 0.3
µm in length
and bacteria are approx. 3-5 µm in size.
An ostrich egg, which is known to be the largest isolated single cell measures about
170 X 135 mm. Human Red Blood Cells (RBCs) are about 7 µm in diameter and the
nerve cell of human being is the longest cell having length of 90-100 cm.

1
 CELL THEORY
The cell theory is proposed by Schleiden and Schwann.
In 1838, Matthias Schleiden, a German Botanist, announced that every plant is
made up of a large number of cells. He added that each of these cells performed various
life processes.
A year later, Theodor Schwann, a German zoologist, made similar discoveries in
animals. He declared that all animals and plants are composed of cells, which serve
as the units of structure and function.
This is called the Cell Theory, having been proposed by Schwann and Schleiden in
the year 1839.
 All organisms are composed of one or more cells and products of cells.
 Cell is the basic unit of structure, function and organization of ail organisms.
The drawback of the Cell Theory was that they could not explain the formation of
new cells. Rudolf Virchow modified the Cell Theory by adding a third statement.
 Cells can arise only by division from a pre-existing cell.

Hence, the modern cell theory states three major points

1. The cell is the smallest structural unit of living organisms.
2. The cell is the functional unit of living organisms.
3. All the cells arise from pre-existing cells.
Totipotency- it is the capacity or potential of living nucleated cell to divide and
differentiate to form any other type of cell to form entire organism.
Types of cells-
There are two types of Cells are 2 types:
(i) Prokaryotic cells
(ii) Eukaryotic cells.

(i) Prokaryotic cells

1) They have no membrane bound nucleus and organelles.
2) They include bacteria, blue-green algae, mycoplasma & PPLO (Pleuro
Pneumonia Like Organisms).

2
3) They are generally smaller and multiply more rapidly than the eukaryotic cells.
4) They vary in shape & size. E.g. Bacteria have 4 basic shapes: Bacillus (rod like),
Coccus (spherical), Vibrio (comma shaped), and Spirillum (spiral).
5) They vary in shape & size. E.g. Bacteria have 4 basic shapes: Bacillus (rod like),
Coccus (spherical), Vibrio (comma shaped), and Spirillum (spiral).
Cell organelles in prokaryotic cells
1. Cell Envelope
I. It is a chemically complex protective covering.
II. It is made of 3 tightly bound layers.
2. Glycocalyx: Outer layer. It differs in composition and thickness among
different bacteria. It may be a slime layer (loose sheath) or capsule (thick &
tough).
3. Cell wall: Middle layer. Seen in all prokaryotes. It gives shape to the cell and
provides a structural support and mechanical support to prevent the bacterium
from bursting or collapsing.
Based on the types of the cell wall and response to Gram staining (developed
by Gram), bacteria are 2 types:
 Gram positive: They take up and retain the gram stain chemically contain
peptidoglycan.
 Gram negative: They do not retain the gram stain chemically contain
murein.
In motile bacteria cilia or flagella are present which are useful for rotatory
movement by which locomotion takes place.
In some bacteria other surface projections are present like tubular pili for inter-
cellular communicataion, while fimbriae are useful for clinging to support.
4. Plasma membrane: Inner layer. It is semi-permeable in nature and interacts
with the outside. This is structurally similar to that of the eukaryotes.
5. Mesosome & Chromatophores (Membranous structures)
Mesosome is formed by the infoldings of plasma membrane. It includes
vesicles, tubules & lamellae.

3
Functions: Mesosome helps in-
o In cell wall formation.
o In DNA (chromosome) replication.
o In Distribution of chromosomes to daughter cells.
o In respiration and secretion processes.
o To increase the surface area of the plasma membrane and enzymatic content.
Chromatophores are membranous infoldings in some prokaryotes (e.g.
cyanobacteria). They contain pigments.
6. Nucleoid
It is formed of non-membranous (naked) circular genomic DNA (single
chromosome/ Genetic material) & protein.
Many bacteria have small circular DNA (plasmid) outside the genomic DNA.
It gives some unique phenotypic characters (e.g. resistance to antibiotics) to
bacteria.
7. Flagella
These are thin filamentous extensions from the cell wall of motile bacteria.
Their number and arrangement are varied in different bacteria.
Bacterial flagellum is made of 3 parts – filament, hook and basal body. The
filament is the longest portion and extends from the cell surface to the
outside.
8. Pili and Fimbriae
These are surface structures that have no role in motility.
The pili (sing. Pilus) are elongated tubular structures made of a special
protein (pilin).
The fimbriae are small bristle like fibers sprouting out of the cell. In some
bacteria, they help to attach the bacteria to rocks in streams and also to the
host tissues.
9. Ribosomes
In prokaryotes ribosomes are associated with the plasma membrane of the
cell.
They are about 15 nm by 20 nm in size.
They are made of two subunits - 50S and 30S units. They together form 70S
prokaryotic ribosomes
(S= sedimentation coefficient; a measure of density & size).
Function:
 Ribosomes are the site of translation (protein synthesis).

 Several ribosomes may attach to a single mRNA to form a chain called

polyribosomes (polysome).

4
  Ribosomes of a polysome translate the mRNA into proteins.
10. Inclusion Bodies
These are non-membranous, stored reserve material seen freely in the
cytoplasm of prokaryotic cells.
E.g. phosphate granules, cyanophycean granules and glycogen granules,
gas vacuoles etc.
Gas vacuoles are found in blue green and purple and green photosynthetic
bacteria.

EUKARYOTIC CELLS
Cells in which the nucleus has a definite nuclear membrane are known as
Eukaryotic cells. These cells exhibit presence of membrane bound cell organelles.
e.g. Cells of Protists, Plants, Animals and Fungi.
The eukaryotic cells have different shape, size and physiology but all the
cells are typically composed of plasma membrane, cytoplasm and its organelles
like- Mitochondria, Endoplasmic Reticulum, Ribosomes, Golgi-complex, etc. and
a true nucleus.
Components of Eukaryotic cell:
PARTS OF A CELL
Living Parts Non-living Parts
Cell membrane Cell wall (only in plant cell)

In the Cytoplasm
1. Endoplasmic reticulum 1. Granules
2. Mitochondria 2. Vacuoles
3.Golgi apparatus 3. Fat droplets
4. Ribosomes
5. Lysosomes
6. Centrosome (only in
animal cell)
7. Plastids (only in plant cell)

In the Nucleus
1. Nuclear membrane 1. Nucleoplasm
2. Nucleoli
3. Chromatin fibers
1. Cell wall:
1) It is rigid, supportive and protective outer covering of plasma membrane
in plant cells, fungi and some protists.
2) Algae show presence of cellulose, galactans, mannans and minerals like

5
calcium carbonate in cell wall.
3) In some plants, it is made up of hemicelluloses, pectin, lipids and protein.
4) Microfibrils of plant cell wall show presence of cellulose which is
responsible for rigidity.
5) Some other depositions of cell wall are silica (grass stem), cutin (epidermal
walls of land plants), suberin (endodermal cells of root), wax, lignin.
6) It gives shape to the cell and protects from mechanical injury and
infections.
In plants, cell wall shows-
A. middle lamella
B. primary wall
C. secondary wall.

6
 A. Middle lamella:
 It is thin and lies between two adjacent cells.
 It is the first structure formed from cell plate during cytokinesis.
 It is mainly made up of pectin, calcium and magnesium pectate. Softening
of ripe fruit is due to solubilization of pectin.
B. Primary wall:
 In young plant cell, it is capable of growth.
 It is laid inside to middle lamella.
 It is the only wall seen in meristematic tissue, mesophyll, pith, etc.
C. Secondary wall:
 It is present inner to primary wall.
 Once the growth of primary wall stops, secondary wall is laid.
 At some places thickening is absent which leads to formation of pits.
 Plasmodesmata are cytoplasmic bridges between neighboring cells.
 It shows pores between cell wall and middle lamella.
2. Cell Membrane/ Plasma membrane/ bio membrane/ plasmalemma.
Every living cell is covered by a thin, elastic, transparent, semi-permeable and
regenerative membrane called cell membrane also called plasma membrane or
plasmalemma.
The plasma membrane separates the internal environment of the cell from
external environment.
As this membrane helps in regulating the entrance and exit of molecules into and
out of the cell.
In 1950s with the advancement of electron microscope the detailed structure of
the membrane was studied.
Most of the initial studies on cell membrane structure, i.e., especially on the
human Red Blood cells (RBCs), which enabled the scientists to deduce the possible
structure of plasma membrane.
Human RBCs are considered to be the best material for the study of biochemical
composition of the cell membrane because they lack nucleus as well as cytoplasmic
organelles.
Structure
Studies on human RBCs concluded that the cell membrane is composed of
lipid which forms a bilayer with protein and carbohyderate molecules embedded in
it at places.
Lipid
 The lipid molecules are amphipathic in nature and are arranged within the

7
 membrane having of two types of ends-
 Polar Hydrophilic End This region is in the form of (water loving) head,
which faces towards the outer sides of the cell membrane to interact with
the aqueous environments on both sides.
 (ii) Non-polar Hydrophobic End This region is in the form of (water
repelling) tail, both ends of which faces each other that occur towards the
centre of the cell membrane.
Proteins
Depending upon the ease of extraction, the ratio of protein and lipid varies
considerably in different cell types. In human beings, the membrane of the
erythrocytes (RBCs) has approximately 52% protein and 40% lipid.
The membrane proteins can be classified as
(i) Integral Proteins (intrinsic protein) They have stronger association and
bound firmly to the membrane. These proteins are buried partially or totally
in the phospholipid bilayer.
(ii) (ii) Peripheral Proteins (extrinsic protein) They have weaker association and
are bound to lipids of membrane by electrostatic interactions.
Carbohydrates
 These constitute about 1-5% of chemical composition of plasma membrane.
These are associated with the phospholipids or with the peripheral proteins
to form glycolipids and glycoproteins respectively.
 To understand the structure of plasma membrane various models are given
out of which the most accepted model is Fluid Mosaic Model.
Fluid Mosaic Model
 This model was given by Singer and Nicholson (1972).

8
  According to this model, cell membrane is made up of phospholipid bilayer
and proteins.
 Proteins are like icebergs in the sea of lipids.
 Proteins can change their position.
 Some proteins are intrinsic i.e. occur at different depths of bilayer.
 They are present on the entire thickness of the membrane. So, they are
called transmembrane proteins. They form channels for passage of water.
 Extrinsic or peripheral proteins are found on two surfaces of the
membrane.
 Quasi fluid nature of lipid enables lateral movement of proteins.
 This ability to move within the membrane is measured as fluidity.
Fluidity of Membrane
The fluid nature of the membrane is important from the point of view of
interactions of molecules within the membrane as well as other functions like
formation of inter cellular junctions, cell growth, secretion, endocytosis, cell
division, etc.
Passage of substances across the membrane occurs mainly by two methods i-
Active Transport
 Active transport is the movement of the molecules across the
membrane against their concentration gradient, i.e., from lower to the
lighter concentration.
 It is an energy dependent process, in which ATP is utilised.
 It occurs in few ions and molecules,
e.g., Na+ / K+ pump.
 Polar molecules require a carrier protein of the membrane to facilitate
their transport across the membrane because they cannot pass
through the non-polar lipid bi-layer.
ii- Passive Transport
Passive transport is the mode of movement of molecules or substances
across the membrane without any requirement of energy.
It can be further divided into three types-
(a) Osmosis It is the process by which water molecules pass through a
membrane from a region of higher concentration to a lower concentration.
(b) Simple Diffusion In this process, neutral molecules move across the
membrane along the concentration gradient (from higher to lower
concentration), e.g., Gases and small molecules.
(c) Facilitated Diffusion In this process, the molecules are transported along

9
 concentration gradient by the help of ion channels and permeases. Energy is not
required in this process.
Functions
Cell membrane possess the following functions
(i) It is a selectively permeable or semi-permeable membrane, allows only
selected
substances to pass inwardly.
(ii) It protects the cell from injury.
(iii) Membranes have carrier proteins for active transport.
(iv) Cell membrane contain enzymes which perform certain reaction on their
surface, e.g., ATPase, phosphatase, etc.
3. Cytoplasm-
a) The cell contains ground substance called cytoplasmic matrix or cytosol.
b) This colloidal jelly like material shows streaming movements called cyclosis.
c) The cytoplasm contains water as major component along with organic and
inorganic molecules like sugars, amino acids, vitamins, enzymes,
nucleotides, minerals and waste products.
d) It also contains various cell organelles like endoplasmic reticulum, Golgi
complex, mitochondria, plastids, nucleus, microbodies and cytoskeletal
elements like microtubules.
e) Cytoplasm acts as a source of raw materials as well as site for various
metabolic activities taking place in the cell.
f) It helps in distribution and exchange of materials between various cell
organelles.
g) Cell organelles are nothing but compartments in the cell that carry out
specific functions.
h) Some of them coordinate with each other and complete specific tasks for the
cell. Nuclear membrane, endoplasmic reticulum, Golgi complex, lysosomes
and various types of vesicles and vacuoles form such a group and are
together considered as endomembrane system of the cell.
i) Organelles having distinct functions are not included in endomembrane
system. e.g. mitochondria or chloroplast carryout specific type of energy
conversions in the cell.
4. Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER):
The endoplasmic reticulum is a complicated system of membranous
channels and flattened vesicles. It is physically continuous with the outer
membrane of the nuclear envelope. It is revealed from the electron microscopic
studies of eukaryotic cells that there is a presence of a network or reticulum of tiny

10
 tubular structures that are being scattered in the cytoplasm.
ER is known to be absent in prokaryotes but is present in all eukaryotic cells
except germinal cells and mature human RBCs.
Endoplasmic reticulum divides the intracellular space into two main
compartments
(i) Luminal (inside ER) compartment
(ii) Extra-luminal (cytoplasm) compartment,
Types of Endoplasmic Reticulum
Endoplasmic reticulum is mainly of two types, depending upon the nature of its
membranes
1. Smooth Endoplasmic Reticulum (SER) These are smooth because they do not bear
ribosomes in the form of granules on their surfaces. It is present in cells where
they act as a major site for the synthesis of lipid and also helps in synthesis of
steroidal hormone in animal cells.
2. Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum (RER) They are found extensive and continuous
with the outer membrane of nucleus. These have rough membrane because they
bear ribosomes being attached to their surfaces.
(iii) They are actively being seen in the cells which have their involvement in the
synthesis and secretion of proteins.
Functions
Endoplasmic reticulum possess the following functions
(i) It provides support to the colloidal cytoplasmic matrix.
(ii) Helps in the rapid intracellular transport of the material.
(iii)ER membranes contains a variety of enzymes for various metabolic processes,
e.g., ATPase, phosphatases, etc.

11
 Characteristic Smooth ER (SER) Rough ER (RER)

Membrane Smooth ER has smooth membranes due to Appears rough due to presence of number of
absence of ribosomes. ribosomes on membrane.

Occurrence In glycogen storing liver cells, adipose In cells which are actively engaged in protein
cells, interstitial cells, etc. It is commonly synthesis and secretory activity, e.g.,
found in leucocytes. It is usually peripheral pancreatic cells, plasma ce s. RER is mostly
and connected with plasmalemma. SER made of cisternae. Tubules are very few. It is
consists mainly of vesicles and tubules. often internal and connected with nuclear

Functions - Detoxification - Provides surface for ribosome attachment and

- Storage of glycogen, fat and sterol. protein synthesis.
- Lipid synthesis - Forms SER by losing ribosomes.
- Gives rise to sphaerosomes. - Modification and packaging of newly formed
proteins.
- Helps in formation of lysosomes.

5. Golgi complex
Discovered by V. Golgi (1898) -In nerve cells of owl and named” internal
reticular apparatus “(Golgi body first observed by L. S George)

 Golgibody is single membrane bound cell organelle.

 About 60% proteins and 40% phospholipis occur in golgi body.
Golgi body also named as
 Golgi body
 Daliton complex
 Golgi complex
 Lipochondria (rich in lipids)
 Baker’ body
 Idiosome
 Dictyosome (plant golgi body)
 Trophspogium

12
 The cytoplasm surrounding Golgi body have fewer or no other organelles.
It iscalled Golgi ground substance or zone of exclusion.
Golgi bodies are pleomorphic structures because component of golgi body are
differ in structure & shape in different cells.
STRUCTURE
Golgi complex is made up of four parts-
(1) Cisternae: -These are unbranched saccules likes smooth E. R, 4to 8 saccules are
arranged on a stack. Dense opaque material inside cisternae is called Nodes.
Convex surface of cisternae which is towards the nucleus is called cis-
face or forming face.
Concave surface of cisternae which is towards the membrane is called
Trans face or maturing face.
(2) Tubules: -These are branched and irregular tube-like structures associated
with cisternae.
(3) Vacuoles: - large spherical structures associated to tubules.
(4) Vesicles: - Spherical structures arise by budding form tubules. Vesicles are
filled with secretory materials.
FUNCTIONS
(1) Cell Secretion: -Chief function of Golgi body is secretion (export) of
macromolecules.
Secretion involve three steps:
(a) Golgi body receives the materials from E. R. through it’s cis-face.
(b) Materials are chemically modified by golgi body, For e. g. glycosidation of
proteins and lipids takes place in Golgi body
(c) After chemical modifications materials are packed in vesicles. These vesicles
are pinched off from trans face of golgi body and discharged outside the cell
(Reverse pinocytosis)
 Golgi complex involves secretion of zymogen granules from pancreas,
secretion of lactoptein from mammmary Glands.
 The secretion of hormone by endocrine glands is mediated through
golgibodies.
All the macromolecules which are to be sent outside the cell, move through
the Golgi body. So golgi body is termed as “principal director of
macromolecular traffic in cell” or middle men of cell.
(2) Synthesis of cell wall Material (polysaccharide synthesis)
(3) Cell plate formation (phragmoplast) during cell formation.
(4) Formation of acrosome during spermiogensis, (form of male gametes)
(5) Vitelline membrane of egg is secreted by golgi body.
(6) Formation of Lysosome-It is collective function of golgi body and E. R.
(7) Mucilage secretion by root cells for lubrication to soil.
(8) Secretion of hormones by cells of glands.

13
6. Lysosomes
These are membrane bounded vesicles that are produced by the Golgi
apparatus. They are rich in several hydrolytic digestive enzymes
(hydrolases-lipases, proteases, amylases, etc.). As these are optimally active
at the acidic pH (less than 7). Therefore, are also called acid hydrolases and
are capable of digesting macromolecules from various sources like
carbohydrates, lipids and nucleic acids.
Generally these lysosomal enzymes are inactive in nature but when
lysosome comes in contact with another particular organelle to form hybrid
structure becomes active.
After the action of enzymes lysosome is again reformed and reused.
Lysosomes are highly polymorphic cell organelle. Because, during
functioning, lysosomes have different morphological and physiological
states. They are classified as-
TYPES OF LYSOSOMES
(1) Primary Lysosomes or storage granules : -These lysosomes store
enzyme Acid Hydrolases in the inactive form. (Enzymes synthesized on
ribosomes in cytoplasm) these are newly formed lysosome.
(2) Secondary lysosomes/Digestive vacuoles or Heterophagosomes: - These
lysosome forms by the fusion of primary lysosomes and phagosomes.
These are secondary Lysosomes.
(3) Tertiary lysosomes/Residual bodies: - Lysosomes containing undigested
material are called residual bodies, these may be eliminated by exocytosis.
These are also called as Telolysosomes . (Tertiary lysosomes)
(4) Autophagic Lysosomes or Cytolysosomes or autophagosomes: -
Lysosomes containing cell organelles to be digested are known as
Autophagosomes.

Lysosomes bring about intracellular and extracellular digestion.

The intracellular digestion is brought about by autophagic vesicle or

14
 secondary lysosomes which contain foreign materials brought in by
processes like phagocytosis. e.g. Food vacuole in amoeba or macrophages in
human blood that engulf and destroy harmful microbes that enter the body.

Extracellular digestion is brought about by release of lysosomal enzymes

outside the cell. e.g. acrosome, a cap like structure inhuman sperm is a
modified lysosome which contain various enzyme like Hyaluronidase.
These enzymes bring about fertilization by dissolving protective layers
of ovum.
During metamorphosis process found in many organisms e.g. tadpole of
frog, lysosomal enzymes help in reusing the tissues of redundant organs.
They also help in destruction of malignant cells. e.g. T-lymphocytes.
7. Vacuoles-
 Vacuoles are membrane bound sacs prominently found in plant cells,
which are 2 to 3 in number.
 In animal cells, if present they are few in number and smaller in size.
 In some large plant cells, a single large vacuole occupies the central
part of the cell. Itis called central vacuole. In such cell’s vacuole can
occupy as much as 90% of the total volume of the cell.
 The vacuoles are bound by semipermeable membrane, called
tonoplast membrane. This membrane helps in maintaining the
composition of vacuolar fluid(cell sap of vacuole) from that of the
cytosol.
 Composition of cell sap differs in different types of cells. The cell sap
of central vacuole is a store house of various ion and thus is
hypertonic to cytosol.
 Small vacuoles in seeds of certain plants store organic materials like
proteins.
 Vacuoles store excretory products or even compounds that are
harmful or unpalatable to herbivores, thereby protecting the plants.

15
  Attractive colours of the petals are due to storage of such pigments in
vacuoles.
 Intake of food or foreign particle by phagocytosis involves formation
of food vacuole.
 In fresh water unicellular forms like Paramoecium, excretion and
osmoregulation takes place by contractile vacuoles thus, Vacuoles
maintain turgidity of the cell.

There are several single plasma membranes bounded cell

organelles in plant and animal cells they are-
Microbodies: Microbodies are found in both plant and animal cells.
These are minute membrane bound sacs. Microbodies contain various
types of enzymes based on which they are classified into following
types-
1. Sphaerosomes: These are found mainly in cells involved in synthesis
and storage of fats. e. g. endosperm of oil seeds. The membrane of
sphaerosome is half unit membrane i.e. this membrane has only one
phospholipid layer.
2. Peroxisomes: Peroxisomes contain enzymes that remove hydrogen
atoms from substrate and produce toxic hydrogen peroxide by
utilisation of oxygen. At the same time peroxisome also contains
enzymes that convert toxic H2O2to water. Conversion of toxic
substances like alcohol takes place in liver cells by peroxisomes.

16
8. Glyoxysomes-
 These are membranes bound organelles contain enzymes that
convert fatty acids to sugar.
 They can be observed in cells of germinating seeds where the cells
utilize stored fats as source of sugar till it starts photosynthesizing
on its own.

9. Mitochondria-
 Mitochondria are membrane bound cell organelles, essential for aerobic
respiration of eukaryotic cells.
 These are also known as power house of the cell. Thus, they produce
cellular energy in the form of ATP.
Occurrence
 Mitochondria are present in all living cell except, prokaryotic cell and
certain specialised eukaryotic cell such as anaerobic cells and mature
RBCs.
 It is revealed from the studies that mitochondria are not easily visible,
unless it is specifically stained with mitochondrial stains like
acetocarmine or actoorcin.
Shape and Size
 Mitochondria vary considerably according to the shape and size.
 They have varying shape such as granular fibrillar, spherical, oval,
discodial, etc.
 Average size of mitochondria is 2-6 µm in length and 0.5 µm in diameter
(typical cylindrical or sausage-shaped mitochondria has diameter of 0.2-
1.0µ).
Ultrastructure
 A mitochondrion contains two membranes, i.e., outer and inner.

17
  Out of which outer membrane is smooth and forms the continuous
boundary of the organelle.
 The inner membrane is infolded which is semipermeable to some
metabolites.
 Inner membrane shows several finger or plate like structures called
cristae.
 The cristae are responsible for increasing the physiological active area or
surface area.
 The density of cristae determines the intensity of respiration.
 Cristae having numerous pegs like structures called as oxysomes or f1
particles or electron transporting particles or Fernandez moron particles
or elementary particles.
 Each particle consists of Head (F1) stalk(F6) and foot(F0) parts.
 Head acts as a enzyme ATP synthase and foot as proton channel.
 Oxysomes are involved in proton pumping and ATP synthesis.
 The outer and the inner membranes divides its lumen into two aqueous
compartments separately, i.e., the outer and the inner compartment.
 Inner compartment is also called matrix, which forms the inner core of
the mitochondrion.
 The matrix also possesses single circular DNA molecule, a few RNA
molecules, ribosomes (70S) and the components required for the
synthesis of proteins.
 The mitochondria divide by fission.
 The two membranes of mitochondria have their own specific enzymes
associated with mitochondrial function.
Functions
Mitochondria possess the following functions
(i) Mitochondria provide important intermediates for the synthesis of several
biochemicals like pyrimidines, alkaloids, etc.

18
 (ii) The inner chamber matrix of the mitochondria has enzyme for the
synthesises of fatty acids.
(iii) Helps in regulation of cellular metabolism.
(iv) Helps in apoptosis (programmed cell death).
(v) Each of membrane potential Mitochondrion is the second largest cell
organelle and are more in animal cells than in plant cells.
10. Plastids
 These are semi-autonomous organelles that have double membrane envelope.
 Plastids have their own genetic material (i.e., DNA). Due to their large size,
they are easily seen under the microscope.
Occurrence
Plastids are found in all plant cells and euglenoides except in some protistans
(e.g., Euglena, Dinophyceae, etc).
Types

Plastids are differentiated into three different types on the basis of the
colour, i.e., type of pigments found in them.
1. Leucoplasts
These are the colourless plastids of varied shapes and sizes which stores nutrients
in the form of carbohydrates lipids and proteins.
These are of following three types
(а) Amyloplasts are the carbohydrates (starch) containing leucoplast,
e.g., Rice, wheat, potato, etc.
Amyloplasts are larger than the normal/original size of leucoplast.
(b) Elaioplasts are the leucoplast which stores oils and fats,
e.g., Tuberose endosperm of castor seeds, etc.
(c) Aleuroplasts are the protein storing leucoplast.
e.g., Maize (aleurone cells).
2. Chromoplasts
These are the leucoplast, which are yellow or reddish in appearance because of
the presence of fat-soluble carotenoid pigment carotene.

19
 Xanthophyll and some other pigments are also present as the fat-soluble
carotenoid pigment other than carotene, e.g., Orange colour of carrot, etc.
3. Chloroplasts
 These are the plastids which are greenish in colour containing
photosynthetic pigments chlorophyll and carotenoids.
 These pigments are responsible for trapping the light energy, essential
for the photosynthesis, i.e., the synthesis of organic food from an
inorganic raw material in the presence of sunlight.
Occurrence
Chloroplasts occur in major number in the photosynthetic mesophyll
cells of leaves and green stem.
Shape and Size
 They may be lens-shaped, oval, spherical, discoid or even ribbon-like
organelles. They also have variable length (5-10 mm) and width (2-4
mm).
Number
Their number varies from one per cell of the Chlamydomonas (a green
alga) to 2-40 per cell in mesophyll.

Structure

 Chloroplasts are green plastids.

 These are the special protoplasmic organelles present only in the green
cells of plants.
 Chloroplasts act as photosynthetic apparatus.
 The entire process of photosynthesis is completed in each chloroplast.
Hence, these are the site of photosynthetic reactions.
i) It is the structural and functional unit of photosynthesis which is studied by
Willstatter et al .

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 ii) It is bounded by double lipoprotenous membranes called peristomium or
chloroplast envelope (40˚ -60˚ A)
iii) The outer membrane is thin and permeable to no. of solute and metabolites
iv) The inner membrane is thick and selectively permeable.
v) In between these two membranes a space is present known as periplastidal
space (100˚ -200˚ A)
vi) Inside the peristomium a space or cavity is present which is filled by
coloureless hydrophilic matrix called as stroma.
vii) The matrix having no. of granules, enzymes, DNA, RNA, 70 Ribosome.
viii) The DNA of Chloroplasts is called chloroplast DNA or ctDNA or Plastidome.
ix) Here, stroma is the site for the dark reaction.
x) Inside the stroma 40 to 100 grana are present
xi) Each granum is unit of plates which are arranged one upon another and such
grana are connected with each other by thin lamellae called as intergrana
lamellae or stroma lamellae or fret channels having the enzyme carboxylase
useful for CO2 fixation.
xii) Each disc like structure of grana separately called as Thylakoids. In
prokaryotes like cyanobacteria, purple bacteria, etc., thylakoids are present
but they lie naked in the cytoplasm
xiii) According to the quantasomal theory the thylakoid having a membrane
called as thylakoid membrane or fret membrane.
xiv) The thylakoid membrane is made up of ultra microscopic hemispherical
units called quantasome .
xv) The term quantasome is given by Park and Biggins.
Each quantasome internally having 200 – 250 pigment systems like –
 chlorophyll A C55H72O5N4Mg (Dark green)it directly takes part in
photochemical reaction hence called as primary photosynthetic
pigment ,
 chlorophyll B C55H70O6N4Mg (yellow green),
 Xanthophyll C40H56O2(yellow) e.g.Lutein which is responsible for
yellow colour in autumn foliage
 carotene C40H56 (orange) it protects plants from photooxidation.
Chloroplasts possess the following functions
(i) Helps in photosynthesis, i.e., formation of organic compounds.
(ii) In consumption of C02 and release of 02 in photosynthesis.
(iii) May also change into chromoplast in order to provide colour to
many flowers and fruits.
(iv) Helps in storing fat and lipids.
(v) Functions in transduction of energy.

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11. Ribosome-
 These are the protein factories of the cell as they are concern with protein
synthesis.
 These are the small sub-spherical granular organelles, not bounded by any
membrane.
 Ribosomes were first observed by George Palade (1953), as the dense particles
under the electron microscope. Hence, are also called Palade particles.
 Ribosomes are mainly composed of ribosomal RNA and proteins called as
ribonucleoproteins (i. e., RNA-t- proteins)

 In the prokaryotic ribosomes are 70S type, while the eukaryotic ribosomes
are 80S type. Here, ‘S’ (Svedberg’s unit) stands for sedimentation coefficient
(measure of density and size).1S=10-13 sec
 Both 70S and 80S ribosomes contains two sub-units, i.e., the smaller and the
larger sub-unit
 In a eukaryotic cell, ribosomes are present in mitochondria, plastids and in
cytosol.
 Ribosomes in cytoplasm are either found attached to outer surface of Rough
Endoplasmic Reticulum and nuclear membrane or freely suspended in
cytoplasm.
 Bound ribosomes generally produce proteins that are transported outside the
cell after processing in ER and Golgi body.
e.g. Bound ribosomes of acinar cells of pancreas produce pancreatic digestive
enzymes.
 Free ribosome come together and form chains called polyribosomes for
protein synthesis.
 Number of ribosomes is high in cells actively engaged in protein synthesis.

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12. Nucleus-
 Robert Brown studied in detail the orchid root cells and named the nucleus in
1831.
 A nucleus is called as controller or director of the cell.
 It controls heredity, growth and metabolism in a cell as experimentally proved
by Hammerling.

 The eukaryotic cell has at least one nucleus. However, it is absent in

prokaryotes, mature phloem sieve tube elements and mature RBCs or
erythrocytes of mammals.
Structure of the nucleus
Nucleus shows the presence of:
Nuclear membrane or nuclear envelope or karyotheca,
Nucleoplasm / Karyoplasm / Karyolymph,
Nucleolus / Little nucleus
Chromatin material
Nuclear membrane:
 Two-unit membranes cover the nucleus, thus it is a double
membranous component of the cell.
 Space between two membranes of the nucleus is known as perinuclear
space (10 to 50nm).
 The outer membrane of the nucleus is connected with ER at several
places and ribosomes also found on it.
 Nuclear membrane has minute nuclear pores which are the result of
the two membrane fusion.

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  The nuclear pores have an octagonal discoid structure as the guard for
them which is made of nucleoplasmin protein.
 This pore with protein structure is called as annulus or Bleb (Annulus +
Pore = Nuclear Pore complex).
 Pore complex is the connection for nucleoplasm and cytoplasm, and
nucleoplasmin is responsible for nucleocytoplasmic traffic (movement
of RNA and proteins).
 The nuclear membrane is continuous with ER in the telophase of the cell
division.
Nucleoplasm or Karyolymph:
Nucleoplasm (Nuclear sap) is a ground substance or matrix of the nucleus
which includes a complex colloidal form of many chemicals like nucleotides, RNA
and DNA polymerase, endonucleases, minerals (Ca++, Mg++) etc. Chromatin net
and nucleolus are a part of nucleoplasm.
Chromatin net (Term given by Flemming):
 These are intranuclear, long, threadlike thin fibres, embedded in the
nucleoplasm.
 It is made up of DNA, histone protein, non-histone protein and RNA.
 Chromatin fibres condense in cell division to collect all the genetic
information and form a fixed number of chromosomes.
 Chemically chromatin has DNA (31%), RNA (2%–5%), Histone protein
(36%) and non-histone (28%). 20% to 30% histone includes arginine
and lysine amino acids.
 The relative amount of arginine and lysine change in histones which is
the basis for its classification into five types of Histone protein. (H2A,
H2B, H3, H4, H1).
 Acetocarmine (basic dye) staining reveals two type of regions in
chromatin net.
Euchromatin – Lightly stained and diffused part which is transcriptionally
or genetically more active.
Heterochromatin – Dark stained, thick and condensed part of chromatin,
having more histone and less acidic protein. This part is genetically less
active.
Nucleolus:
 Nucleolus is one per nucleus. A human cell has five nucleoli.
 The nucleolus is naked or without any membrane, round or slightly
irregular part present in the nucleus.
 It is attached to chromatin (or chromosomes) at a specific site called as
nucleolar organizer region (NOR).
 Nucleolus is called as the ribosome factory of the cell, as it has the
proteins for ribosomes synthesis.

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  r-RNA (synthesized by nucleolus) and ribosomal proteins are
assembled in nucleolus to form ribosomes.
 Active cells for protein synthesis have larger and more numerous
nucleoli.
 r-RNA and protein are synthesized in the cytoplasm for all prokaryotes.
13. Cytoskeleton :
With advancement in light and electron microscopy, scientists revealed
presence of network of fibrils throughout the cytoplasm.
It is called cytoskeleton. Cytoskeleton consists of microtubules, microfilaments

and intermediate filaments. Microtubules are made up of protein- tubulin.

Microfilaments are made up of actin and intermediate filaments are composed of
fibrous proteins. Cytoskeleton helps in maintenance of shape of cell, contraction
of cell, mobility of cell and cell organelles, changes in shape of the cells and cell
division.
Cilia and flagella:
 They are fine hair like membrane bound protoplasmic outgrowths that occur
on the free surface of the cell.
 They generate a current in fluid medium for passage of material and
locomotion.
 Cilia are small in size and many in number. Cilia act as oars causing movement
of cell.
 Flagella are longer and few in number.
 Flagella present in prokaryotic bacteria are structurally different from that of
eukaryotic flagella.
 Cilium or flagellum consists of basal body, basal plate and shaft.
 Basal body is placed in outer part of cytoplasm. It is derived from centriole. It
has nine peripheral triplets of fibrils.

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  Shaft is exposed part of cilia or flagella. It consists of two parts-sheath and
axoneme.
 Sheath is covering membrane of cilium or flagellum.
 Core called axoneme having 11fibrils running parallel to long axis. It shows9
peripheral doublets and two single central fibrils (9+2). The central tubules
are enclosed by central sheath.
 This sheath is connected to one of the tubules of peripheral doublets by a radial
spoke.

 Central tubules are connected to each other by bridges.

 The peripheral doublets are connected to each other through linkers or
interdoublet bridge.
Centrioles and centrosomes:

 Centrosome is usually found near the nucleus of an animal cell.

 It contains a pair of cylindrical structures called centrioles.
 The cylinders are perpendicular to each other and are surrounded by
amorphous substance called pericentriolar material.
 Each cylinder of centriole consists of nine sets of triplet microtubules
chemically made up of tubulin.
 Evenly spaced triplets are connected to each other by means of non-tubulin
proteins.
 At the proximal end of centriole, there is a set of tubules called hub.
 The peripheral triplets are connected to hub by means of radial spokes.
 Due to this proximal end of centriole looks like a cartwheel.
 The centrosomes help in assembly of spindle apparatus during cell division.
Which forms basal body of cilia and flagella.

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