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Gi-Chul Yang · Sio-Iong Ao
Len Gelman Editors

Transactions
on Engineering
Technologies
World Congress on Engineering 2014
Transactions on Engineering Technologies
Gi-Chul Yang • Sio-Iong Ao • Len Gelman
Editors

Transactions on Engineering
Technologies
World Congress on Engineering 2014

123
Editors
Gi-Chul Yang Sio-Iong Ao
Multimedia Engineering IAENG Secretariat
College of Engineering International Association of Engineers
Mokpo National University Hong Kong, Hong Kong SAR
Chonnam, Korea
Republic of (South Korea)

Len Gelman
Department of Applied
Mathematics & Computing
School of Engineering
Cranfield University
Cranfield, Bedfordshire, UK

ISBN 978-94-017-9803-7 ISBN 978-94-017-9804-4 (eBook)

DOI 10.1007/978-94-017-9804-4

Library of Congress Control Number: 2015936284

Springer Dordrecht Heidelberg New York London

© Springer Science+Business Media Dordrecht 2015
This work is subject to copyright. All rights are reserved by the Publisher, whether the whole or part of
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Preface

A large international conference on Advances in Engineering Technologies and

Physical Science was held in London, U.K., 2–4 July, 2014, under the World
Congress on Engineering 2014 (WCE 2014). The WCE 2014 is organized by the
International Association of Engineers (IAENG); the Congress details are available
at: http://www.iaeng.org/WCE2014. IAENG is a non-profit international association
for engineers and computer scientists, which was founded originally in 1968. The
World Congress on Engineering serves as good platforms for the engineering
community to meet with each other and to exchange ideas. The conferences
have also struck a balance between theoretical and application development. The
conference committees have been formed with over 300 committee members who
are mainly research center heads, faculty deans, department heads, professors, and
research scientists from over 30 countries. The congress is truly global international
event with a high level of participation from many countries. The response to
the Congress has been excellent. There have been more than 900 manuscript
submissions for the WCE 2014. All submitted papers have gone through the peer
review process, and the overall acceptance rate is 51 %.
This volume contains 51 revised and extended research articles written by promi-
nent researchers participating in the conference. Topics covered include mechanical
engineering, bioengineering, internet engineering, wireless networks, signal and
image engineering, manufacturing engineering, and industrial applications. The
book offers the state of art of tremendous advances in engineering technologies and
physical science and applications, and also serves as an excellent reference work for
researchers and graduate students working on engineering technologies and physical
science and applications.

Chonnam, Korea, Republic of (South Korea) Gi-Chul Yang

Hong Kong, Hong Kong SAR Sio-Iong Ao
Cranfield, Bedfordshire, UK Len Gelman

v
Contents

1 Numerical Study of Conjugate Natural Convection

from Discrete Heat Sources.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
Farouq A. Gdhaidh, Khalid Hussain, and Hong-Sheng Qi
2 Study of Soil-Structure Interaction Problems Using Mixed
FEM-BEM Formulations .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
Dimas Betioli Ribeiro and João Batista de Paiva
3 A Study of the Reliability of Electronic Telecommunication
Systems Working at Subsea Level . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
Sabuj Mallik and Franziska Kaiser
4 The Navier-Stokes Problem in Infinite Space.. . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
Kulyash Kaliyeva and Asset Kaliyev
5 Transient Problem for a Accreted Thermoelastic Block . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67
Alexander L. Levitin and Sergei A. Lychev
6 Developing of a 1-D Combustion Model and Study
of Engine Performance and Exhaust Emission Using
Ethanol-Gasoline Blends . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85
Simeon Penchev Iliev
7 An Approach to Modeling of Additive Manufacturing Technologies . 99
Alexander V. Manzhirov and Sergei A. Lychev
8 Analysis of the Cutting Forces in Manufacturing Stainless
Steel Femoral Heads Using Finite Element Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117
Nikolaos I. Galanis and Dimitrios E. Manolakos
9 Flowslide Investigations Test Rig Design . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131
Giandomenico Di Massa, Luca Pagano,
Stefano Pagano, Michele Russo, Riccardo Russo,
and Maria Claudia Zingariello

vii
viii Contents

10 Influence of Wire EDM on Fracture Toughness of TI6AL4V . . . . . . . . . 147

Daniel M. Madyira and Esther T. Akinlabi
11 Accuracy of Available Methods to Evaluate Vierendeel
Failure Load .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 163
Pattamad Panedpojaman and Worathep Sae-Long
12 Influence of Tibial Translation on Estimates of Patellar
Tendon Force During Knee Flexion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 177
Ahmed Imran
13 Numerical Simulation of the Aerodynamic Loads on Trees
During Storms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 187
Edward Chern Jinn Gan and Salim Mohamed Salim
14 Effecting Quench Agitation by Immersion Speed
Variation of C30 Carbon Steel and Mechanical Properties
Examination .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 201
Segun Mathew Adedayo, Adebayo Surajudeen Adekunle,
and Tunji Ebenezer Oladimeji
15 Ventilation Flow Through a Room Fitted
with a Windcatcher Using a LES CFD Technique . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 213
Amirreza Niktash and B. Phuoc Huynh
16 Visualising Dynamic Stall Around a Vertical Axis Wind
Turbine Blade Through Particle Image Velocimetry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 223
Okeoghene Eboibi, Jonathan Edwards, Robert Howell,
and Louis Angelo Danao
17 Discrete and Continuous Growth of Deformable Cylinder . . . . . . . . . . . . 239
Sergei A. Lychev, Alexander V. Manzhirov,
and Pavel S. Bychkov
18 Design and Characterization of a Model Pilot Multi-tube
for the Transfer of Heating the Fire Tube Boilers
in Academic Laboratories . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 255
Austin Ikechukwu Gbasouzor
19 Experimental and Computational Studies on Effects
of Scale-Up of Riser on Heat Transfer Chatacterisitcs
of Circulating Fluidized Bed . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 289
Ranjit S. Patil, Pinakeswar Mahanta, and Manmohan Pandey
20 Predicting the Influence of the Machining Parameters
on the Tool Tip Temperature .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 305
S.A. Chowdhury, M.N. Islam, and B. Boswell
Contents ix

21 Production Planning for Make-to-Order Flow Shop

System Under Hierarchical Workforce Environment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 317
Sujan Piya and Nasr Al-Hinai
22 A Conceptual Framework for Analysing Supply Chain
Performance of Oil Palm Refinery in Malaysia . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 331
Fitra Lestari, Kamariah Ismail, Abu Bakar Abdul Hamid,
Eko Supriyanto, and Wahyudi Sutopo
23 Investigations on Abrasive Electrochemical Grinding
Process (AECG).. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 341
Jerzy Kozak and Grzegorz Skrabalak
24 Pre-cooling Effects on the Resulting Grain Size in Friction
Stir Processing of AZ31B . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 355
Ali H. Ammouri, Ghassan T. Kridli, George Y. Ayoub,
and Ramsey F. Hamade
25 Survey on Simulation Methods in Multi-axis Machining . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 367
Khadidja Bouhadja and Mohamed Bey
26 An Approach to Modelate Human Error on Biodiesel
Plants: Analysis of Active Failures and Latent Conditions . . . . . . . . . . . . 383
R.D. Calvo Olivares, S.S. Rivera, and J.E. Núñez Mc Leod
27 Exploring Pareto Frontiers in the Response Surface Methodology .. . 399
Nuno Ricardo Costa and João Alves Lourenço
28 The Implications of Wet and Dry Turning on the Surface
Quality of EN8 Steel .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 413
Zulfiqar Ahmad Khan, Matthew Grover,
and Mian Hammad Nazir
29 Variable Selection Methods for Process Monitoring .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 425
Luan Jaupi
30 Grouping of Visible Terminals for Achieving High
Throughput of Wireless Networks .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 437
Kengo Michishita and Yasushi Wakahara
31 Experimental Study on RSS Based Indoor Positioning Algorithms . . 451
Hélder David Malheiro da Silva, José Augusto Afonso,
and Luís Alexandre Rocha
32 Study and Simulation of Protocols of WSN Using NS2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 467
Ouafaa Ibrihich, Salah-ddine Krit, Jalal Laassiri,
and Said El Hajji
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x Contents

33 Building Successfull Brand on the Internet. . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 481

Tina Vukasović
34 An Active Integrated Zigbee RFID System with GPS
Functionalities for Location Monitoring Utilizing Wireless
Sensor Network and GSM Communication Platform .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 495
Farhana Ahmad Poad and Widad Ismail
35 Leveraging MMWAVE Technology for Mobile
Broadband/Internet of Things . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 507
Oluwadamilola Oshin, Oluyinka Oni, Aderemi Atayero,
and Babasanjo Oshin
36 Fast Power-Efficient Techniques for Collision Detection
in Wireless Sensor Networks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 515
Fawaz Alassery, Walid Ahmed, Mohsen Sarraf,
and Victor Lawrence
37 Power Aware Virtual Path Routing Protocol for Cognitive
Radio Ad Hoc Networks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 531
Farhan Mahmud, Qurratulain Minhas, Hasan Mahmood,
Zia Muhammad, and Hafiz Malik
38 Performance Evaluation of VoIP QoS Parameters Using
WiFi-UMTS Networks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 547
Mahdi Hassan Miraz, Muzafar Aziz Ganie, Maaruf Ali,
Suhail Ahmed Molvi, and AbdelRahman Hamza Hussein
39 Extended Performance Studies of Wi-Fi IEEE 802.11 A, B,
G Laboratory Wep Point-to-Multipoint and Point-to-Point Links. . . . 563
J.A.R. Pacheco de Carvalho, C.F. Ribeiro Pacheco,
A.D. Reis, and H. Veiga
40 Deterministic Ethernet Using a Network Traffic Oscillator . . . . . . . . . . . 573
Yuen Kwan Mo, Mark S. Leeson, and Roger J. Green
41 Cryptographic Adversary Model: Timing and Power Attacks .. . . . . . . 585
Mohd Anuar Mat Isa, Habibah Hashim,
Amir Hamzah Abd Ghafar, Jamalul-lail Ab Manan,
Syed Farid Syed Adnan, and Ramlan Mahmod
42 Using Elliptic Curve Encryption and Decryption
for Securing Audio Messages . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 599
Artan Luma, Besnik Selimi, and Lirim Ameti
43 A Series of Secret Keys in a Key Distribution Protocol . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 615
Mohd Anuar Mat Isa, Habibah Hashim,
Jamalul-lail Ab Manan, Syed Farid Syed Adnan,
and Ramlan Mahmod
Contents xi

44 Forensics Issues in Cloud Usage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 629

William R. Simpson
45 Undergraduate Student Retention Prediction Using
Wavelet Decomposition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 643
Ji-Wu Jia and Manohar Mareboyana
46 Construction of Radar SAR Images from Digital Terrain
Model and Geometric Corrections . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 657
Philippe Durand, Luan Jaupi, and Dariush Ghorbanzadeh
47 Traffic Light Control Based on the Road Image Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . 669
Obada M.A. Bani Issa, Venus W. Samawi,
and Jehad Q. Alnihoud
48 On Cellular Automata Framework for Image Processing Hardware. 687
Abdul Raouf Khan and Md. Al-Amin Bhuiyan
49 Dynamic Simulation of the Temporomandibular Joint . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 697
Janith Muhandiram, Bin Wang, and Mahmoud Chizari
50 Using Information Gain to Compare the Effeciency
of Machine Learning Techniques When Classifying
Influenza Based on Viral Hosts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 707
Nermin Shaltout, Ahmed Rafea, Ahmed Moustafa,
and Mahmoud El-Hefnawi
51 Process Optimization, Empirical Modeling
and Characterization of Biodiesel from Cottonseed Oil.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 723
Umaru Musa, Aboje Audu Alechenu,
Ibrahim Aris Mohammed, Aliyu Musa Aliyu,
Muhammad Munir Sadiq, and Aminat Oladunni Olaibi

Author Index.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 739

Subject Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 757

Chapter 1
Numerical Study of Conjugate Natural
Convection from Discrete Heat Sources

Farouq A. Gdhaidh, Khalid Hussain, and Hong-Sheng Qi

Abstract The coupling between natural convection and conduction within rectan-
gular enclosure was investigated numerically. Three separate heat sources were flush
mounted on a vertical wall and an isoflux condition was applied at the back of heat
sources. The governing equations were solved using control volume formulation.
A modified Rayleigh number and a substrate/fluid thermal conductivity ratio were
used in the range 104  107 and 10  103 respectively. The investigation was
extended to examine high thermal conductivity ratio values. The results illustrated
that, when Rayleigh number increased the dimensionless heat flux and local Nusselt
number increased and the boundary layers along hot, cold and horizontal walls
were reduced significantly. An opposite behaviour for the thermal spreading in the
substrate and the dimensionless temperature, were decreased for higher Rayleigh
number. Moreover, the thermal spreading in the substrate increased for higher
substrate conductivity, which affected the temperature level. However the effect of
the substrate is negligible when the thermal conductivity ratio higher than 1,500.

Keywords CFD study • Conjugate heat transfer • Control volume • Natural

convection • Rayleigh number • Thermal conductivity

1 Introduction

Coupling between natural convection and conduction heat transfer is evident in

many practical applications. In natural convection the fluid movement is created by
the buoyancy force due to the temperature difference. Therefore no external force
such as fans or coolers are needed which could be the main cause of noise and
vibration. The conducting solid wall could also give additional heat transfer from
the heat source to the fluid. The main drawback of natural convection is the rate of
heat transfer is small compared to forced convection. Previous researches showed,
this problem could be overcome by immersing the system in dielectric liquid [1].

F.A. Gdhaidh () • K. Hussain • H.-S. Qi

Faculty of Engineering and Informatics, University of Bradford, Bradford BD7 1DP, UK
e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected]; [email protected]

© Springer Science+Business Media Dordrecht 2015 1

G.-C. Yang et al. (eds.), Transactions on Engineering Technologies,
DOI 10.1007/978-94-017-9804-4_1
2 F.A. Gdhaidh et al.

Zinnes [2] investigated the conjugate effects in natural convection. He observed

that, the coupling between conduction in a substrate and convection in a fluid
is hugely affected by the substrate/fluid thermal conductivity ratio. Most of the
published works in the field of natural convection from rectangular enclosures
[3–5] whether these enclosures considered vertical or horizontal revealed that, the
isothermal condition was applied to create temperature gradient. Several numerical
investigations [6, 7] considered the conjugate natural convection from a heater
mounted on a substrate immersed in liquid within an enclosure. It was concluded
that most of the generated power was dissipated by the substrate for high value
of substrate/fluid thermal conductivity ratio and the maximum temperature of the
heater was decreased.
Heindel et al. [8] carried out a 3-D numerical and experimental study. Water
and FC-77 were used within the enclosure and an isothermal cold wall at room
temperature was assumed. They concluded that when the applied heat flux went
up the convection coefficients and vertical velocity along heater faces increased.
In addition, the flow inside the cavity became very complex when the Rayleigh
number increased. Moreover, the 2-D numerical predictions exceeded those of 3-
D model by 10–15 %. Further work by Heindel et al. [9] showed that the heat
transfer was enhanced as much as 15 and 24 times for horizontal and vertical cavity
orientations respectively by installing fins on the discrete heaters. The cold wall kept
isothermally at 15 °C by using parallel plate fin arrays.
Numerical predictions of steady state natural convection in a square cavity
was given by Banerjee et al. [10] to determine the sizes of heaters and the
value of applied heat fluxes to ensure the operation within the specified thermal
limit. Wroblewski and Joshi [11, 12] noticed that, at high substrate/fluid thermal
conductivity ratio Rs > 10, the effects of the substrate conductivity especially
on the maximum temperature were found to be very important due to the low
thermal conductivity of the coolant liquid (FC-75). Experimental and numerical
studies of conjugate heat transfer on a heated vertical wall were studied by Bilgen
[13]. It was noticed that the Nusselt number depended on the Rayleigh number
and wall thickness but it was a weak function of conductivity ratio. The thermal
performance of the enclosure was improved with an increase in the Rayleigh number
as reported in [14, 15]. Hyun and Kim [16] noticed that, in the case when the fluid
confined between two plates, the temperature difference had to exceed a certain
value between the plates before fluid motion could be detected.
Many efforts from previous studies using both numerical and experimental
methods are focused on investigation of the effects of Rayleigh number Ra ,
substrate/fluid thermal conductivity ratio Rs and different fluids on the flow and
temperature fields. It is shown that the maximum temperature is decreased with
increasing Rs especially when Rs > 10. In the present study, numerical investigation
was carried out, which shows that although the maximum temperature is reduced by
increasing Rs , but there is a limit on Rs where the maximum temperature remains
constant with increasing Rs over that limit.
1 Numerical Study of Conjugate Natural Convection from Discrete Heat Sources 3

2 Problem Description

A 2-D numerical investigation of the coupling between conduction and natural

convection heat transfer from three discrete heat sources mounted on vertical wall of
a cavity is presented. The opposite vertical wall and the horizontal walls are assumed
to be at constant temperature (isothermal) and adiabatic respectively. Figure 1.1
shows a schematic of the two-dimensional rectangular cavity filled with different
fluids of FC-77 (a dielectric fluorocarbon liquid) and air used in this investigation.
The isoflux condition is applied at the back of each heat source whereas the back of
the substrate was assumed to be adiabatic.  
The height and length of the cavity where assumed  as H and  Ls C Lf
respectively. Aspect ratio of the cavity is fixed at Az D H=Lf D 8 . Table 1.1
illustrates the dimension of the parameters in mm.

Adiabatic

g
Heater 1

Heater 2

Heater 3

Substrate

Fig. 1.1 A schematic diagram of the physical model

Table 1.1 Physical model H Lz Pz Lf Ls ˛

parameters
96 12 16.8 12 6 25.2
4 F.A. Gdhaidh et al.

3 Mathematical Model

The mathematical model is constrained by the following assumptions: 2-D steady

state heat transfer, laminar natural convection flow without viscous dissipation,
contact resistance between the heater/substrate interfaces and the radiation effects
are neglected, the Boussinesq approximation is applied and the gravity acts in the
vertical downward direction.
By using the above assumptions in the differential equations of continuity,
momentum and energy, the governing equations are written in dimensionless form
as:
• In fluid region:
Continuity:

@U @U
C D0 (1.1)
@X @Y
X-momentum:
 
@U @U @P @2 U @2 U
U CV D C Pr 2
C (1.2)
@X @Y @X @X @Y 2

Y-momentum:
       2 
@V @V @P @V @2 V 
U CV D C Pr C C RaL P
z r
(1.3)
@X @Y @Y @X 2 @Y 2

Energy:

@ @ @2  @2 
U CV D 2
C (1.4)
@X @Y @X @Y 2
• In solid region:
In this region there is only energy equation because the velocity components are
zero, therefore the energy equation is written as:

@2  @2 
K1 2
C K2 2 D 0 (1.5)
@X @Y
where K1 and K2 can be either the values of Rh or Rs depends on the position of the
calculation whether in the heater or in the substrate region and:

ks kh
Rs D ; Rh D
kf kf
1 Numerical Study of Conjugate Natural Convection from Discrete Heat Sources 5

The above equations are obtained using the following dimensionless parameters:

x y uLz vLz
XD ; Y D ; U D ; V D (1.6)
Lz Lz ˛f ˛f

p T  Tc
P D  . 2 ;  D  00  (1.7)
q Lz =kf
 ˛f L
z

(1.8)

In order to complete the mathematical model, the following dimensionless

boundary conditions are used:
• At X D 0:


1=Rh at heater
U D V D 0; U D V D 0; @=@X D (1.9)
0 at subst rate
 
• At X D Ls C Lf =Lz :

U D V D 0;  D 0 (1.10)

• At Y D 0:

@
U D V D 0; D0 (1.11)
@Y

• At Y D H=Lz :

@
U D V D 0; D0 (1.12)
@Y
6 F.A. Gdhaidh et al.

The thermal conductivity for dissimilar materials is obtained by the harmonic

mean formulation [17].
The  transfer coefficient at solid/fluid interface is defined as hs D
 local heat
q 00 = Ts.x/  Tc where Ts(x) is the local temperature on the surface [10]. Therefore,
the rate of convection heat transfer at any point in the solid/fluid interface wall is
introduced by the dimensionless number (local Nusselt number Nu(X)) based on
length of heat source, which is written as:

 @
Nu .X / D  (1.13)
w @X w

4 Solution Procedure and Validation

In present study, the control volume technique was used to discretise the gov-
erning Eqs. (1.1, 1.2, 1.3, 1.4, and 1.5). The resulting algebraic equations were
solved sequentially by “TDMA” (Tri-Diagonal Matrix Algorithm). The “SIMPLE”
algorithm (semi-implicit method for pressure linked equations) was used to handle
the coupling between pressure and velocity as described by Patankar [18]. To
avoid the divergence in the iteration process, Under-relaxation techniques were
used to slow down the change between iterations. It is noted that, although the
solid and fluid regions have different equations, the numerical solutions within the
computational domain for continuity, momentum and energy equations are obtained
simultaneously in both regions.
The effect of the number of grid size (N x  Ny/ on the numerical analysis was

carried out under the condition of the enclosure filled with FC-77 and Ral z
D 104 .
Three different uniform grid sizes were tested in both x and y directions. The results
of dimensionless temperature at solid/fluid interface show that, the mesh size of
36 * 80 gave an optimum computational time in comparison with other mesh sizes
and also gave accurate results.
The code is validated against the benchmark results of Heindel et al. [18]. The
validation results show that, dimensionless temperatures at solid/fluid interface have

the same trends and the deviation between them decreases with increase of Ral z
. The

biggest deviation was at the base of the enclosure with 11 % when Ralz D 10 and 4

the percentage is reduced to 6 % at the top of the enclosure.

5 Results and Discussion

The geometry used in this study is represented in Fig. 1.1. Firstly the numerical
study examined the effects of modified Rayleigh number which is based on the
1 Numerical Study of Conjugate Natural Convection from Discrete Heat Sources 7

a 8
b 8
-0.36
-1
7 7 Substrate -10
Substrate
-82.82
g
-7.93 -2
6 6 -20

Heater 1 Heater 1 -77.42

-3
5 5 -30

-4
4 4 -40

3 -5 3 -50

2 -5.75 -6 2
-60

-49.01
1 -7 1
-70
-3.243
-0.742
0 0
0 0.5 1 1.5 0 0.5 1 1.5

 
Fig. 1.2 Dimensionless streamlines § at (a) Ralz
D 104 and (b) Ralz
D 107 for FC-77 Pr D 25,
Rh D 2350 and Rs D 10

applied isoflux condition in the range Ralz D 104  107 for both fluids (FC-77 and
air) and then the effect of thermal conductivity ratio Rs was examined in the range
10  1000 for FC-77 only when the modified Rayleigh number fixed at 106 .

5.1 Effects of Modified Rayleigh Number

Modified Rayleigh number was varied by changing the applied power to each
heat source. The heaters’ material used for the study was silicon with thermal
conductivity (kh D 148 W=mK) producing constant heat flux and the heater/fluid
thermal conductivity ratio is Rh D 2350 for FC-77 and Rh D 5627 for air. The
fluid Prandtl number is assumed to be 25 corresponding to FC-77 and 0.7 for
air, respectively. The flow field inside the enclosure is presented by dimensionless
stream function as follow:

U D @§=@Y; V D @§=@X (1.14)

Figures 1.2 and 1.3 illustrate the dimensionless streamlines for FC-77 and air

respectively. Figure 1.2a represents the results for Ral z
D 104 , where the flow is
weak with j§jmax D 7:93, where § is an absolute value. There is a small core
of nearly stagnant fluid located slightly above the centre of the enclosure, and the
heaters regions are very clear.
8 F.A. Gdhaidh et al.

a 8
b 0

7 Substrate -1 1 Substrate -10

-57.46 g
6 2
-2 -20
Heater 1 Heater 1
5 -6.44 3 -62.9
-3 -30
4 4

-4 5 -40
3

2 6
-4.97 -5
-50
-28.35
1 -3.51 7
-6
-2.43 -60
0 8
0 0.5 1 1.5 0 0.5 1 1.5

 
Fig. 1.3 Dimensionless streamlines § at (a) Ralz
D 104 and (b) Ralz
D 107 for air Pr D 0:7,
Rh D 5627 and Rs D 24

Figure 1.3a shows that, the flow inside the enclosure for air is also weak with
j§jmax D 6:436 but the flow is smooth. Additionally there is a thick thermal
boundary layer along solid/fluid interface wall for both fluids.

It is noticed that, with increasing Ral z
the boundary layers along hot, cold and
horizontal walls become thinner. Also the flow developed in the central region of
the cavity and becomes complex. Additionally as a result of the fluid circulation in
clockwise direction, the cold fluid swept the hot fluid near the leading edge of each
heater row and that is more noticeable for FC-77.
The dimensionless isotherms  are shown in Figs. 1.4 and 1.5. For both fluids

when Ral z
D 104 , the contour lines of  is nearly vertical in fluid region because the
heat transfer is controlled by conduction. The lines for air are smoother than FC-77
where the effects of heater edges are clear.

With increasing Ral z
D 107 the central of fluid region is completely stratified
and the thermal boundary layers of hot and cold walls are extremely thin. Because
of the large thermal conductivity of heaters, each heater face is isothermal but the
temperatures are different from one heater to another.
The dimensionless temperatures () at solid/fluid interface for both fluids
are studied and presented in Gdhaidh et al. [19]. The results indicate that, the

dimensionless temperature decreases Ral z
increase due to the increase in .T  Tc /
00
and hence not equal to the increase in q .
Also the dimensionless local heat flux b q 00 and the local Nusselt number Nu(X) are
00
investigated. In general, both of bq and Nu(X) increase for higher Rayleigh number.
For more details, see Gdhaidh et al. [19].
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1 Numerical Study of Conjugate Natural Convection from Discrete Heat Sources 9

a 8
b 8
0.3
Substrate 0.0062
0.258
7 Substrate 7 0.07
0.07
0.25
0.308
6 6 0.06
Heater 1 Heater1
5 0.2 5
0.05

4 4
0.15 0.04

3 3
0.03
0.1
2 2
0.174 0.02
0.022 0.017 0.0056
1 1
0.05
0.01
0 0
0 0.5 1 1.5 0 0.5 1 1.5

 
Fig. 1.4 Isotherms  at (a) Ralz
D 104 and (b) Ralz
D 107 for FC-77 Pr D 25, Rh D 2350 and
Rs D 10

a b
8 0.25 8
0.25 0.215 Substrate 0.061
0.07
7 Substrate 7 0.072
0.2
6 6 0.06

Heater 1 Heater 1
5 5 0.05
0.15
4 4
0.04

3 3
0.1 0.03

2 2
0.02
0.197
1 0.05 1 0.028
0.016 0.0055 0.01
0 0
0 0.5 1 1.5 0 0.5 1 1.5

 
Fig. 1.5 Isotherms  at: (a) Ralz
D 104 and (b) Ralz
D 107 for air Pr D 0:7, Rh D 5627 and
Rs D 24
10 F.A. Gdhaidh et al.

a8 b
8
-5
-5
7 Substrate 7 Substrate
-10
-10 g
6 6 -15
-46.96 -15
Heater 1 Heater 1 -20
5 5
-20
-25
4
-53.73
4 -25 -30

3 -30 3 -35
-34.1

2 -40
2 -35
-43.98
-18.99 -45
-40 1
1 -31.75 -50
-1.78 -45
0
0 0 0.5 1 1.5
0 0.5 1 1.5

Fig. 1.6 Dimensionless streamline § at (a) Rs D 10 and (b) Rs D 1000 for FC-77 (Pr D 25,

Rh D 2350 and Ral z
D 106 )

5.2 Effects of Substrate/Fluid Thermal Conductivity Ratio

Further investigation was carried using FC-77 to study the effects of the
substrate/fluid thermal conductivity ratio with a fixed modified Rayleigh number

Ral z
D 106 .
Figure 1.6 displays the dimensionless streamlines § for different values of Rs . It
can be noticed that, the value of § increases from j§jmax D 46:9 when Rs D 10 to
j§jmax D 53:7 when Rs D 103 . As Rs increases, the flow pattern becomes smoother,
and the stagnant core is located at the centre of the fluid region. The difference
between the two streamlines in Fig. 1.6a, b is due to a higher thermal conductivity
ratio for the case presented in Fig. 1.6b. Also the flow regions related to the discrete
heaters become indistinguishable at high values of Rs , where the fluid below Heater
3 is preheated causing fluid movement. Additionally the flow is characterised by a
clockwise circulation arising from the heaters due to the buoyancy effects.
Figure 1.7 shows the isotherms  for different values of Rs . From the figure,
the heaters’ faces are isothermal but there are significant differences between the
heaters’ temperatures when Rs D 10. Those differences are due to the large
thermal conductivity of the heaters and low thermal conductivity of the substrate.
The heaters’ temperature increases from Heater 3 to Heater 1 as a result of the
increase in the local fluid temperature along the solid/fluid interface. For high value
of Rs D 103 , the maximum dimensionless temperature is decreased as more energy
is dissipated by the substrate before being transported to the fluid. Moreover, the
1 Numerical Study of Conjugate Natural Convection from Discrete Heat Sources 11

a b
8 8 0.1
0.12

7 Substrate 7 Substrate 0.09

0.079 0.1 0.0639

0.129 0.08
6 6

Heater 1 Heater 1 0.07

5 0.08 5
0.06

4 4
0.05
0.0439 0.06

3 3 0.04

0.04 0.03
2 2 0.0355
0.0994
0.02
1 1
0.009 0.02
0.01
0 0
0 0.5 1 1.5 0 0.5 1 1.5

Fig. 1.7 Isotherms  at (a) Rs D 10 and (b) Rs D 1000 for FC-77 (Pr D 25, Rh D 2350 and

Ral z
D 106 )

heaters and substrate along the solid/fluid interface are approximately at the same
temperature.
The dimensionless temperature distributions at the solid/fluid interface for
different values of Rs are shown in Fig. 1.8. Increase in Rs gives another path to
dissipate the heat from the heaters where more energy passes through the substrate.
When the results from using two values of Rs D 10 and Rs D 103 are compared,
there is a noticeable difference between them at the substrate region under Heater
3 where the dimensionless temperature of Rs D 103 is about 6 times higher than
that of Rs D 10 at the base of the cavity. This difference decreases as y/lz increase
until y=Lz D 3:5, where the values of  for Rs D 10 passes those of Rs D 103 and
the maximum temperature when Rs D 103 is reduced by 23 %. Furthermore, the
dimensionless temperature over the entire cavity height becomes nearly isothermal
for large values of Rs .
In most applications, copper and aluminium are the preferred materials for the
substrate. These two materials have a large thermal conductivity where the thermal
conductivity ratios are 6,350 and 3,970 for copper and aluminium respectively. The
results of  along the solid/fluid interface are converged for both materials, also
the heaters and substrate regions cannot be distinguished as shown in Fig. 1.8.
Therefore, with very high values of Rs , the effect of thermal conductivity ratio on
the dimensionless temperature is disappeared. As a result, the aluminium can be
used instead of copper.
12 F.A. Gdhaidh et al.

0.14

0.12

0.1

0.08

0.06

0.04

0.02

0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8

Fig. 1.8 Local dimensionless temperature distribution at the solid/fluid interface for FC-77

(Pr D 25, Rh D 2350 and Ral z
D 106 )

5.3 Temperature Results in Dimensional Form

The previous results are presented in dimensionless form but it is important to

know the value of the temperature in dimensional form. To present the temperature
distribution at the solid/fluid interface in dimensional form (°C), as shown in Fig. 1.9
 
two values of modified Rayleigh number are selected, Ral z
D 104 and Ral z
D 105 ,
for the given values of Rs D 10 and Rs D 24 for FC-77 and air respectively.
The value of q00 could be found from modified Rayleigh number equation
Ralz Dg“q00 L4z =kf ’f  where the properties of FC-77 and air are known constant and


the cold wall has a constant temperature of 20 °C. So the temperature in dimension
form can be found from the following relation:

q 00 Lz
T D C Tc (1.15)
Kf

Table 1.2 shows the values of heat flux q00 for both working fluids at two selected
modified Rayleigh number 104 and 105 .
1 Numerical Study of Conjugate Natural Convection from Discrete Heat Sources 13

a b
45 240

220

40 200

180

35 160

140

30 120

100

80
25
60

40
20
0 12 24 36 48 60 72 84 96 0 12 24 36 48 60 72 84 96

Fig. 1.9 Local dimension temperature distribution at the solid/fluid with different R
alz : (a) for
FC-77 and (b) for air
Table 1.2 The values of q00 
Ral q00 (W/m2 ) for FC-77 q00 (W/m2 ) for air
z
for different modified
Rayleigh number for both 104 52:1 240
working fluids 105 521 2400

6 Conclusions and Future Work

Steady state natural conjugate convection analysis for rectangular cavity with
discrete heat sources flush mounted on one vertical wall has been conducted
numerically. The control volume technique with the “SIMPLE” algorithm is used to
simulate the problem. The results from this research show that:
1. At small values of modified Rayleigh number Ralz D 104 the heat transfer is
controlled by conduction. With increase Ralz the thermal boundary layers of
the hot and cold walls become extremely thin and also the flow becomes more
complex.
2. The dimensionless temperature  at the solid/fluid interface for both working
fluids (FC-77 and air) decreases as Ralz increases, due to the increment in the
temperature differences is not equal to the increase in q00 .
3. There is a strong effect of the substrate thermal conductivity on the temperature
distribution as well as the maximum temperature. With increase Rs , more energy
is dissipated by the substrate, which results in a decrease of the maximum
temperature level.
4. For high values Rs > 103 , the solid/fluid interface temperature becomes isother-
mal and the discrete heater locations become almost indistinguishable. Moreover
when the Rs > 1500 the substrate has no effect on the maximum temperature.
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creature in menageries and zoological gardens,—a tall, awkward
beast, with long legs, a shambling gait, one or two humps on its
oddly shapen back, a small head, the upper lip split in the centre, a
long neck, small ears, a dusty, shaggy coat, and a demeanor of
patient endurance. Buffon says that “the camel is the chief treasure
of the East.”
Gentle and hardy, demanding but little food, and that of the coarsest
description,—a few dates, a few handfuls of grain,—capable of going
for days without water, a strong beast of burden, this is one of the
most important members of an Arab family. The milk of the camel
affords the Arab cheese, and also a nourishing drink; of the animal’s
long hair is woven cloth for clothing and for tent covering; its flesh is
used for food; and across the long, hot, arid stretches of his desert
land, the Arab rides in safety, seated on his tent and household
goods piled upon the back of this “ship of the desert.”
From the earliest times the camel has been the only means of
conveying travellers and Eastern commodities across the desert. It
travels thirty or forty miles a day, under the hot sun, carrying a
burden of five hundred or six hundred pounds.
Camels have broad, callous soles over the bottoms of their feet.
These enable them to tread firmly without sinking in the desert
sand. There are also callous knobs on their knees and breasts, which
protect them as they kneel to receive burdens, or sleep in a kneeling
position. The training of the young camel begins when it is but a few
days old, and it is taught to get along with the smallest possible
allowance of food, drink, and sleep.
The stomach of the camel is provided with numerous little sacs,
called water-cells; these drain off a considerable quantity of water
when the camel is drinking, and retain it for several days, restoring it
gradually to the stomach. The camel seems to prefer coarse,
unsucculent, dry food, and burning sunshine; it never seeks the
shade. It is perhaps apathetic, rather than gentle; it seems little
impressed by kindness, and, like the elephant, has a long memory
for injuries.
Following the camel in our menageries usually comes a very strange-
looking beast, the tallest of all animals. With its long neck, small
head, and its habit of browsing off the tree-tops, it reminds us of
what we have read of that fossil beast, the iguanodon. This is the
giraffe, often called the camelopard, which name is given it because
it has a somewhat camel-like form, and the beautiful spotted skin of
a leopard.
If we watch a giraffe in a menagerie, we shall remark the beauty of
its silky, spotted coat, the gentleness of its large, eager eyes, its two
short horns covered with skin, its ears turned backward, its long,
dark tongue, with which it constantly licks its lips and nostrils. Timid
and mild, the giraffe shows vexation only by pawing the ground
rapidly with its fore hoofs; it will bend its stately head to accept an
apple or a carrot from a little child, and seems to forget the days
when it wandered through the African forests, and browsed on fruit
and leaves from the tops of the trees.
The giraffe is one of the swiftest of animals, and it is almost
impossible to take an adult alive. They are generally captured while
very young, and brought up on camels’ milk, until old enough to eat
grain and green fodder.
The Western hemisphere gives us no animal corresponding to the
giraffe. In South America the llama in some measure represents and
takes the place of the camel; but the tall and beautiful giraffe stands
alone of his kind.
We now turn to the fourth family of the ruminants, distinguished by
the fact that they shed and renew their horns. The horns of the cow,
ox, sheep, antelope, and goat are permanent. If by any accident
they are lost, they are not renewed; but the deer family shed their
horns, which indeed, are not properly called horns, but antlers.
Antlers are a horny growth, large and branching, divided into what
are called tines. Up to a certain age these antlers grow, fall off, and
are renewed every year, and there is no mammal peculiarity more
wonderful than the rapid growth of these large frontal ornaments. In
many of the deer species the male alone wears the antlers. In the
reindeer family both males and females have these huge horny
branches.
The deer family is distinguished for grace of movement and beauty
of form. They have smooth, close, hairy coats, but on the breast of
the male deer the hair grows long and is called a beard. The eyes
are large, clear, and bright, full of gentle eagerness, and furnished
on the inner corner with a curious hollow, or gland, called the tear-
pit. They have small, pointed ears, and short tails; their legs are
slim, and their hoofs are small, the whole animal being built for
lightness in running. Even the antlers are not nearly so heavy as
they look, for they are porous and full of air-cells.
The deer family is distributed over the entire world. Deer vary in size
from the large elk or moose, the royal stag, and the magnificent
wapiti, to the small roe deer, not so large as a sheep, and the pigmy
deer, which is the smallest of all ruminants, and indeed, is not larger
than a hare.
Deer are vegetable-feeders, and in the coldest climates are capable
of living on lichens, and the scantiest fare. In the far north reindeer
or caribous furnish the chief wealth of the people, and serve instead
of cows, horses, and sheep, their flesh and milk being the chief
food-supply, and their skins furnishing clothing and bedding. They
serve also as draught animals, and pull sledges over the snow with
incredible swiftness.
Deer generally live in herds; the mother is a most vigilant and tender
parent, devoting herself to her twin children with tireless care. Deer
are distinguished for the perfection of their senses of sight, smell,
and hearing, and as soon as one of a herd discovers anything that
indicates danger, the alarm is given, and away they go. The deer
mothers, while feeding, are constantly alert, and hurry their little
ones off at the first hint of danger. The general disposition of the
deer is amiable, but the old males sometimes fight furiously
together, and if brought to bay by hunters, defend themselves
valiantly with hoofs and horns.
Passing now from the ungulates, we reach a very well-known order
of mammals, called the carnivora, or flesh-eaters. This order is
divided into two sub-orders, the pinnipeds, or “fin-footed,” and the
fissipeds, or “slit-footed.” In our study of the seal we have had the
best example of the fin-footed, or aquatic carnivora. Bring up your
dog or your cat for a sample of the slit-footed flesh-eaters. Ponto,
set your foot down firmly, and let us look at it. All the toes are of
equal length; the foot looks as if a roundish foot had been deeply slit
into toes, which are hairy up to the nails. The feet of web-footed
animals would look like this if they were not webbed.[93]
These slit-footed, or fissiped creatures, are divided into several
species, and there is considerable difference in their way of treading;
some, as the cats, walk on their toes. Come here, kitty, let us see
your feet. Kitty can draw her claws close into the “velvet,” or fur, of
her paw so that you would not know she had sharp nails. As she
does this she curls her foot up into a cushion, and walks on the ends
of her toes. Look at her foot when she stretches it; how well you can
see the slit-foot arrangement and the clawed toes. Kitty is a mild and
domestic representative of the great, feline race, at the head of
which stands the lion. Ponto, on the other hand, is a civilized and
educated specimen of the canine race, which numbers among its
members the wolf.
While kitty draws in her claws and walks on her toes, the bears are
what is called plantigrade carnivora, for they walk on the flat soles of
their feet. These carnivora are all flesh-eaters, but when educated
and refined, like Ponto and Kitty, they will eat any kind of food.
Among the carnivora we enumerate lions, tigers, bears, cougars,
hyenas, panthers, wolves, jackals, leopards, cats, dogs, badgers,
and many more. You see they embrace all the fiercest and most
dangerous wild beasts, as well as our domestic friends, the cat and
the dog. If you will open Kitty’s mouth, or Ponto’s, you will see what
style of teeth these carnivora have; they are made for tearing flesh,
and are accompanied by sharp claws for holding fast the living prey.
All the carnivora are singularly strong, agile, and tenacious of life.
The carnivora are so varied and interesting, that we leave them to
be studied elsewhere, and indeed so we must serve the final order
of mammals—the primates.[94]
These primates are divided into two sub-orders, the quadrumana, or
four-handed animals, and the human race. Many scientists, instead
of the order primates, with these two sub-orders, give us the order
quadrumana, or monkeys, and the order bimana, or man, and that is
the better division.
The quadrumana, or ape families, contain a large number of curious
and interesting animals, all natives of tropical regions. They are hairy
creatures, with three kinds of teeth, and are adapted for eating
nearly all kinds of food. They are well known to us in menageries,
and are frequently seen on our streets, fancifully dressed, and in
company with a man and an organ, surrounded also by a group of
admiring children.
“How many children are there in your family, Pierre?” we one day
asked a bright little Italian boy.
“Four, and the monkey, signora.”
“But the monkey, Pierre, does not count with the children.”
“O signora! for care and trouble he counts more than the children!
He must have the warmest corner and the best food. At night, for
warmth, he sleeps in my father’s arms. He gets cold ten times as
often as we do; and if he gets a cold he must have the doctor, for he
is likely to die. If he dies, away go all our saved dollars for more
monkey! Gracious! O signora! do you think our father would let our
monkey run round in the streets and look out for his own dinner as
Marie and I do? The thing is impossible!”
THE END.

FOOTNOTES:
[92] The animal called a buffalo in America is not a buffalo, but a
bison. The buffalo of India and Italy is the Bubalus, the buffalo of
the Western plains is the bison. The large, wild bison of Germany
is called the Aurochs. All these animals belong to the family
Bovidæ.
[93] If we examine the toes of the cat and dog, we shall see that
the skin extends web-like partly up the toe bones.
[94] It has been impossible in so small a book to discuss with any
minuteness the subjects noticed in the closing chapters. It is
hoped that the hints given will incite pupils to study and observe
the domestic animals of which we see so much and know so little.
 SEA-SIDE AND WAY-SIDE.
BOOK I.

Illustration from No. 1.—Mr. and Mrs. Crab.

CONTENTS.

Lesson.
I. Mr. and Mrs. Crab.
II. Mr. Crab and his House.
III. More about Mr. Crab.
IV. Mr. and Mrs. Crab get New Coats.
V. What the Crab does.
VI. Mr. Crab and his Friends.
VII. Some Other Crabs.
VIII. The Hermit Crab.
IX. The Crab’s Enemies.
X. The Uses of Crabs.
XI. Mrs. Wasp and her Home.
 XII. What Mrs. Wasp can do.
XIII. A Look at Mrs. Wasp.
XIV. Mrs. Wasp’s Year.
XV. Mrs. Wasp at Home.
XVI. Review.
XVII. The Bee and the Man.
XVIII. How the Bee is Made.
XIX. The Bee at Home.
XX. The Bee Babies.
XXI. The Bee War.
XXII. The Bee’s Work.
XXIII. The Wise Bees.
XXIV. Earth Bees.
XXV. Other Bees.
XXVI. More about Bees.
XXVII. The Spider and his Dress.
XXVIII. The Spider at Home.
XXIX. The Little Nest.
XXX. The Spider and his Food.
XXXI. Very Queer Spiders.
XXXII. Review.
XXXIII. Out of Harm’s Way.
XXXIV. Shell-Fish.
XXXV. The Story of Mr. Conch.
XXXVI. Sea-Babies.
 XXXVII. More about Sea-Babies.
XXXVIII. About Mr. Drill.
XXXIX. The Story of a War.
XL. How Shell-Fish Feed.
XLI. Review.
Book I. 95 pages. 32 illustrations. 30 cts.

BOOK II.

Illustration from No. 2.—The Parasol Ants.

CONTENTS.

Lesson.
I. A Look at an Ant.
II. The Life of an Ant.
III. The Ant’s Home.
IV. The Ants at Home.
 V. The Ants on a Trip.
VI. The Farmer Ants.
VII. Ants and their Trades.
VIII. The Slave Ants.
IX. Wonder Ants.
X. The Ways of Ants.
XI. Mr. Worm and his Family.
XII. The Earth-worm at Home.
XIII. Mr. Worm at Work.
XIV. Mr. Worm’s Cottage by the Sea.
XV. Mr. Worm at Home.
XVI. A Look at a House-Fly
XVII. How to Look at a Fly.
XVIII. Mrs. Fly and her Foes.
XIX. Of what Use are Flies.
XX. A Swarm of Flies.
XXI. Some Queer Flies.
XXII. In Armor Clad.
XXIII. When Mr. Beetle was Young.
XXIV. How to Learn about Beetles.
XXV. The Rose Beetle.
XXVI. Princes and Giants.
XXVII. The Little Sexton.
XXXVIII. The Story of the Stag Beetle.
XXIX. Mr. Beetle Seeks for a Home.
 XXX. The Little Water-Men.
XXXI. Whirligig Beetles.
XXXII. What a Fisherman Told.
XXXIII. Mr. Barnacle and his Son.
XXXIV. A Fishing Party.
XXXV. A Last Look at Mr. Barnacle.
XXXVI. Flowers of the Sea.
XXXVII. The Life of a Jelly-Fish.
XXXVIII. Sea-Stars.
XXXIX. A Sea-Change.
XL. The Star-Fish with an Overcoat.
XLI. The Flying Flowers.
XLII. Under the Water.
XLIII. A Happy Change.
XLIV. The Dragon-Fly and his Cousins.
XLV. The Wings of the Dragon.
Review Lessons.
Book II. 184 pages. 39 illustrations. 40 cts.

BOOK III.
 Illustration from No. 3.—Beaks.

CONTENTS.

Lesson.
I. The Great Mother.
II. The Earth’s Eldest Child.
III. A Look at a Plant.
IV. A Year in a Plant’s Life.
V. The Growth of Plants.
VI. The Food of Plants.
VII. Seeds and Leaves.
VIII. The Color of Plants.
IX. The Motion of Plants.
X. Plants and their Partners.
XI. Air, Water, and Sand Plants.
 XXII. Plants that eat Animals.
XIII. Weather Prophet Plants.
XIV. Plant Clocks.
XV. The School Cabinet.
XVI. The Old Man of the Meadow.
XVII. The Life of the Old Man.
XVIII. The Robber Cousin.
XIX. The Merry Cousins.
XX. Queer Cricket.
XIX. Other Hoppers.
XXII. A Real Live Fairy.
XXIII. The Child of the Day.
XXIV. Life Among Snow and Roses.
XXV. Joseph’s Coat.
XXVI. Cousin Moth.
XXVII. The Child of the Night.
XXVIII. The Bird.
XXIX. Beaks and Claws.
XXX. Trees, Ground, and Water Birds.
XXXI. On the Wing.
XXXII. Nest Building.
XXXIII. The Bird at Home.
XXXIV. Birds of Song.
XXXV. The Other Partner.
XXXVI. A Brigade of Birds.
 XXXVII. The Birds in the Woods.
XXXVIII. The Birds in the House.
XXXIX. The Lost Birds.
XL. The Fin Family
XLI. Outside and Inside.
XLII. Where they live.
XLIII. How they Behave.
XLIV. Fry and School.
XLV. Scales and Teeth.
XLVI. Big and Little Brothers.
Book III. 300 pages. 29 illustrations. 50 cts.

BOOK IV.
Illustration from No. 4.—The Reign of the Pine.

CONTENTS.

I. Earth Building.
II. The First Continent.
III. The Age of Crabs and Corals.
IV. The Pines and the Reptiles.
V. The Palm and the Man.
VI. The Starry Heavens.
VII. A Fragment of the Milky Way.
VIII. Plan and Progression.
IX. The King of the Day.
X. The Queen of the Night.
XI. Vanished Fauna.
 XII. A Mountain of Fossils.
XIII. Written in Rocks.
XIV. Footprints in the Sand.
XV. The Winter of the World.
XVI. Fossil Crabs.
XVII. Stone-Fish and Stone-Lilies.
XVIII. Long-Buried Reptiles.
XIX. Birds of other Ages.
XX. The Early Mammals.
XXI. Very Old Families.
XXII. The Marvel in Mail.
XXIII. The Wonderful Builder.
XXIV. An Opossum Hunt.
XXV. A New Fashion of Pappoose.
XXVI. Low Down in the Scale.
XXVII. With a Duck’s Bill.
XXVIII. In Australian Rivers.
XXIX. A Walk Among Wonder Trees.
XXX. Still in the Wonder Grove.
XXXI. A Noisy Family.
XXXII. The Frogs’ Cousin.
XXXIII. Salamanders.
XXXIV. A Citizen of the Marsh Lands.
XXXV. A Stranger from Mexico.
XXXVI. Some Merry Little Friends.
 XXXVII. The Ancient Monster.
XXXVIII. El Lagarto.
XXXIX. Wiser than any Beast of the Field.
XL. Our Common Enemy.
XLI. With a House on His Back.
XLII. A Real Live Mermaid.
XLIII. Great Whales Also.
XLIV. A Seal-Skin Cloak.
XLV. Flying Mammals.
XLVI. Order out of Confusion.
XLVII. Nibblers.
XLVIII. Gnawers.
XLIX. The Thick Skins.
L. The Ruminants.
Book IV. 370 pages. 28 illustrations. 60 cents.
RICKS’ NATURAL HISTORY OBJECT LESSONS.
PART I.—PLANTS AND ANIMALS.

Chapter.
I. Introduction.
II. A Typical Plant.
III. General Classification of Plants.
IV. Minute Structure of Plants.
V. Roots and their Functions.
VI. Stems and their Uses.
VII. Leaves and Buds.
VIII. Flowers, their Parts and Uses.
IX. Fruits and Seeds.
X. The Palm Trees.
XI. Cereals, the Sugar-Cane, etc.
XII. Starches.
XIII. Oils and Fats.
XIV. Gums, Resins, Gum-Resins, etc.
XV. Cotton, Hemp, Flax, Jute.
XVI. Paper.
XVII. Bleaching and Dyeing.
XVIII. Tea, Coffee and Chocolate.
XIX. Spices.
XX. Opium, Quinine and Camphor.
 XXI. Indigo, Oak-Galls, etc.
XXII. Classification of Animals.
XXIII. and XXIV. Classification of Vertebrata.
XXV. Classification of Invertebrata.
XXVI. Coverings of Vertebrate Animals.
XXVII. The Bony Skeleton and its Modifications.
XXVIII. Teeth,—Varieties and Uses.
XXIX. Tongues.
XXX. Tails and their Uses.
XXXI. The Principal Internal Organs of Animals.

PART II.—SPECIMEN LESSONS.

Lesson.
I. Paws and Claws.
II. Cocoa-Nut.
III. Cotton and Wool.
IV. An Egg.
V. Acorn and Hazel-Nut.
VI. Milk.
VII. Onion, Turnip, Carrot.
VIII. Cat and Dog.
IX. Down.
X. A Quill Feather.
XI. Gutta Percha.
XII. Leaves.
XIII., XIV. and XV. Starch.
XVI. The Horse.
XVII. The Cow and the Sheep.
XVIII. Honey and Wax.
XIX. Ivory.
XX. and XXI. Seeds and Seedlings.
XXII. Olive Oil.
XXIII. Liber.
XXIV. Mammals and Birds.
XXV. Reptiles and Fishes.
XXVI. Mammals.
XXVII. Chewing the Cud.
XXVIII. Horns and their Uses.
XXIX. Parts of a Flower.
XXX. Birds’ Nests.
XXXI. The Hedgehog.
XXXII. Whale Oil.
XXXIII. Leather.
XXXIV. The Mole.
XXXV. Cotton.
XXXVI. Vertebrata and Invertebrata.
XXXVII. The Cockroach.
XXXVIII. The Earthworm.
XXXIX. Spider’s Threads.
XL. Bleaching.
 XLI. The Rat and His Relatives.
XLII. Beaks of Birds.
XLIII. and XLIV. Snakes.
XLV. and XLVI. Fishes.
XLVII. Insects—Form and Structure.
XLVIII. Insects—Benefits and Injuries.
XLIX. Insects,—Metamorphosis.
L. Insects, Legs and Feet.
LI. Insect and Spider.
LII.-LIV. Legs and Feet,—Mammals.
LV.-LVI. Legs and Feet,—Birds.
LVII. Flour.
LVIII. The Frog.
LIX. The Frog,—Life History.
LX. and LXI. Eggs.
LXII. Snails.
LXIII. Snails—Whelk and Periwinkle.
LXIV. Snails.
LXV. The Amoeba and Foraminifera.
LXVI. The Hydra.
LXVII. Sea Anemones and Corals.
LXVIII. Plant Factories.
352 pages. 121 illustrations and seven plates. Cloth $1.50.
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Natural History Object Lessons. A Manual for Teachers.
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