WN00 v2

WINTER 2000 VOLUME 36 NO. 4 pg.
297
EDITORIAL
291 A Retrospective of the ‘90s:
The Challenge of Change
William E. Boyajian
FEATURE ARTICLES
292 Gem Localities of the 1990s
pg. 344 James E. Shigley, Dona M. Dirlam, Brendan M. Laurs, Edward W. Boehm,
George Bosshart, and William F. Larson
A review of the decade’s new sources and most important producing localities.
Includes a wall chart and comprehensive tables of gem localities.
336 Gemstone Enhancement and Detection in the 1990s

Shane F. McClure and Christopher P. Smith
Gemologists grappled with several new, often-sophisticated enhancements and the
pressing need to identify them.
360 Synthetic Gem Materials and Simulants in the 1990s

John I. Koivula, Maha Tannous, and Karl Schmetzer
pg. 361 Analyzes an entire decade of activity in the synthetic gem industry, as well as the
introduction of new simulants and a wide variety of imitations.
380 Technological Developments in the 1990s: Their Impact on Gemology

Mary L. Johnson
Vast computer power. The Internet. Automated cutting. Treated synthetics. “Black
boxes.” Sophisticated equipment. This article looks at the techniques, instruments,
and innovations that propelled gemology into the 21st century.
398 Jewelry of the 1990s

Elise B. Misiorowski
Highlights from the eclectic jewelry scene of the ‘90s, including new cutting styles,
pg. 410 design trends, and marketing approaches.
ABOUT THE COVER

Color was the watchword of the ‘90s in gems, jewelry, new synthetics, and even treat-
ments (which saw the introduction of decolorization in diamonds). This photo includes
some of the newest and most popular colored gems of the decade, as well as a contem-
porary yellow and “white” diamond necklace set in the decade’s most prominent jewelry
metal, platinum. Shown here, as keyed to the drawing to the right, are: (1) 41.62 ct
ametrine, (2) 7.71 ct green jadeite, (3) 7.81 ct violet jadeite, (4) 27.23 ct aquamarine,
(5) 1.28 ct blue spinel, (6) 1.17 ct benitoite, (7) 2.14 ct blue sapphire, (8) 23.18 ct blue
spinel, (9) 4.82 ct purple sapphire, (10) 5.32 ct Paraíba tourmaline, (11) 2.16 ct deman-
toid, (12) 1.05 ct emerald, (13) 1.99 ct red beryl, (14) 0.72 ct ruby, (15) 1.15 ct purple-
pink sapphire, (16) 5.54 ct spessartine, (17) 8.04 ct orange sapphire, and (18) 3.48 ct
pink spinel. The necklace contains 25.85 ct of radiant-cut and round brilliant diamonds.
Loose stones from the collection of Michael M. Scott; photo © Harold & Erica Van Pelt—
Photographers, Los Angeles. Necklace courtesy of Louis Glick, New York.
EDITORIAL Editor-in-Chief Editor Editors, Gem Trade Lab Notes
STAFF Richard T. Liddicoat Alice S. Keller Thomas M. Moses
Publisher 5345 Armada Drive Ilene Reinitz
William E. Boyajian Carlsbad, CA 92008 Shane F. McClure
(760) 603-4504
Associate Editor e-mail: [email protected] Editors, Gem News
John Sinkankas Mary L. Johnson, John I. Koivula,
Senior Editor Dino DeGhionno, and
Technical Editor Brendan Laurs Shane F. McClure
Carol M. Stockton e-mail: [email protected]
Assistant Editor Editors, Book Reviews
Subscriptions Susan B. Johnson
Stuart Overlin
Debbie Ortiz Jana E. Miyahira-Smith
e-mail: [email protected]
(800) 421-7250, ext. 7142
Contributing Editor Fax: (760) 603-4595 Editor, Gemological Abstracts
John I. Koivula e-mail: [email protected] A. A. Levinson
PRODUCTION Art Director Production Assistant WEB SITE

STAFF Karen Myers Carole Johnson http://www.gia.edu/gandg
EDITORIAL Alan T. Collins Alan Jobbins Kurt Nassau

REVIEW BOARD London, United Kingdom Caterham, United Kingdom P.O. Lebanon, New Jersey
G. Robert Crowningshield Mary L. Johnson George Rossman
New York, New York Carlsbad, California Pasadena, California
John Emmett Anthony R. Kampf Kenneth Scarratt
Brush Prairie, Washington Los Angeles, California New York, New York
Emmanuel Fritsch Robert E. Kane Karl Schmetzer
Nantes, France San Diego, California Petershausen, Germany
C. W. Fryer John I. Koivula James E. Shigley
Santa Monica, California Carlsbad, California Carlsbad, California
Henry A. Hänni A. A. Levinson Christopher P. Smith
Basel, Switzerland Calgary, Alberta, Canada Lucerne, Switzerland
C. S. Hurlbut, Jr. Thomas M. Moses
Cambridge, Massachusetts New York, New York
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MANUSCRIPT
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© 2000 Gemological Institute of America All rights reserved. ISSN 0016-626X
A Retrospective of the ‘90s:
The Challenge of Change
he decade of the ‘90s was one of unparalleled change and During the ‘90s, the Internet revolutionized what faxes and
T the inevitable challenges that result from it. Like other
industries, the gem world was buffeted by an unprecedented
other sophisticated telecommunications started in the ‘80s.
However, in addition to articles on synthetics, treatments,
pace of change, led by a veritable revolution in technology. and new technologies, this Retrospective issue looks at the
The decade opened with what was perceived to be the very two “anchors” of gemology: the localities from which gems
real threat of synthetic gem diamonds in the marketplace. emerge, and the jewelry into which they are placed. Gem
Perhaps not ironically, it closed with another threat to the dia- localities determine what will be available to jeweler and
mond industry: that of “unidentifiable” high pressure/high consumer alike, not only in terms of which gem materials,
temperature annealing in diamonds. but also in terms of what colors, sizes, and qualities will be
Once again, protecting the integrity of natural, untreat- seen on the market. With cultured pearls in particular, the
ed gems dominated the arena of gemological concerns. It is decade was highlighted by the influx of major amounts of
perhaps, then, only fitting that the core objective of GIA and multicolored goods from French Polynesia, golden and white
other research laboratories is the ability to differentiate cultured pearls from the South Seas, and myriad shapes and
between natural gems and laboratory-grown materials, as colors from China. And where would we be without the pro-
well as between natural and treated gems. The essence of cess of incorporating beautiful cut and polished gemstones
gemology lies in our ability to identify these materi- into fine rings, necklaces, bracelets, and the like?
als and to distinguish any artificially induced How can we truly understand the priorities of
change. If rarity ever becomes a meaning- our gemological agenda without knowing
less virtue, then the backbone of the the end product: cherished jewels?
trade—the magic of the natural gem- Let us not forget, too, the economic
stone—will be broken. context in which all of these develop-
At the 1991 International Gemological ments took place. The ‘90s began with a
Symposium, I said that the technology of recession and were plagued by the Asian
gem identification would need to keep pace downturn later in the decade. Japan struggled
with the technology of gem synthesis and treat- through most of this period, while the United
ment. Our predictions about the proliferation of synthet- States enjoyed sustained economic growth.
ic colored stones have come true, and new identification crite- The industry itself was affected by the way gems are
ria continue to be developed to address them. Although syn- mined, marketed, and merchandized. In diamonds especial-
thetic diamonds still are not widely available, the decade saw ly, the mine-to-market process has been severely tested.
advances in identification techniques and instruments which Vertical integration and strategic alliances have placed pres-
ensure that these synthetics can be detected when they are sure on sources, manufacturers, and dealers alike. In light of
brought into a well-equipped gemological laboratory. GIA De Beers’s recently stated shift from controlling diamond
Chairman Richard T. Liddicoat said years ago that the produc- supply to driving diamond demand, alternative channels
tion of gem-quality synthetic diamonds alone was perhaps the will undoubtedly emerge. Another nascent factor is the so-
last great gemological barrier to be breached. Yet new barriers called conflict diamonds issue, the desire to exclude from
continue to be raised. Never has the role of the gemologist the marketplace diamonds that are sold to purchase
been more important. weapons used to fuel civil conflict. It is surely difficult to
And never has the challenge of treatments been so real. know the future of this situation, despite the industry’s ded-
One only has to recall the fear that gripped the industry when ication to eradicating the problem.
the “filling” of surface-reaching breaks in polished diamonds In a sense, what we have provided in this Retrospective of
became available. Or the devastation inflicted on the emerald the ‘90s issue is a snapshot of a decade—and a profound one
Top: GE POL diamond / Bottom: Synthetic diamonds
market when the stability of new and even traditional fillers at that—from mining and localities to treatments and syn-
became questioned. Most recently, the discovery of “glass” thetics to finished gemstones and jewelry. Our goal was to
fillings in heat-treated rubies has undoubtedly affected produce a valuable, thoroughly readable contribution to your
demand for these stones. Despite the overall growth of the gemological library: a decade of gemological knowledge
jewelry market, this has not been an easy decade for gems. brought together in a single journal. I hope you enjoy and
The ‘90s also saw the rapid development of computerized benefit from this important issue.
equipment in cutting factories, in quality analysis, and in
advanced identification techniques. With the availability of
greater computer power and programming ability, cut in dia-
mond became an important focus. Researchers were able to
analyze proportions scientifically in ways never before imag-
inable. Most interesting is how innovations in instrumenta- William E. Boyajian, President
tion have integrated with innovations in communication. Gemological Institute of America
Editorial GEMS & GEMOLOGY Winter 2000 291

GEM LOCALITIES
OF THE 1990S
By James E. Shigley, Dona M. Dirlam, Brendan M. Laurs, Edward W. Boehm,
George Bosshart, and William F. Larson
The past decade saw growth in gem explo-

ration, production, and marketing worldwide.
Important colored stone–producing regions
included: Southeast Asia (Myanmar, Thai-
land, and Vietnam), Africa (Tanzania, Kenya,
Zimbabwe, Nigeria, and Namibia, as well as
D uring the 1990s, new finds of gems created
interest and excitement among both jewelers
and consumers. These included ruby from
Mong Hsu, Myanmar (Burma); blue and pink sapphires from
Madagascar; a wide variety of colored stones from southern
Madagascar), South America (Brazil and Tanzania; spessartine garnet from Nigeria and Namibia;
Colombia), central and southern Asia (Sri exceptional peridot from Pakistan; and pink to red tourma-
Lanka, India, Afghanistan, Pakistan, Russia, lines from Nigeria and Brazil. Diamond was mined in north-
and China), and Australia. The major sources ern Canada for the first time. Names such as Tunduru,
for diamonds were Australia, central and Ilakaka, and Ekati were unknown to the gem trade in the
southern Africa (Botswana, South Africa, 1980s, and yet they are now commonplace when we speak
Namibia, Angola, and Zaire), and Russia of important gem localities at the dawn of the 21st century.
(mainly in the Republic of Sakha), with excit- Through the efforts of independent prospectors and small
ing discoveries in northern Canada. Cultured
groups of miners, as well as multinational exploration com-
pearls from French Polynesia, Australia, and
panies—stimulated by strong consumer demand—the 1990s
China became increasingly important, as pro-
duction from Japan declined. This article pro- witnessed a proliferation of gem sources. Gem localities
vides a comprehensive overview of those gem continue to intrigue consumers because they create an inte-
deposits that were either new or remained gral part of the romance and lore that are associated with
commercially significant in the last decade of gemstones, an opportunity to purchase a symbol of beauty
the 20th century. and rarity from a remote land (figure 1).
This article updates the 1980s survey published by Shigley
et al. in the Spring 1990 Retrospective issue of Gems &
Gemology by identifying key localities discovered during the
ABOUT THE AUTHORS
past decade, and highlighting deposits that either attained or
Dr. Shigley ([email protected]) is director of
research, Ms. Dirlam is director of the Richard T.
continued at commercial levels of production during this peri-
Liddicoat Library and Information Center, and Mr. od. We have also included newer or less-explored localities
Laurs is senior editor of Gems & Gemology, at that may have potential in the future. Most of our coverage is
GIA in Carlsbad, California. Mr. Boehm is a gem
dealer and gemological consultant in Solana
limited to the more commercially important gem materials
Beach, California. Mr. Bosshart is chief gemolo- (i.e., emerald and other beryls, alexandrite and other
gist at the Gübelin Gem Lab in Lucerne, chrysoberyls, ruby and sapphire, diamond, garnet, jade [both
Switzerland. Mr. Larson is president of Pala
International in Fallbrook, California.
jadeite and nephrite], opal, peridot, quartz, spinel, tanzanite,
topaz, and tourmaline). Locality information is both summa-
Please see acknowledgments at the end of the
article. rized in the text and listed in greater detail in table 1 at the
Gems & Gemology, Vol. 36, No. 4, pp. 292–335 end of the article. In table 1, the more commercially signifi-
© 2000 Gemological Institute of America cant localities (according to our best understanding) are desig-
nated in bold type; citations are to the most relevant articles
292 Localities of the 1990s GEMS & GEMOLOGY Winter 2000

Figure 1. Several new gem
sources joined traditional
localities as important pro-
ducers in the 1990s. The
sapphires and rubies in this
necklace come from a
number of sources, but pre-
dominantly Sri Lanka.
Accented with smaller dia-
monds, the 129 gem corun-
dums have a total weight
of 280.45 ct. Jewelry manu-
factured by Wilson Benito;
courtesy of Richard Stoich
and Quyen Cao. Photo ©
Harold & Erica Van Pelt.
on each locality for convenient reference (personal 4. Visits by the authors to some gem-mining
communications are used where published informa- locations
tion is not available). In addition, selected localities
are plotted on five maps (see enclosed chart) that Information for each locality is referenced accord-
show several major gem-producing regions (southern ing to what we deemed to be the best and most
Africa, South Asia, Southeast Asia, Australia, South recent publications. However, the commercial sig-
America). Although there has been some notable pro- nificance of a gem locality is not always matched by
duction in the areas omitted (e.g., Russia, North the quantity or quality of relevant published infor-
America, western Africa, and China), they were less mation. Thus, over the past decade, published arti-
significant—in terms of the variety of gems pro- cles are lacking for some major gem deposits (espe-
duced—during this decade than localities in the five cially those that have been mined for a considerable
regions mentioned. Separate lists are provided for period). In such cases, earlier literature references are
localities producing less-prominent gems (i.e., apatite, cited in the tables, or the listing of the locality is
benitoite, charoite, chrome diopside, feldspar, iolite, based on knowledge of the authors or respected col-
lapis lazuli, maw sit sit, red beryl, rhodochrosite, leagues. For gem localities of the 1980s where signif-
rhodonite, scapolite, sphene, spodumene, sugilite, icant mining has continued, the literature citations
turquoise, and zircon), as well as for regions impor- in Shigley et al. (1990) are still valid (but are not
tant for cultured pearls; see tables 2 and 3, respective- given again here for brevity). Rather than cluttering
ly, also at the end of the article. the text with references, we decided to give most of
the published citations primarily in the three tables.
SOURCES AND PRESENTATION Again for the purpose of brevity, in the text we dis-
OF INFORMATION cuss most of the locality information with a general
The gem locality information in this article comes reference to the country rather than to the specific
from four main sources: mine or region. For more on the specific localities,
consult tables 1, 2, and 3.
1. Published articles in the scientific and trade There may be inconsistencies in spellings and
literature diacritical marks (e.g., accents, umlauts, etc.) when
2. Personal communications with individuals who some locality names are translated into English. We
are directly involved with gem mining or who used the Microsoft Encarta 99 Virtual Globe soft-
purchase gem rough at mining sites ware program, which is an electronic atlas, as a
3. The authors’ knowledge about the sources of guide to both geographic information and locality
commercially significant gem materials encoun- name spellings.
tered in the trade during the past decade, includ- In the text below, the gem materials are present-
ing information on the kinds of gems that were ed alphabetically, but within each category, the
submitted to the GIA Gem Trade Laboratory and most important subgroup is mentioned first.
the Gübelin Gem Lab A separate box A is included to give the reader an
Localities of the 1990s GEMS & GEMOLOGY Winter 2000 293

stone prices, those authors who are involved in the
trade (EWB and WFL) believe that the figures given
in box A are a good general representation of average
prices during the past decade for the gems described.
BERYL
Emerald. Colombia still reigned throughout the
1990s as the principal source of fine-quality emeralds
(figure 2), with the mining districts at Muzo and
Coscuez, and to a lesser extent at Chivor, accounting
for most production. In each of these districts, there
are ongoing efforts to modernize mining operations
to increase yield. Geologic studies of the Colombian
emerald deposits have led to new insights into condi-
tions of emerald formation by crystallization from
hydrothermal solutions (see, e.g., Ottaway et al.,
1994; Giuliani et al., 1995, 2000). Decreasing reserves
at the historic mines have prompted active explo-
ration in this region (Schwarz, 1999).
Figure 2. Colombia has remained the world’s most Emerald mining also continued at traditional
important source of fine emeralds. The Colombian sources in Brazil and Africa. Large quantities of
emerald in this pendant weighs 8.40 ct. Courtesy Brazilian emeralds entered the market in the early
of H. Stern; photo © Harold & Erica Van Pelt. ’90s, particularly from Goiás and Minas Gerais (pri-
marily the Nova Era area). By the middle of the
decade, however, there was an abrupt decline from
idea of prices for some key gem materials during the Minas Gerais due to decreased reserves and reduced
‘90s. This box was prepared by Richard Drucker, demand. Emerald production in Brazil has since
publisher of The Guide, which provides diamond continued to decline.
(bimonthly) and colored stone (biannually) wholesale Several sources in Africa produce attractive emer-
pricing information based on market activity. While alds. Zimbabwe’s Sandawana mine is noted for small
Gems & Gemology does not typically report gemstones (0.05 to 1 ct) of high quality. Madagascar and
Zambia tend to produce cleaner but slightly darker
emeralds than the deposits in Colombia; however,
Figure 3. Saturated-color aquamarine comes cut stones over 5 ct are quite rare.
from relatively few deposits, and Africa was Considerable excitement was generated in the
the most important source of this material dur- early 1990s by renewed activity at the historic
ing the 1990s. These aquamarines (9.05 and emerald mines in Russia’s Ural Mountains (e.g.,
4.90 ct) are from Mozambique. Courtesy of Schmetzer et al., 1991), but these mines never rede-
Steve Avery; photo by Robert Weldon. veloped into the important commercial sources that
they once were.
Deposits in Afghanistan (Panjshir Valley) and
Pakistan (Swat Valley) produced fine-quality emer-
alds of small average size, but mining activities
were limited by economic (i.e., lack of profitability)
and sociopolitical factors in both countries.
During the past decade, surface-reaching frac-
tures in many emeralds were filled with a wider
variety of oils (including cedarwood oil) and resins
(such as Opticon and “Palma”), and the infilling
process became a major topic of discussion in the
trade. Due to concerns over the disclosure of this
treatment and the durability of the substances used,

there was a decline in the overall demand for emer-
alds and in their prices during the latter half of the
decade (Weldon, 1997; see also box A). This was
especially a problem for emeralds from Colombia
and Brazil, which led to greater market demand for
African emeralds. The latter generally have fewer
fissures, and thus they are less likely to have been
treated. By the end of the decade, however, dealers Figure 4. Gem-quality red beryl continues to be
reported that the market for Colombian emeralds mined from just one deposit in the Wah Wah
had begun to improve. Mountains of southern Utah. During the ‘90s,
several mining companies leased the deposit for
exploration, evaluation, and production. The
Aquamarine and Other Beryls. The major sources of
bracelet shown here was designed and manufac-
gem aquamarine continued to be the same as those
tured by Ray Zajicek/Equatorian Imports, and
of the previous decade, with numerous deposits in features 21 red beryls (0.3–0.8 ct each). The ring,
Brazil providing much of the supply (although mate- designed by Paula Crevoshay, features a 1.66 ct
rial of African origin was also being imported into red beryl accented with diamonds. Bracelet
Brazil for cutting and reexport). The African sources courtesy of the Harris family, and ring courtesy
were Nigeria, Mozambique (figure 3), Zambia, and of Red Emerald Ltd.; photo by Maha Tannous.
Madagascar. In particular, the availability from
Zambia and Mozambique of fine, saturated-color
aquamarine that required no heat treatment helped Figure 5. Cat’s-eye chrysoberyl is among the
revitalize the market for this material, which had most prized of phenomenal stones; the cabochon
suffered from declining demand when large quanti- in the ring on the bottom left weighs 5.95 ct. The
other three rings are set with star rubies from
ties of irradiated blue topaz created an inexpensive
Myanmar (7.90, 6.02, and about 15 ct, from bot-
alternative during the 1980s. Pegmatite miners tom right to top left). Photo © Tino Hammid and
working in the Lukusuzi game park area in Zambia Christie’s Hong Kong.
(bordering Malawi and Mozambique) used creative
methods to obtain aquamarine without explosives:
They built fires under massive aquamarine-bearing
quartz bodies, and then threw water onto the heated
rock to fracture it, thereby facilitating the removal of
the aquamarine (M. Sarosi, pers. comm., 1999). In
general, most aquamarine is heat treated to improve
its color.
Production of other beryl varieties (morganite
and heliodor) also continued at previously known
deposits. Large greenish yellow heliodor crystals
from the Ukraine were heat treated to produce aqua-
marine. Although initially available in large quanti-
ties, the stockpile of these crystals was exhausted by
the mid-1990s. The interest shown, and investments
made, by major mining companies led to increased
production of red beryl (figure 4) from the Wah Wah
Mountains in southern Utah. Due to its dramatic
red color, there was significant demand for this
material in Japan. Marketing of red beryl under the
trade name “Red Emerald” created controversy
toward the end of the decade (Weldon, 1999).
CHRYSOBERYL
The major sources of chrysoberyl (including both
cat’s-eye [figure 5] and alexandrite) continued to be

Figure 6. In Myanmar,
rubies are mined from
both primary and sec-
ondary (alluvial)
deposits. At these
alluvial workings
near Mogok, a series
of claims are explored
by small groups of
independent miners.
Photo by Edward
Boehm, March 1993.
the alluvial gem fields of Sri Lanka and the peg-

matite districts of Brazil. Efforts were underway to
reopen some of the classic occurrences of alexandrite
in Russia’s Ural Mountains, but so far there has been
only limited production from mine dumps (N.
Kuznetsov, pers. comm., 2000). The most exciting
new source of chrysoberyl—including a vanadium-
colored green variety as well as alexandrite—has
been the Tunduru region of southern Tanzania,
which has produced an amazing variety of colored
stones. Since late 1998, significant amounts of
chrysoberyl (including cat’s-eye material and alexan-
drite) have also been recovered from the Ilakaka allu-
vial deposit in southern Madagascar. Toward the end
of the decade, sources in India (both in Orissa and
Andhra Pradesh) provided new discoveries of green
cat’s-eye chrysoberyl as well as alexandrite.
CORUNDUM
Ruby. The 1990s witnessed continued supplies of
ruby from the Southeast Asian countries that his-
torically have been important sources (i.e.,
Myanmar [figures 5 and 6], Cambodia, and
Figure 7. The most important ruby discovery of
Thailand, with significant decrease in the last; the 1990s was in the Mong Hsu region of
Kane, 1999). In addition to new mines in the tradi- Myanmar, where enormous quantities have been
tional Mogok region (Kane and Kammerling, 1992), mined. The crystal shown here is 1.3 cm tall,
a major new locality was discovered in Myanmar’s and the faceted stone weighs 1.16 ct. Courtesy of
Mong Hsu area (Peretti et al., 1995), with millions Pala International; photo © Jeff Scovil.
of dollars worth of ruby from this area entering the
market in the past eight years. These rubies typical-
ly require heat treatment to remove their distinct
blue core. The authors have seen large quantities of carats and yielded faceted rubies from 10 to 30 ct.
fine-color faceted Mong Hsu rubies, usually from India and Africa continue to produce primarily
0.5 to 3 ct (see, e.g., figure 7). However, one of us cabochon-quality material. African sources include
(GB) knows of a substantial number of gem-quality several localities in Kenya, Tanzania, and
Mong Hsu crystals that weighed well over 100 Madagascar. In particular, the John Saul mine in

Kenya began producing large quantities of (mostly
cabochon-grade) ruby after it was reactivated in the
mid-1990s (Emmett, 1999b). The ruby occurrences
in Malawi, Russia, Nepal, Afghanistan, Pakistan,
and China have had little commercial impact to
date, but they may prove significant in the future.
The enormous quantity of heat-treated ruby
from Mong Hsu that flooded the market in the mid-
1990s—as well as the introduction of smaller
amounts of Vietnamese material beginning early in
the decade—resulted in distinctly lower prices
(Federman, 1998; see also box A). Although this
Figure 8. A wide variety of colored stones were
decline in price created renewed demand for com- mined from large alluvial deposits in the Tunduru
mercial-quality ruby, the growing prevalence of area of Tanzania, which were discovered in the
heat-treated ruby that contained residues of flux mid-1990s. These pink and orange sapphires from
materials in healed fractures (see, e.g., Emmett, Tunduru range from 2.78 to 8.33 ct. Courtesy of
1999a) also raised concerns about correct identifica- James Alger Co.; photo by Robert Weldon.
tion and disclosure for gem dealers and consumers
alike. During this period, a significant price dispari-
ty developed between untreated and treated rubies
(Federman, 1998). ure 8), and several areas in Madagascar (figure 9)
emerged as the most important commercial sources
Sapphire. As with ruby, much of the sapphire on of blue and pink sapphire. Deposits near Ban Huai
the market originated from Southeast and southern Sai in Laos produced primarily smaller, medium to
Asia (Thailand, Cambodia, Myanmar, Vietnam, dark blue sapphires that satisfied some of the
and Sri Lanka; again, see figure 1). Although min- demand for commercial-grade melee. The output of
ing continued in Australia, a major producer in the blue and fancy-color sapphires from Montana in the
1980s, production was down significantly by the U.S. fluctuated greatly, with significant quantities
end of the decade (Aboosally, 1998). produced during the middle of the decade. The gems
East Africa, particularly the Tunduru region (fig- occurred in a wide variety of colors, in sizes typically
Figure 9. One of the most

important gem discoveries of
the decade occurred in south-
central Madagascar at
Ilakaka. Like Tunduru, these
extensive alluvial deposits
yielded several varieties of
colored gems. Here, miners
wet-sieve sediments in the
Ilakaka River before remov-
ing gem minerals by hand;
photo by Brendan M. Laurs,
December 1999. Fine sap-
phires, such as the one that
produced the 7.32 ct untreat-
ed Malagasy stone shown in
the inset, are sometimes
recovered. Sapphire courtesy
of JOEB Enterprises and Pala
International; photo ©

BOX A: GEM PRICES IN THE 1990S
Compiled by Richard Drucker, Publisher, The Guide
Since there is not a universally accepted grading scale can lower the value. Fissures in emeralds are typi-
for colored stones as there is for diamonds, grading cally filled with oil or resin, and the prices here
and pricing for these gems is more subjective. The assume a moderate level (i.e., extent) of treatment.
Guide, an internationally recognized gemstone pric- Following is a summary of the data for key gem
ing publication, conducts research with a qualified materials in the 1990s.
staff of advisors and research assistants who monitor
trade shows, business transactions, and trading net- Beryl—Emerald. Due to widespread concern over
works. For consistency in pricing, The Guide has treatments, emeralds lost about half of their value
used a comprehensive four-tiered grading scale for (on average) over the decade (figure A-1, bottom). In
nearly 20 years: Commercial at the low end, Good recent years, a better understanding of treatments, as
and Fine in the middle, and Extra Fine at the high well as more comprehensive and descriptive reports
end. For the present analysis, the two middle cate- of treated emeralds from gem-testing laboratories,
gories (Good and Fine) are reported, as they are likely appear to have halted the steady decline in prices.
candidates for “jewelry quality.” Prices can be consid-
erably higher or lower for the other two categories. Beryl—Aquamarine. Prices for aquamarine were
The prices reported here are average wholesale, fairly stable in the 1990s (e.g., at $100–$125/ct for
per the weight unit indicated (all January months for “good” 3 ct stones). Increases in supply and new
the years 1990–1999). Trends for specific gem vari- sources occasionally brought some prices down.
eties are described below, with the prices of major
gems graphed in the accompanying charts (figure A-
1). Although a gem’s locality can play a role in pric-
ing (such as a Burmese ruby or Kashmir sapphire),
the information in this box is based on quality only.
A Burmese ruby is priced separately in The Guide,
and is not considered in the charts presented here.
Likewise, the sapphire prices summarized in this
box are for material from any locality except
Myanmar (Burma) and Kashmir. Emerald prices are
also generalized, recognizing that some top-quality
Colombian emeralds may be priced higher.
Treatment is an important issue in pricing
today. Normal (i.e., “traditional”) treatments are
assumed in pricing, since most gems on the market
have undergone some treatment process (for exam-
ple, the blue color in most aquamarine is produced
by heat treatment, as is the blue in most tanzanite).
Both ruby and sapphire are assumed to have been
heat treated. Excess “glass” residue in the fissures
and fractures of a ruby—which results from the use
of a flux or other “firecoat” during heat treatment—
Figure A-1. Average wholesale per-carat prices

in the 1990s (for the month of January) are
shown for diamond and ruby (top), and sap-
phire and emerald (bottom). The Guide cate-
gories Good (dashed lines) and Fine (solid
lines) were selected as an index to “jewelry-
quality” material. Prices may be considerably
higher or lower for other quality grades.

Corundum—Ruby. As was the case with emeralds, stones), due to the increased popularity of blue
ruby prices were also hurt by controversy over spinel as a nonenhanced alternative to sapphire.
treatments. Not only did the vast deposits discov-
ered at Mong Hsu lead to the greater availability of Spinel—Red. Considered by dealers to be an under-
fine material, but the presence of “glass” residue valued alternative red gemstone, prices remained
from the heat treatment of these stones in particu- stable (e.g., at an average of $200–$250/ct for
lar has caused ruby prices to decline over the past “good” 2 ct stones), primarily due to a general lack
three to four years (figure A-1, top). of notoriety. In the mid-1990s, small price increases
appeared for finer-quality red spinels, but price
Corundum—Sapphire. Although sapphire largely resistance eventually negated such gains.
escaped the treatment controversy, prices declined
recently (figure A-1, bottom) due to the tremendous Topaz—Imperial. This variety of topaz was a definite
quantity of stones from Madagascar that have attraction in the tourist markets of the Caribbean,
entered the marketplace. but not a great seller in the U.S. Overall, miners and
jewelry stores were successful in raising the populari-
Chrysoberyl—Alexandrite. Long a collector’s stone, ty and the price of Imperial topaz—by the end of the
alexandrite has never been in plentiful supply. decade, up to $400/ct for “fine” 3 ct stones in yellow
When Brazilian miners hit a pocket of alexandrite with reddish overtones, for example.
in 1991, supply increased and, contrary to what was
expected, prices went up. Since then, the prices of Tourmaline—Pink. For a period, pink was popular.
lower-to-middle grades have remained fairly con- In the early 1990s, prices of pink tourmaline rose in
stant (at about $4,500/ct for 2 ct “good” stones), response (e.g., from approximately $85/ct to $100/ct
whereas finer-quality gemstones strengthened in for “fine” 3 ct stones). Subsequently, the prices
price (from an average low of $5,750/ct in 1990 to showed little change.
$8,000/ct in 1999 for 2 ct “fine” stones).
Zoisite—Tanzanite. The roller coaster of tanzanite
Diamond (1 ct; G-color VS2 and I-color SI1). After pricing resulted from many factors, including sup-
an early 1990 price hike by De Beers—which was ply changes as mines closed and reopened, mining
only partially reflected in diamond prices due to disasters, swings in consumer demand, and govern-
price resistance and absorption by suppliers—prices mental controls. With all the fluctuations, howev-
remained stable, with no official increases until a er, prices in 1999 were only slightly less than they
small one was implemented in early 1993. The were at the beginning of the decade (e.g., $325/ct
period 1995–1997, however, saw larger and more versus $360/ct for “fine” 3 ct stones).
frequent price increases (figure A-1, top). The end
result was diamond prices about 30% higher at the Cultured Pearls—Strands. While prices increased
end of the decade, especially in the more popular during the first half of the decade, they leveled off
jewelry grades (e.g., $5,300 for 1 ct G-color VS2 quickly as the freshwater Chinese product started
stones in 1999, as compared to $4,100 in 1990). to appear. From 1995 to 1999, for example, the price
of an 18-inch strand of white, 61¼ 2 –7 mm diame-
Garnet—Rhodolite. Rhodolite experienced fluctuat- ter, bead-nucleated cultured pearls averaged $500
ing popularity, but its supply was steady and so for “good” quality, and $875 for “fine.”
were its prices (i.e., an average of $25 to $45/ct for
“good” and “fine” 3 ct stones). Cultured Pearls—South Sea and Tahitian. The fol-
lowing discussion is generalized for single, bead-
Quartz—Amethyst. Synthetic amethyst plagued nucleated, round to semi-round, 10–11 mm diameter
the industry prior to 1990. Today, the problem still cultured pearls with thick nacre, medium to high
exists, but is mostly ignored at the retail level. luster, and light blemishes. White South Sea cultured
Nevertheless, wholesale prices of natural amethyst pearls held their value for most of the decade ($1,450
slowly declined over most of the ‘90s (e.g., from an each for “fine” material from 1995 through 1999),
average of $20/ct down to $12/ct for “fine” 3 ct although the January 2000 price was just over half
stones). This was perhaps due to the lack of that ($775). The prices for black Tahitian cultured
widespread testing of amethyst and thus the salting pearls started to decline in 1998 (e.g., from $862 each
of “natural” parcels with synthetic stones. for a “fine” 10–11 mm sample in 1997 to $475 each
in the following year). Today, production is much
Spinel—Blue. Prices rose dramatically during the greater and more sources are providing these large
1990s (e.g., from $125/ct to $350/ct for “fine” 3 ct pearls, so prices are coming down.

Figure 10. This aerial
view of the Argyle
diamond mine in
northern Australia,
taken in February
2000, shows the enor-
mous open pit and
tailings piles. During
the past decade, this
mine has been the
world’s largest pro-
ducer of diamonds by
volume. Courtesy of
Argyle Diamonds.
from 0.2 ct to over 1 ct (R. Kane, pers. comm., 2000). ground mining. However, progress was made in
The heat treatment of sapphires to improve their evaluating a new diamond field in the Arkhangelsk
color and/or clarity remained a major industry in region northeast of St. Petersburg (Sobolev, 1999),
the 1990s. As noted above for rubies, premium although this area has not yet gone into production.
prices for untreated blue sapphires are the norm Very large quantities of mainly small brownish
(Federman, 1998). Most heat-treated high-quality to yellow or near-colorless diamonds continued to
blue and pink sapphire came from Sri Lanka and, be recovered from the Argyle mine in northern
more recently, Madagascar (Suwa, 1999). In particu- Australia (figure 10). This mine also produces rare
lar, for the last couple of years the Ilakaka deposits pink-to-red diamonds, which have brought per-carat
have supplied enormous quantities of violet to pur- prices of US$100,000 or more at annual auctions
ple sapphires that can be heat treated to produce (“Argyle Diamonds...,” 1997). Toward the end of
pink material (Johnson et al., 1999b). the decade, a decision was made to expand the area
of the open pit over a two-year period to allow
DIAMOND future access to additional ore reserves. However,
All of the traditional diamond sources remained concern about the number of diamonds that eventu-
productive, led by the operations in southern and ally can be recovered economically by open-pit min-
central Africa. The recovery of typically higher- ing has forced additional exploration in the mine
quality diamonds from the seafloor off the coasts of area, as well as deliberations over the feasibility of
Namibia and South Africa expanded greatly developing underground operations.
(Rombouts, 2000). In the northeastern part of South One of the more exciting developments in recent
Africa, De Beers initiated modernized operations at years was the discovery of gem-quality diamonds in
their new Venetia mine in 1992. In addition, height- northern Canada and the subsequent identification
ened diamond exploration activities during the ‘90s of several potentially significant deposits over a
resulted in several new mining operations and wide area. Toward the end of the decade, diamond
prospects. production began at the Ekati mine in the
After the breakup of the former Soviet Union, a Northwest Territories (figure 11), with the probabil-
period of uncertainty began in the early 1990s with ity that Canadian diamonds could supply more than
regard to the continued production of diamonds in 10% of world production by value early in the 21st
Yakutia (now the Sakha Republic in the Russian century (Paget, 1999). Discovery of new diamond
Federation). Diminished financial resources hin- deposits has been aided by the use of high-technolo-
dered further development of the major mines in gy exploration methods (thus far, similar methods
this remote region, especially given the potential have not achieved comparable success in locating
need to transform open-pit operations to under- new colored stone deposits; see Cook, 1997).

Distribution Changes and Branding. As the decade
came to an end, the possibility of a “multi-channel”
distribution system, with diamonds flowing from
the mine to the consumer along several different
routes that are not all controlled by De Beers,
became a frequent topic of discussion (see, e.g.,
Sevdermish et al., 1998). The shift toward diamond
branding at the end of the 1990s (e.g., efforts to
“brand” the origin of diamonds from new deposits
in Canada) is likely to increase consumer awareness
of their geographic origin. Recently, De Beers
acknowledged the reality of the multi-channel dis-
Figure 11. Canada became a new diamond source
tribution system by announcing that rather than
in the 1990s, with the opening of the Ekati mine
attempt to control world diamond supply, they
in the Northwest Territories. All of these dia-
would strive to be the supplier of choice for the monds were faceted from Ekati mine rough; the
industry (see, e.g., Behrmann and Block, 2000). marquise weighs 1.75 ct. Courtesy of Barker &
Co.; photo © Jeff Scovil.
Country of Origin. For years, “country of origin”
has played an important and sometimes controver-
sial role in the marketing of some colored stones. At andradite was discovered in Mali at Diakon. New
the end of the ‘90s, this phrase assumed new impor- sources in Madagascar produced pyrope-spessartine
tance in the diamond industry, as some organiza- (including color-change material) and tsavorite.
tions and governments became concerned that prof- Orange spessartine garnets continued to come from
its from the sale of diamonds were being used to Namibia, Madagascar, and Zambia. Just as produc-
fund domestic conflicts in certain African countries. tion from Namibia declined at the end of the 1990s,
Angola, Sierra Leone, and the Democratic Republic Nigeria provided larger and cleaner spessartines to
of the Congo were singled out as areas of concern.
This sparked a demand for documenting the source
of such “conflict” diamonds to prevent them from Figure 12. Fine demantoid garnet, such as the
entering the legitimate market. However, determin- 4.49 ct stone shown here, was mined at both old
ing the geographic origin of diamonds is technically and new localities in the Ural Mountains of
not feasible (Janse, 2000). More and more, efforts by Russia. The presence of “horsetail” inclusions
(see inset; 1.46 ct) provides confirmation of
producers and dealers alike are focused on prevent-
Russian origin. Courtesy of Pala International;
ing the purchase of diamonds from these areas, and
photos by Robert Weldon.
providing documentation with each diamond that
verifies its origin from a “nonconflict” source (see,
e.g., http://www.gemprint.com; Heeger, 2000).
GARNET
Known sources of garnet—including localities in
East Africa, India, and Sri Lanka—remained impor-
tant. In the Ekaterinburg area of Russia, both the
original locality (in the Babrovka River valley) and
new deposits (at Karkodino) produced some fine-
quality demantoid (figure 12). The first significant
demantoid locality outside of Russia was discovered
in Namibia in the mid-1990s, although the color of
this new material is not as intense, and the stones
lack the distinctive “horse-tail” inclusions that are
characteristic of Russian demantoid.
Rhodolite and other garnets came from East
Africa, while a new deposit of gem-quality grossular-

meet the market demand created by the Namibian
material (see, e.g., Zang et al., 1999; figure 13). The
Tunduru region of southern Tanzania has yielded
large quantities of several different types of garnet
(Henn and Milisenda, 1997; figure 14). A large new
deposit in Lindi Province was the source of attrac-
tive tsavorite, which has helped replenish the dimin-
ishing production from traditional tsavorite locali-
ties in Kenya and northern Tanzania (H. Krupp, pers.
comm., 1999).
JADE
Northern Myanmar continued to be the sole com-
Figure 13. At the end of the decade, relatively mercial source of high-quality green, lavender, and
large, clean spessartine garnets (such as the white jadeite, as well as other colors, with no short-
12.97 ct stone shown here) came from a new age of supply in sight (Hughes et al., 2000; figure
deposit in southwestern Nigeria. Courtesy of 15). New jadeite deposits are being exploited in
Mayer & Watt; photo © Tino Hammid. Japan (Chihara, 1999), as well as in both Russia (the
Polar Urals and in central Siberia) and southern
Kazakhstan (N. Kuznetsov, pers. comm., 2000).
Figure 14. Large quantities of garnets—in several Nephrite deposits are located in the western por-
varieties—were recovered from the Tunduru area tions of North America (especially British
of Tanzania. The mines are worked by simple Columbia in Canada, as well as Alaska). Other
methods, as shown by this pit at Libafu. A deposits occur in Xiu Lan County, Liaoning
portable wet-sieving machine is being used to
Province, and other regions of China. As China con-
concentrate the gem rough. Photo by Horst Krupp.
tinues its rapid economic development, it is likely
that demand for both nephrite and jadeite jade will
also increase in that marketplace.
OPAL
Australian localities in New South Wales,
Queensland, and South Australia continued to be
the major sources of most gem opal (figure 16).
However, Mexico and Brazil were important pro-
ducers of “fire” opal and white opal. Mexican fire
opal experienced strong—but brief—popularity
through marketing on television shopping net-
works. Subsequent problems with supply of this
material, and its tendency for crazing, brought its
popularity to an abrupt halt (P. and B. Flusser, pers.
comm., 2000). Prices for black opal from Lightning
Ridge, Australia, declined briefly due to the collapse
of the Asian market (especially Japan), but subse-
quent demand from the strong U.S. market brought
prices close to those in the early 1990s.
PERIDOT
The past decade witnessed the continued produc-
tion of gem-quality olivine from the United States
(Arizona), Myanmar, and China. However, the dis-
covery of significant quantities of rich green peridot
from Pakistan (figure 17), with exceptional clarity

and in large sizes (clean stones up to several hun-
dred carats), created renewed enthusiasm for this
gemstone (Frazier and Frazier, 1997). During the
decade, commercial quantities of small pieces of
peridot were recovered in Vietnam.
QUARTZ
The most significant amethyst-producing countries
are first Brazil and then Uruguay, as well as Tan-
zania, Namibia, and Zambia. Although amethyst
remains one of the most important commercial
gems, the market for natural amethyst has been
undermined by the widespread infiltration of syn-
thetic amethyst. Much of this synthetic material
can be separated from natural amethyst, but this
often requires advanced gemological testing. As the
cost of such testing often exceeds the value of the
amethyst, widespread availability of the synthetic
material has depressed the value of the natural gem.
Figure 16. Most gem opal, such as the black opal
shown in this pendant, comes from Australia.
Figure 15. Myanmar remains the world’s only The opal is set within carved aquamarine.
commercial source of fine jadeite. These Jewelry designed and created by Kreg Scully;
exquisite fern leaf carvings show the saturated photo © Jeff Scovil.
color and semi-transparency commonly associ-
ated with “Imperial” jadeite. The larger carving
measures 57.11 × 28.87 × 3.59 mm; photo © Tino Figure 17. Commercial quantities of peridot
Hammid and Christie’s Hong Kong. became available in relatively large sizes from a
new deposit in Pakistan. The faceted stone shown
here weighs 172.53 ct, and the crystal is 6 cm tall.
Courtesy of Pala International; photo © Jeff Scovil.

Most citrine comes from Brazil; some is pro-
duced by the heat treatment of amethyst. Sporadic
mining of ametrine (bicolored amethyst-citrine; fig-
ure 18) from Bolivia continued in the early and mid-
1990s, but the quantity and quality of the material
declined at the end of the decade (C. Marcusson,
pers. comm., 2000).
SPINEL
Although increasing in consumer recognition and
demand, spinel remains overshadowed in the mar-
ketplace by other colored gems such as ruby and
pink sapphire. During the ’90s, spinel was mined
from traditional localities in Sri Lanka and
Myanmar (figure 19), as well as by the reworking of
historic sources such as in the Pamir Mountains of
Figure 18. During the 1990s, fine amethyst, cit-
rine, and ametrine (here, 21.88–66.91 ct) were Tajikistan.
recovered from the Anahí mine in Bolivia. The most important new sources were Tunduru
Courtesy of Minerales y Metales del Oriente; in southern Tanzania and Ilakaka in Madagascar.
photo by Robert Weldon. These have produced primarily smaller stones
(0.5–1.5 ct) in many pastel colors. Spinel was also
found in Vietnam as a byproduct of ruby and sap-
phire mining. Today, spinel is growing in popularity
Figure 19. Myanmar remained an important due to its attractive colors, high clarity, good dura-
source of spinel such as this 3.2-cm-tall crystal bility, and the fact that it is not treated.
and 7.38 ct oval brilliant. Courtesy of Barker &
Co.; photo © Jeff Scovil. TANZANITE
Tanzania’s Merelani area remains the only com-
mercial source of tanzanite (figure 20). In the 1990s,
tanzanite approached emerald, ruby, and sapphire
in popularity in the U.S., but was in less demand
elsewhere. Its single source, rich color, and avail-
ability in larger sizes made this gemstone a main-
stay in some jewelry stores. Enormous fluctuations
in production, and therefore also in price, eventual-
ly led to an oversupply on the market in the latter
half of the decade. However, a disastrous mine
accident in 1998 forced the Tanzanian government
to impose restrictions on tanzanite mining.
Subsequently, the reduced mining (also due to
increased costs), the difficulty of recovering materi-
al from ever-greater depths, and the departure of
miners to new gem-producing areas in southern
Tanzania all combined to elevate the price of this
unique gemstone close to levels attained in the
early 1990s (Bertoldi, 1998; box A).
Merelani also has produced the rarer green
zoisite, which is colored by chromium (Barot and
Boehm, 1992). Recent discoveries of transparent
pink and bicolored—pink and yellow—zoisite
(Wentzell, 2000) may provide new insight into the
geology of the Merelani area.

TOPAZ
As it has for many years, topaz came from Brazil (fig-
ure 21), Nigeria, Pakistan, Sri Lanka, and the Ural
Mountains in Russia. Pink-to-orange “Imperial” topaz
enjoyed a rise in price throughout the 1990s, due to
controlled supply in Brazil and minimal production in
Pakistan (Drucker, 1997; see also box A). One dramat-
ic development was the decline in demand for irradi-
ated blue topaz, for which much near-colorless topaz
had been mined in the 1980s. Natural-color blue
topaz was not commercially available during the ’90s.
TOURMALINE
Because it occurs in large, often high-clarity crystals
of almost every color, tourmaline remains one of
the most popular colored stones. The past decade
saw further mining at many Brazilian pegmatites,
Figure 20. The world’s only commercial source of
and increased production in many African countries
tanzanite remained the Merelani area of Tanzania.
including Nigeria, Zambia, Mozambique, Mada- The tanzanite in the diamond pendant weighs
gascar, Tanzania, and Kenya. Afghanistan contin- 22.60 ct, and the loose stones range from 4.54 to
ued to yield “pastel” pink and green stones, in addi- 22.26 ct. Courtesy of The Collector Fine Jewelry;
tion to blue and bicolored material. photo © Harold & Erica Van Pelt.
Irradiation of colorless to light pink tourmaline
supplied significant amounts of deep pink to red
material in the early to mid-1990s. During this in a small production of this material. The past
decade, the bright blue, green, and purple tourma- decade witnessed the increasing availability of
lines from Paraíba, Brazil (figure 22) reached record charoite from Siberia as an ornamental gem materi-
retail prices (one of the authors [WFL] sold a 4.49 ct al, as well as the marketing of chrome diopside
blue stone for $16,000/ct [see photo on accompany- (Costanza, 1998a). Gem varieties of feldspar came
ing Gem Localities chart]) due to very limited avail-
ability and high demand (Drucker, 1997). In the mid-
1990s, enormous quantities (tons) of bicolored and
brownish pink material came from the Morro Figure 21. Like jadeite and tanzanite, commer-
Redondo mine in Minas Gerais, Brazil. Blue-green cial deposits of Imperial topaz (here, set stone
tourmaline has been available from several deposits about 6 ct, and loose stone, 3.82 ct) are found
in Namibia. The last few years saw even larger quan- in a single area of the world—in this case, near
Ouro Prêto, Minas Gerais, Brazil. Jewelry cour-
tities of attractive pink-to-red tourmaline from
tesy of Suwa & Son; photo by Maha Tannous.
Nigeria (Schmetzer, 1999a; figure 23), but the
deposits are now apparently exhausted (M. Diallo,
pers. comm., 2000). The influx of this material onto
the gem market also caused a significant decline in
the price of rough red and pink tourmaline.
OTHER GEM MATERIALS AND

NEW LOCALITIES
A number of other gem materials from various local-
ities became available during the 1990s (see table 2;
figure 24). Blue to green apatite from Madagascar
was used as a substitute for the similarly colored
tourmaline from Paraíba, Brazil. At the Benitoite
Gem mine in California, an important extension of
the historic deposit was found in 1997, and resulted

in Australia, Southeast Asia, Sri Lanka, and East
Africa. With the broader audiences reached by tele-
vised home shopping programs worldwide, as well as
the Internet, many of these more unusual gem mate-
rials became familiar to—and embraced by—more
consumers than ever before.
PEARLS
The 1990s may well be remembered as the most
significant “pearl era” in modern history. Not only
has production of cultured pearls increased dramati-
cally, but the variety available has grown as well. Of
particular note were “pink rosé” and white Chinese
Akoya cultured pearls; numerous colors of Chinese
freshwater cultured pearls; black Tahitian (French
Polynesia), white South Sea (Australia), and “gold-
en” cultured pearls from Indonesia and the
Philippines; purple and green New Zealand and
Figure 22. Brightly colored tourmaline from Pacific Coast cultured abalone mabes; and pink
Paraíba, Brazil, commanded record prices in the
conch “pearls” from the Caribbean, and pink and
second half of the 1990s due to its rarity and
orange Melo “pearls” from Southeast Asia.
strong market demand. Courtesy of Karl Egon
Wild; photo © Harold & Erica Van Pelt. According to N. Paspaley (pers. comm., 2000), the
cultured pearls being harvested today are among the
finest ever produced in terms of quality, size, quan-
from various localities (such as India, Canada, and tity, and possibly value. Never has more been
the U.S.), with the most popular being those that understood about the biology, habitat, sources, and
exhibited optical phenomena (i.e., moonstone, sun-
stone, peristerite, and labradorite). However, signifi-
cant quantities of transparent sunstone also came
Figure 23. At the end of the decade, large quanti-
onto the market. Iolite provided an inexpensive sub-
ties of gem-quality pink-to-red tourmaline were
stitute for blue sapphire and tanzanite, and was
found near Ogbomosho, Nigeria. These crystals
mined in Canada, India, Sri Lanka, and Madagascar. and nodules of tourmaline were among the initial
Maw sit sit, from the famous jade mining region in production; the cut stone weighs 15.0 ct. Courtesy
Myanmar, became more available in the mid-1990s. of Pala International; photo by Robert Weldon.
Several hundred kilograms were recovered between
1995 and 1997, although supplies diminished toward
the end of the decade. In the early 1990s, some of the
world’s finest rhodochrosite began being recovered
from the Sweet Home mine near Alma, Colorado,
through the application of innovative mining and
exploration techniques (Lees, 1998).
Gem scapolite came from localities in Myanmar,
Sri Lanka, Tanzania, Tajikistan, and China. Sphene
was found in a number of countries, sometimes in
important quantities from deposits in Brazil and
Madagascar. In general, the availability and quality of
sugilite from South Africa declined during the past
decade, but small pieces of high-quality material
were commonly inlaid together with other gem
materials in jewelry (G. Stockton, pers. comm.,
2000). Finally, zircon provided an inexpensive alter-
native to fancy-colored diamonds, and was produced

Figure 24. A variety of
less familiar gem materi-
als were commercially
produced during the
1990s. Shown here (from
left to right) are: top—
Malagasy sphene (29.17
ct), Burmese scapolite
(59.95 ct), Indian iolite
(19.74 ct); bottom—
American benitoite (3.09
ct), Cambodian zircon
(13.37 ct), Peruvian
rhodochrosite (6.22 ct),
and Malagasy apatite
(4.07 ct). Courtesy of
William Larson; photo ©
growth and harvesting conditions of pearls world- high of 2,500 early in the decade to 1,076 at the last
wide (Akamatsu, 1999). official count in 1998. Several smaller farms disap-
Compared to cultured pearls, natural pearls peared, while others expanded their farming area.
remained exceedingly rare, but demand by some As a result, fewer farms are cultivating more
consumers is driving a global effort to recover them Tahitian pearls.
(K. C. Bell, pers. comm., 2000). This will remain a One of the interesting new trends was the produc-
small but compelling part of the pearl industry. tion and use of “keshi” pearls. Once applied only to
extremely small Akoya natural pearls, today keshi
Cultured Pearls. During the 1990s, the Japanese expe- (from the Japanese word for poppy seed) is the com-
rienced a sharp decline in the production of Akoya mon name for a nonnucleated cultured pearl pro-
cultured pearls and consequently in their dominance duced by the oyster when the nucleus is rejected.
of the pearl market, although they expanded their Common byproducts of Australian and French
influence as cultivators by helping pearl growers in Polynesian pearling operations, these baroque-shaped
other regions. The reduced number of cultured pearls cultured pearls can reach up to 7–8 mm. By the mid-
from Japan (Muller, 1998) was offset by the increased 1990s, strands of such “keshis” were as popular as
production and popularity of cultured pearls from strands of round and semi-round cultured pearls
French Polynesia and Australia (figure 25), as well as (Federman, 1997), and their demand continued
Indonesia (figure 26), the Philippines, and China. The through the end of the decade (F. Mastoloni, pers.
1990s also witnessed the reemergence of several comm., 1999; M. Goebel, pers. comm., 2000).
areas (such as Myanmar) that had declined earlier in According to N. Paspaley (pers. comm., 2000),
the 20th century, due to overharvesting and environ- successful pearl-farming techniques for South Sea
mental degradation (see table 3). Pearl culturing also pearl oysters (Pinctada maxima) were not devel-
increased in Vietnam (Bosshart et al., 1993; “Vietnam oped until the 1980s. Since growth and harvesting
produces Akoya,” 1999). can take up to eight years, noticeable achievements
M. Coeroli (pers. comm., 2000) reports that the in production were not realized until the 1990s.
widespread popularity of black cultured pearls from Also during the ’90s, new technology for the artifi-
French Polynesia followed the steady growth of cial propagation of the pearl oyster contributed to
pearl production, which increased 1,323% over the the increased production. Today, the Indonesian and
decade: from 575 kg of Pinctada margaritifera cul- Philippine pearl-culturing industries are completely
tured pearls in 1990 to nearly 8.2 metric tons in dependent on hatcheries to supply the pearl oysters;
1999. Yet during this period, the number of pearl- only Australia and Myanmar have commercially
producing farms in French Polynesia dropped from a important beds of natural P. maxima (N. Paspaley,

For freshwater cultured pearls, China clearly
dominated the decade. Production of up to 1,200
metric tons is estimated for the year 2000 alone (A.
Muller, pers. comm., 2000). Improved culturing
techniques—using mantle-tissue nuclei—permitted
the growth of large quantities of very attractive
pearls, in large sizes, with remarkable roundness,
and in a variety of uniform, natural-looking colors
(figure 28). In years to come, China may also have a
major effect on the market for bead-nucleated fresh-
water cultured pearls (Tao, 2000) if they succeed in
expanding the availability of less-expensive round
cultured pearls in sizes over 10 mm.
Pearl-culturing efforts in the southeastern U.S.,
led initially by John Latendresse of American Pearl
Co. and later followed by James Peach of U.S. Pearl
Co., produced a steady supply of freshwater cultured
pearls throughout the decade, in creative shapes
ranging from crosses to hearts and tabular forms
(G. Latendresse, pers. comm., 2000). Also notable is
the widespread incorporation of American shell-bead
nuclei from the freshwater Unio mollusks for pearl
culturing in most species. The U.S. exports to Japan
an estimated $50 million annually in shells for
Figure 25. French Polynesia and Australia were making bead nuclei (Mayell, 1998). While today
the principal sources of black Tahitian and
white South Sea cultured pearls, respectively.
The cultured pearls in the necklaces shown here
range from 11.69 to 16.21 mm (Tahitian) and Figure 26. At the Togian Islands in central
12.80 to 17.69 mm (South Sea). Photo © Tino Sulawesi, Indonesia, a pearl-oyster technician
Hammid and Christie’s Hong Kong. places a bead nucleus in the optimal location
with the help of strong fiber-optic light. Photo
by Andy Muller.
pers. comm., 2000; Themelis, 2000). Note that
unlike other pearl oysters that easily can be bred in
captivity, even artificially propagated P. maxima
will grow to maturity only in their natural environ-
ment. Any future increase in pearl production from
this region will largely be determined by the ability
of pearl farmers to control pollution so they have
favorable environmental conditions for the success-
ful cultivation of hatchery-produced oysters.
Natural abalone pearls, still very rare, continued
to be found sporadically in many localities (see table
3; figure 27). For the first time, successful production
of cultured abalone mabes and a few whole cultured
abalone pearls was realized in the 1990s (Fankboner,
1994). These came from abalone growers on the
Pacific Coast of North America and in New
Zealand. Mabes are more easily produced, and New
Zealand cultured abalone mabes have appeared in
commercial quantities since 1997 (Wentzell, 1998).

Regional pearl associations emerged following the
conference, and joined efforts by the World Pearl
Congress to distribute newsletters via the Internet
and promote pearls to the jeweler, as well as directly
to the consumer, through the popular press. This,
combined with exposure through movies and televi-
sion programs, brought pearl fashion to the consumer
internationally (M. Coeroli, pers. comm., 2000).
Figure 27. Because natural abalone pearls are so Calcareous Concretions. There was renewed inter-
rare, considerable effort has been made to pro- est in calcareous concretions, such as conch
duce cultured abalone pearls. One of the suc- “pearls” from the Caribbean Strombus gigas and
cess stories of the ‘90s was the introduction of the new Melo “pearls” from Southeast Asia. In
commercial quantities of cultured abalone vogue at the turn of the 19th century, conch
mabe pearls from New Zealand. The largest “pearls” regained popularity once their availability
(natural) abalone pearl here weighs 77.75 ct. increased. They are recovered primarily from waters
Courtesy of Tish and Wes Rankin, Pacific Coast near the Bahamas, Bermuda, and Cuba (Fritsch and
Pearls; photo © Harold & Erica Van Pelt. Misiorowski, 1987), as well as the southeastern U.S.
(Shirai, 1994).
Early in the 1990s, small quantities of pink and
growers are testing other materials, most pearl cul- orange calcareous concretions began to be reported
turers continue to use the Unio bead.
Unfortunately, American freshwater mollusks
have become threatened by environmental prob-
lems caused by dam construction, silt from agricul- Figure 28. Toward the end of the decade, large,
round cultured pearls from China (here, 9–11
ture, water pollution, mining, industrial waste, and
mm in diameter) were available in significant
especially the introduction of an exotic bivalve—
quantities and a variety of colors. Courtesy of
the zebra mussel (Dreissens polymorpha). The zebra Rafco; photo by Robert Weldon.
mussel has no natural enemies, and is capable of
outcompeting the roughly 300 species of pearl-pro-
ducing freshwater mollusks remaining in U.S.
rivers, streams, and lakes. Biologists estimate that
30% of the U.S. pearly species are already extinct,
and 65% are endangered (Helfich et al., 1997).
Research and development in pearl-culturing
technology led to significant discoveries during the
past decade. In 1994, an international pearl confer-
ence and exposition was held in Hawaii that
brought together—for the first time—pearl scien-
tists, aquaculturists, government leaders, and pearl
dealers (Sims and Fassler, 1994). Scientists reported
the use of antibiotics and steroids to improve cul-
turing success. Aquaculturists reviewed efforts to
grow spat and introduce pearl-producing mollusks
in areas (such as Hawaii) that had been overharvest-
ed at the turn of the century. Small operators in
India were exploring freshwater bodies for pearl cul-
turing. Speakers also discussed prospects for pearl-
culturing industries in Mexico and Colombia.
Interest in technical developments continues, and
ongoing research is reported in journals such as
Aquaculture and Pearl Oyster Bulletin.

were discovered in Canada, where no commercial
diamond deposits had been known. The increased
demand for colored stones, along with a better
understanding of gem occurrences, has fueled
greater exploration and recovery. Cultured pearls,
once dominated by the round, white Japanese
Akoyas, are now produced in an astonishing array of
colors, qualities, and shapes from multiple geo-
graphic sources.
Sociopolitical conditions continued to play an
important role in the 1990s. Predictions made by
Shigley et al. (1990) for significant opening of
Afghanistan, the former Soviet Union, and China
have not yet come to pass due to the lack of infras-
tructure and capitalization. The discovery of major
ruby deposits at Mong Hsu increased Myanmar’s
importance as a gem producer (Kammerling et al.,
Figure 28. Calcareous concretions from the Melo
1994b), but military restrictions limit access to the
gastropod, which first appeared in the market- area. Yet the greater freedom of trade in Vietnam
place during the ‘90s, fetched record prices by has undoubtedly contributed to the discovery and
the end of the decade. This 23.0 × 19.35 mm exploitation of gem deposits there, especially ruby
Melo “pearl” sold for $488,800 at the November and sapphire.
1999 Christie’s jewelry auction in Hong Kong. Environmental concerns continued to influence
both gem-mining and pearl-culturing activities.
South Africa’s Venetia mine, Australia’s Argyle
mine, and Canada’s Ekati mine were each con-
from the Melo genus of the Bailer volutes, a spiral structed to recover diamonds with state-of-the-art
gastropod. They are harvested primarily from processing plants and extensive environmental con-
Southeast Asian waters, especially off the coasts of trols. By contrast, at Canada’s Diavik mine, a tem-
Vietnam (Jobbins, 1992; Scarratt, 1992; Zucker, porary denial of a crucial land permit for environ-
1999) and Myanmar (K. Scarratt, pers. comm., mental reasons in 1999 resulted in the delay of
2000). Melo “pearls” have also been reported from mine development (Schuster, 2000). In the Ambon-
the South China Sea, India, Indonesia, and Malaysia dromifehy area of northern Madagascar, all sapphire
(Shirai, 1994; K. Scarratt, pers. comm., 2000). At the mining was halted for several months of 1998 due
November 1999 Christie’s jewelry auction in Hong to illegal digging in the Ankarana Special Reserve
Kong, a 23.0 × 19.35 mm Melo “pearl” sold for (Lurie, 1998). For cultured pearls, the greatest con-
US$488,800 (figure 28). cern is water quality. At Ago Bay in Japan, some
have blamed pollution from formalin—a liquid
CONCLUSION AND FUTURE PROSPECTS formaldehyde that the Japanese used to treat para-
While for many gem materials most of the coun- sites in blowfish (Costanza, 1998b)—for the dramat-
tries now considered important producers were ic decline in the production of Akoya cultured
identified by the 1970s, the discovery of new pearls. Throughout the South Seas, instances of
deposits within these countries, and even deposits industrial development and destructive fishing prac-
in newly identified source countries, continued tices threatened pearl production (D. Fiske, pers.
throughout the 1990s. Tanzania and Madagascar comm., 2000).
appeared to have the largest number of new gem Looking into the next decade, we predict the con-
deposits (see, e.g., Pezzotta, 1999). Vietnam (ruby tinued expansion of gem production in East Africa,
and sapphire) and Nigeria (spessartine and tourma- Madagascar, and Southeast Asia, while Brazil and
line) also emerged as commercially important gem Myanmar remain important sources. New gems as
producers. well as new gem localities will undoubtedly be dis-
The past decade witnessed some exciting develop- covered, especially as remote areas become more
ments for the gem and jewelry industry. Diamonds accessible and technology advances.

TABLE 1. Gem localities of the 1990s for major gemstones.a
Gem material/locality Reference Gem material/locality Reference
BERYL—Emerald Ceará—Solonópole: Coqui (32); Tauá: Boa Esper-

Africa ança (31)
Madagascar Goiás—Itaberaí (35); Pirenópolis (33); Porangatu: Pulz et al. (1998)
Fianarantsoa—Mananjary: Ankadilalana, Schwarz and Henn (1992), Mara Rosa, Pela Ema, Porangatu, Santa Terezinha
Infanadiana, Irondro, Morafeno (7) Thomas (1993), Schwarz (1994) (34)
Toliara—Ianapera (4) Marchand (1995) Minas Gerais—Itabira: Belmont (3); Nova Era: de Souza et al. (1992)
Capoeirana (3)
Mozambique Malango and Taupitz (1996)
Tocantins—Araguaia: Monte Santo (41) César-Mendes and Ferreira (1998),
Nampula—Alto Ligonha (1) Milisenda et al. (2000)
Johnson and Koivula (1998d)
Zambezia—Morroa: Maria (6) Thomas (1994)
Colombia Giuliani et al. (1990a, 1995, 2000),
Nigeria Bosshart (1991), Schwarz (1991b,
Kaduna—Gwantu Kammerling et al. (1995g), 1992), Branquet et al. (1999)
Schwarz et al. (1996a) Boyacá—Chivor: Buena Vista, Chivor, Las Vegas de
Plateau—Janta, Rafin Gabas Hills, Sha Kaleri Schwarz et al. (1996a) San Juan (Gachalá), Mundo Nuevo, Somondoco (3)
Plateau—Jos Lind et al. (1986) Boyacá—Muzo: Cosquez, El Chule, La Pita, Muzo, Ottaway et al. (1994), Johnson
Plateau—Nassarawan Eggon: Kwafam Gwari Kammerling et al. (1995g), Peñas Blancas, Polveros, Santa Barbara, Tequen- and Koivula (1996b), Johnson et
Schwarz et al. (1996a) dama (1) al. (2000a)
Tanzania
BERYL—Aquamarine/
Arusha—Lake Manyara: Mayoka (Manyara) (1) Dirlam et al. (1992), Keller (1992)
Heliodor/Morganite
Arusha—Ngorongoro: Manghola (13) Suleman et al. (1994)
Africa
Rukwa—Sumbawanga (10) Dirlam et al. (1992)
Kenya
Zambia
Eastern—Embu (2) Barot et al. (1995)
Copperbelt—Kafubu: Chama, Dabwisa, Fibolele, Milisenda et al. (1999) Rift Valley—Baragoi: Nachola (3) Keller (1992)
Fwaya-Fwaya, Kamakanga, Kanchule, Libwente, Miku,
Mitondo, Nkabashita, Pirala (4) Madagascar Henn et al. (1999b)
Zimbabwe Kanis et al. (1991) Antananarivo—Ankazobe (1); Betafo: Anjanabonoina, Pezzotta (1999)
Mahaiza, Tongafeno (2); Soavinandriana (11)
Matabelleland South—Sandawana: Aeres, Mach- Zwaan et al. (1997), Zwaan and
ingwe, Orpheus, Zeus (6); Zvishavane: Mberengwa (4) Touret (2000) Antananarivo—Sahatany Valley: Ibity, Manjaka, Lefevre and Thomas (1997),
Tsilaizina (3) Pezzotta (1999)
Victoria—Bikita: Chikwanda (5); Masvingo:
Mayfield, Novello (1) Antsiranana—Andapa (19)
Asia Fianarantsoa—Ambositra (16), Fianarantsoa (51), Lac Pezzotta (1999)
Itahy (18), Vondrozo (20)
Afghanistan
Mahajanga—Berere (5), Boriziny (40), Tsarantanana (6) Pezzotta (1999)
Parwan—Panjshir Valley: Bakhi, Butak, Buzmal, Bowersox et al. (1991), Bowersox
Darun, Khenj, Mikeni (5) and Chamberlin (1995) Toamasina—Amboasary (14)
India Toliara—Tolanaro (21)
Andhra Pradesh—Srikakulam: Kurupam (30) Panjikar (1995a) Malawi
Orissa—Balangir: Kantabanji (10) Choudhuri and Gurachary (1993) Northern—Mzimba (1) Milisenda et al. (2000)
Rajasthan—Udaipur: Kaliguman (16) S. Fernandes (pers. comm., 1999) Mozambique Correia Neves (1987), Malango
and Taupitz (1996)
Tamil Nadu—Salem: Sankari Taluka (17) Panjikar et al. (1997)
Nampula—Alto Ligonha: Macula (1), Muiane (1);
Pakistan Monapo (2)
Northwest Frontier—Mohmand: Bucha (5); Swat Arif et al. (1996), Aboosally (1999) Zambezia—Mocuba (3)
River Valley: Charbagh, Gujar Killi, Makhad,
Mingora, Shamozai (4) Namibia
Russia Karibib—Usakos: Spitzkoppe (2) Cairncross et al. (1998)
Middle Ural Mountains—Malysheva, Takovaya: Schmetzer et al. (1991), Laskoven- Nigeria
Izumrudnie Kopi kov and Zhernakov (1995), Emlin Kaduna—Gwantu Kammerling et al. (1995g)
(1996), Burlakov et al. (1997), Plateau—Jos Lind et al. (1986)
Spiridonov (1998) Plateau—Nassarawan Eggon: Sabon Wana, Kammerling et al. (1995g),
Australia Schwarz (1991a) Tundun Delli Schwarz et al. (1996a)
New South Wales—New England Range: Emmaville, Schmetzer (1994), Webb and Plateau—Rafin Gabas Hills Kanis and Harding (1990)
Torrington (19) Sutherland (1998) Plateau—Janta, Sha Kaleri Schwarz et al. (1996a)
Queensland—Mount Surprise (20) Wilson (1995) Tanzania
Western Australia—Pilbara: McPhees Patch, Pilgan- Arusha—Loliondo (8), Longido (9) Dirlam et al. (1992)
goora, Wodgina (21); Poona: Menzies, Poona (2)
Dodoma—Kondoa (41) A. Suleman (pers. comm., 1999)
North America
Morogoro—Mvuha (30) Dirlam et al. (1992)
United States
Rukwa—Sumbawanga (10) Dirlam et al. (1992)
North Carolina—Mitchell: Hiddenite Sinkankas (1997), Stone (1999)
South America
Brazil Giuliani et al. (1990b, 1997)
a This chart includes key producing localities of the decade, with references
Bahia—Anagé: Açude, Juca, Lagoa Funda, Lagoinha, Schwarz et al. (1990), Couto to publications in the contemporary literature. The country name is followed
Piabanha, Pombas, Sossêgo (14); Brumado (30); (2000) by the province/state/region, then the district, and finally the
Campo Formoso: Bica, Bode, Braúlio, Cabra, mine/deposit/occurrence name (in italics). Districts shown in bold were par-
Formiga, Gavião, Lagarto, Marota, Trecho Novo, ticularly important gem producers in the 1990s. Numbers in parentheses
Trecho Velho (5); Carnaíba-Socotó: Arrozal, refer to locations plotted on the regional maps. Some countries are not
shown on these maps, and therefore do not have any numbers indicated.
Carnaíba, Catuaba, Mundé, Socotó, Veio do Sebo (5)

Gem material/locality Reference
Madhya Pradesh—Ambikapur: Newatola, Sapha (31); S. Fernandes (pers. comm., 1999)

Bastar: Bhopalpatnam (51); Raigarh: Belghutri, Gina-
bahar (38)
Madhya Pradesh—Deobhog (19) Jha et al. (1993)
Orissa—Balangir: Ghuchepara, Saraibahal (10) Choudhuri and Gurachary (1993),
Panjikar (1995b)
Orissa—Kalahandi: Banjipadar, Sargiguda (53) S. Fernandes (pers. comm., 1999)
Orissa—Phulabani (13) Current mining report... (1998)
Orissa—Sambalpur: Bagdhapa, Charbati, Meghpal (5) Das (1993), Current mining report...
(1998)
Rajasthan—Ajmer (14), Tonk (15), Udaipur (16) Panjikar (1994b), Current mining
report... (1998)
Tamil Nadu—Dindigul Anna: Ayyalur, Sullerumbhu (8) S. Fernandes (pers. comm., 1999)
Tamil Nadu—Karur (54) Boehm (2000)
Tamil Nadu—Salem (17) J. Panjikar (pers. comm., 1999)
Kazakhastan Smith and Smith (1995)
Qaraghandy—Balqash: Kounradskiy
Qaraghandy—Taldyqorghan: Aqshatau Spiridonov (1998)
Myanmar
Mandalay—Mogok: Ka-Baing, Sakangyi (1) Kammerling et al. (1994b)
Sagaing—Thazi: Ye-bu (7) U Hlaing (pers. comm., 1999)
Nepal Niedermayr (1992)
Bagmati—Kakani (1)
Gandaki—Lamjung (2)
Kosi—Ikuh Khola (3), Sankhuwasabha (4), Topke
Gola (4)
Mechi—Taplejung (4)
Seti—Khaptad (5)
Pakistan
Northern Areas—Baltistan: Dassu, Gone, Teston (3) Blauwet et al. (1997)
Northern Areas—Gilgit: Buleche, Haramosh, Blauwet et al. (1997)
Aquamarine-bearing pegmatites in Brazil have Shengus (2)
yielded some attractive crystals. This 12.6-cm- Northwest Frontier—Chitral: Garam Chashma (1) Khan (1986)
long aquamarine crystal, from the Teófilo Otoni Russia
region of Minas Gerais, shows both gemmy and Chita—Urchugan River Spiridonov (1998)
opaque portions. Courtesy of Pala International; Ekaterinburg—Asbest: Shaytanka Emlin (1996), Spiridonov (1998)
photo by Jeff Scovil. Middle Ural Mountains—Mursinka–Adui: Alabashka, Smith and Smith (1995), Emlin
Mursinka, Shaitanka, Yushakova (1996)
Transbaikalia—Borzja: Sherlova Gora Spiridonov (1998)
Sri Lanka Dissanayake and Rupasinghe
(1993), Milisenda and Henn (1999)
Ruvuma—Nyamtumbo (42) A. Suleman (pers. comm., 1999)
Singida—Singida (11) Keller (1992) Central—Badulla: Haputale (18);Kegalla: Avissa-
wella (9); Nuwara Eliya: Kuruwitenna (13), Nawala-
Zambia Milisenda et al. (2000) pitiya (29); Polonnaruwa: Elahera (8)
Central—Kabwe: Jagoda, Muchinga (13)
Southern—Hambantota: Lunugamwehera (30);
Eastern—Lukusuzi (6) M. Sarosi (pers. comm., 1999) Kalutara: Horana (34); Matara: Akuressa, Morawaka
Eastern—Lundazi: Chama, Fwaya-Fwaya, Pela Mambwe and Sikatali (1994) (4); Monaragala: Embilipitiya (19), Monaragala (6),
(Kapirinkesa) (2) Okkampitiya (5); Ratnapura: Balangoda (2), Kuru-
Northern—Luangwa Valley (3) wita (1), Rakwana (3), Ratnapura (1)
Western—Namwala: Mumbwa, Namwala (14) Tajikistan
Zimbabwe Turkistan—Pamir Mountains: Rangkul, near Murgab Skrigitil (1996), Spiridonov (1998)
Mashonaland North—Mwami–Karoi (2) Shmakin and Wedepohl (1999), Ukraine Evseev (1994a)
Milisenda et al. (2000) Volyns'ka—Vladimir-Volnskiy Koshil et al. (1991), Touret (1992)
Asia Zhytomyr—Zhytomyr: Volodarsk-Volnskiy Koivula et al. (1993b)
Afghanistan Bowersox and Chamberlin (1995) Vietnam
Konar—Dhray-Pech, Gur Salak, Paprowk (2) Thanh Hoa—Thuong Xuan (1) Ngu and Ngoc (1986)
Laghman—Mawi, Nilaw-Kolum (3) North America
Nangarhar—Darre Nur (4) Canada
China British Columbia—Bennett: Mount Foster; McDame: Wilson (1999)
Yunnan—Yuan Jiang: Ailao Mountains More new finds... (1996) Horseshoe Ranch; Passmore: B-Q Claims
India United States Jacobsen (1993), Sinkankas (1997)
Gujarat—Panch Mahal: Palikhanda (11) Panjikar (1996) California—Pala: Elizabeth R, White Queen
Jammu and Kashmir—Kargil: Dangel, Padam (12) Panjikar (1994a) Colorado—Chaffee: Mount Antero
Karnataka—Hassan: Dodkadanur (34); Mysore: S. Fernandes (pers. comm., 1999) Idaho—Sawtooth Mountains
Melkote (33) Maine—Oxford-Sagadahoc: Bennett Quarry, Oxford,

Stoneham, Topsham wella (9); Nuwara Eliya: Kuruwitenna (13); Polonna-

New Hampshire—Grafton: Grafton; Sullivan- ruwa: Elahera, Kaluganga Valley, Laggola (8)
Cheshire: Keene Southern—Galle: Galle (12); Hambontota: Ambalan-
South America tota (11); Kalutara: Alutgama (10), Horana (34);
Matara: Akuressa (4), Deniyaya (31); Monaragala:
Brazil Cassedanne and Alves (1991, 1992)
Embilipitiya (19); Ratnapura: Balangoda (2), Pel-
Bahia—Alcobaça: Juerana (20); Itambé: Morro da Cassedanne and Alves (1994), madulla (1), Rakwana (3), Ratnapura (1), Walawe (1)
Gloria, Paraíso (24); Itanhém: Jaqueto (20); Macarani: Couto (2000)
Australia
Lajedinho (13); Maiquinique: Jagarauna (13); Vitória
de Conquista: Cercadinho (14) Western Australia—Dowerin (13) Bevan and Downes (1997)
Ceará—Icó: Serrote (32) Cassedanne and Alves (1994) South America
Espírito Santo—Baixo Guandu: Santa Cruz (Itapina) Cassedanne and Alves (1994) Brazil Cassedanne and Roditi (1993)
(16); Castelo: Forno Grande (15); Itaguaçu: Bôa Vista Espírito Santo—Colatina: Córrego Alegre (16)
(16); Mimoso do Sul: Concórdia (15); Muqui: São Minas Gerais—Malacacheta: Córrego do Fogo (19);
Domingos (15); Pancas (16) Padre Paraíso: Americana River Valley, Santana River
Minas Gerais—Jequitinhonha River Valley: Cassedanne and Alves (1994) Valley (22)
Coronel Murta, Frade, Ilha Alegre, Laranjeiras, Manuel
Silva (18); Marambaia: Coroa de Ouro, Galvão, Mucaia, CHRYSOBERYL—Alexandrite
Papamel (22); Mucuri River Valley: Marta Rocha Africa
(22); Padre Paraíso (22);Pedra Azul: Fortaleza, Medina, Madagascar
Pavão (18); Salinas River Valley: Bananal, Salinas (18);
Fianarantsoa—Ambodibakoly: Kianjavato (24) D. Grondin (pers. comm., 1996)
Santa Cruz River Valley: Três Barras, Urubu (22);
Santa Maria de Itabira: Barro Prêto, Funil, Jatobá, Fianarantsoa—Ilakaka–Sakaraha (23) Hänni (1999), Henn et al. (1999b)
Ponte da Raiz, Ribeirão Passa Bem, Tatu (3); Sapucaia Tanzania
do Norte: Sapucaia (8) Arusha—Lake Manyara: Mayoka (Manyara) (1) Dirlam et al. (1992), Keller (1992),
Paraíba—Frei Martinho: Alto Quixaba (24); Pedra R. Wegner and O. Moura (pers. Barot et al. (1995)
Lavrada: Alto das Flechas (10) comm., 2000) Lindi—Liwale, Nguhumahinga River (43) H. Krupp (pers. comm., 1999)
Paraíba—Taperoá: Pitombeira (21) Cassedanne and Alves (1994) Mtwara—Masasi: Nachingwea (20) A. Suleman (pers. comm., 1999)
Rio Grande do Norte—Parelhas: Carnaubinha (10) R. Wegner and O. Moura (pers. Ruvuma—Tunduru: Muhuwesi River (2) Milisenda et al. (1997), Burford
comm., 2000) (1998)
Rio Grande do Norte—Santa Cruz: Gameleira (10); Cassedanne and Alves (1994) Asia
Tenente Ananias (36) India
Andhra Pradesh—Araku Valley (42), Khaman (1), Current mining report... (1998)
CHRYSOBERYL (Including cat's-eye)
Krishna River (2)
Africa
Andhra Pradesh—Vishakhapatnam: Narsipatnam (3) Panjikar and Ramchrandran (1997),
Madagascar Henn et al. (1999b) Kasipathi et al. (1999)
Antananarivo—Ankazobe (1) Kerala—Travancore: Arvikkara (69) Viswanatha (1982), Menon et al.
Fianarantsoa—Ambositra (16) (1994), Current mining report...
Fianarantsoa—Ilakaka–Sakaraha (23) Hänni (1999) (1998)
Toamasina—Ambatondrazaka (22) Pezzotta (1999) Madhya Pradesh—Deobhog: Latapara, Mainpur, Jha et al. (1993), Panjikar and
Matrapara, Sendmuda (19) Ramchrandran
Tanzania (1997)
Arusha—Lake Manyara: Mayoka (Manyara) (1) Dirlam et al. (1992) Orissa—Balangir: Sarapali (10) Current mining report... (1998)
Ruvuma—Tunduru: Muhuwesi River (2) Milisenda et al. (1997) Orissa—Kalahandi: Siminiguda (53); Subarnapur: S. Fernandes (pers.comm., 1999)
Asia Sonepur (10)
India Orissa—Ranigurha: Dakalguda (57), Sambalpur: Patnaik and Nayak (1993)
Andhra Pradesh—Araku Valley (42); Khaman (1) Current mining report... (1998) Meghpal Ranchipada (5)
Andhra Pradesh—Nellore (18) J. Panjikar (pers. comm., 1999) Tamil Nadu—Dindigul–Anna: Dharapuram (8); Current mining report...(1998),
Andhra Pradesh—Vishakhapatnam: Narsipat- Panjikar and Ramchrandran (1997), Kangayam(54); Kanyakumari (6); Karur (54); Madurai: Viswanatha (1982)
Oddanchattram (7); Palni (55)
nam (3) Current mining report... (1998),
Kasipathi et al. (1999) Russia
Kerala—Trivandrum (9) Menon et al. (1994), Rajesh- Middle Ural Mountains—Asbest, Malysheva: Izum- Evseev (1993b), Smith and Smith
Chandran et al. (1996) rudnie Kopi (1995), Emlin (1996), Burlakov et
al. (1997)
Madhya Pradesh—Deobhog: Jagdalpur, Mainpur (19) Jha et al. (1993)
Sri Lanka
Orissa—Balangir: Jerapani, Sarapali (10) Choudhuri and Gurachary (1993),
Panjikar and Ramchrandran (1997) Southern—Matara: Akuressa, Morawaka (4); Ratna- Milisenda and Henn (1999)
pura: Eheliyagoda (25), Pelmadulla (1), Rakwana (3),
Orissa—Boudh: Boudh, Ramgarh (13); Kalahandi: S. Fernandes (pers. comm., 1999)
Ratnapura (1)
Sirjapali, Tundla (53); Phulabani: Belghar (13);
Rayagada: Hatamuniguda, Karlagati, Paikdakul- South America
gudu (30) Brazil
Orissa—Ranigurha: Dakalguda (57) Panjikar and Ramchrandran (1997) Bahia—Carnaíba: Carnaíba (5) Cassedanne and Roditi (1993)
Orissa—Sinapali (21) Viswanatha (1982) Goiás—Porangatu: Pela Ema (34) Pers. knowl. of author (GB)
Tamil Nadu—Dindigul–Anna: Dharapuram (8); Viswanatha (1982), Current min- Goiás—Uruaçú (17) N. Haralyi (pers. comm., 1998)
Karur (54); Madurai: Oddanchattram (7) ing report... (1998) Minas Gerais—Antônio Dias, Hematita, Santa Maria Cassedanne and Roditi (1993)
Tamil Nadu—Kanyakumari–Tirunelveli: Arumanai, S. Fernandes (pers. comm., 1999) de Itabira (3)
Karakonam, Midolam, Polukal (6) Minas Gerais—Malacacheta: Córrego do Fogo, Cassedanne and Roditi (1993)
Myanmar Setubal River, Soturno River (19)
Mandalay—Mogok (1) Hughes (1997)
CORUNDUM—Ruby
(1993), Milisenda and Henn (1999) Africa
Central—Badulla: Haputale (18); Kegalla: Avissa- Kenya
Central—Thika: Chania River (6) Keller (1992)

Coast—Mangari: John Saul (20) Keller (1992), Emmett (1999b), Warmankai (7) and Chamberlin (1995), Aboosally
Mercier et al. (1999a) (1999), Bowersox et al. (2000)
Coast—Taita Hills (7) Barot et al. (1995) Cambodia
Eastern—Kitui: Taawajah (8) Barot and Harding (1994) Battamberg—Pailin: Phnum Ko Ngoap, Phnum O Clark (1992), Hughes (1997)
Rift Valley—West Pokot (16) Keller (1992) Tang, Phnum Yat, Samlot (1)
Madagascar China Galibert and Hughes (1995)
Antananarivo—Antanifotsy (10) Henn et al. (1999b), Pezzotta (1999) Heilongjiang
Toliara—Ejeda (9), Gogogogo (8) Henn et al. (1999b) Qinghai
Toliara—Tolanaro: Fotadrevo-Vohibory (21) Johnson and Koivula (1996f), Sichuan—Nanjiang
Mercier et al. (1999b) Xinjiang—Kalpin
Malawi Yunnan—Yuan Jiang: Ailao Mountains
Southern—Chimwadzulu Hill (2) Henn et al. (1990a), Emmett (2000) India Hughes (1997)
Tanzania Andhra Pradesh—Anantapur: Hindupur, Kodegapali Current mining report... (1998)
Arusha—Babati (23), Lake Manyara (1), Lelatema (3) Dirlam et al. (1992) (20); Guntur (56); Khaman: Gobbugurti, Rangapur (1);
Warangal (43)
Arusha—Longido: Elkunulesilali, Lomwinyi, Mdarara, Dirlam et al. (1992), Keller (1992)
Olgira Hills (9) Andhra Pradesh—Chittoor: Polichettipalli, Yeracheru- S. Fernandes (pers. comm., 1999)
vupalli (44); Nalgonda: Lingampalli, Timmapur (61)
Arusha—Lossogonoi Hill (24) Keller (1992), Suleman et al. (1994)
Andhra Pradesh—Vishakhapatnam (3) Current mining report... (1998),
Arusha—Ngorongoro (13) Bank and Henn (1988)
Kasipathi et al. (1999)
Dodoma—Kilosa (6), Mpwapwa (5) Dirlam et al. (1992)
Karnataka—Bellary (45); Chitradurga (47); Mandya: Viswanatha (1982)
Kilimanjaro—Same (17) Dirlam et al. (1992) Kollur (48); Raichur (49); Shimoga (50)
Lindi Karnataka—Chikmagalur (46); Hassan: Nuggahalli Viswanatha (1982), Current mining
Morogoro—Gairo (25) Keller (1992) (34); Madikeri (60) report... (1998)
Morogoro—Luande (26), Mwarazi (29) Suleman et al. (1994) Karnataka—Mysore: Dughahalli, Ramanahalli (33) Viswanatha (1982), Choudhuri
Morogoro—Magogoni (28), Morogoro (29), Dirlam et al. (1992) and Gurachary (1993), Current
Mvuha (30) mining report... (1998)
Morogoro—Mahenge (19) Dirlam et al. (1992), Keller (1992) Karnataka—Tumkur: Pavugada, Sriangapura (35) S. Fernandes (pers. comm., 1999)
Morogoro—Matombo (27) Hänni and Schmetzer (1991), Madhya Pradesh—Bastar: Bhopalpatnam (51) Current mining report...(1998)
Keller (1992), Suleman et al. (1994) Madhya Pradesh—Raipur: Jagdalpur (4); Sidhi: S. Fernandes (pers. comm., 1999)
Pwani—Ndundu (37) Suleman et al. (1994) Karkota, Pipra (64)
Ruvuma—Songea: Amanimakoro (42); Henn and Milisenda (1997), Orissa—Bagdihi (24); Sambalpur: Meghpal, Ranchi- S. Fernandes (pers. comm., 1999)
Tunduru: Muhuwesi River (2) Milisenda et al. (1997), Hamid et pada (5)
al. (1999) Orissa—Kalahandi: Hinghilibahal, Jhillindghar (53) Panjikar (1997b)
Tanga—Handeni: Kwachaga (7) Keller (1992), Suleman et al. (1994) Tamil Nadu—Kangayam (54); Karur: Chinnadhara- S. Fernandes (pers. comm., 1999)
Tanga—Umba Valley (21) Dirlam et al. (1992), Keller (1992) puram, Manvadi (54); Madurai: Kodaicanal, Oddan-
chattram (7); Palni (55); Salem: Chalasiramani,
Tanga—Usambara Mountains (21) Barot et al. (1995)
Dharampuri, Namakkal, Sitampundi (17)
Asia
Laos
Afghanistan
Annam Highlands—Ban Huai Sai (1) Bosshart (1995), Kammerling et
Kabul—Jegdalek–Gandamak: Mirkhalwat, Hughes (1994, 1997), Bowersox al. (1995c), Hughes (1997)
Myanmar
Kachin—Lonkin: Nanyaseik, Tanai (15) Kammerling et al. (1994b)
Kachin—Mansi: Molo (16) U Hlaing (pers. comm., 1999)
At this open-pit ruby and sapphire mine near Karen—Belin Thandaung (17) Kammerling et al. (1994b)
Mogok, Myanmar, portions of the original outcrop Karen—Hlaingbwe River Valley: Dawna Hills (14) Hlaing (1997)
can still be seen near the "spirit house" in the cen- Mandalay—Mogok (numerous deposits) (1) Kane and Kammerling (1992),
ter. Photo by Edward Boehm, March 1993. Kammerling et al. (1994b), Hughes
(1997), Waltham (1999)
Sagaing—Madaya: Sagyin Hills (13) Kammerling et al. (1994b)
Sagaing—Thabeitkyin: Wa Byu Taung (12) U Hlaing (pers. comm., 1999)
Shan—Lai Hka: Wan Ying (8), Langhko: Wan Hat U Hlaing (pers. comm., 1999)
(10); Namhsan: Nawarat (9); Yawnghwe (11)
Shan—Momeik (Mong Mit) (2) Kammerling et al. (1994b)
Shan—Mong Hsu (numerous deposits) (3) Hlaing (1993, 1994), Smith and
Surdez (1994), Smith (1995),
Peretti et al. (1995, 1996), Hughes
and Galibert (1999)
Nepal
Gandaki—Ganesh Himal: Dhading (2) Niedermayr (1992), Smith et al.
(1997)
Pakistan
Northern Areas—Hunza Valley (8) Blauwet et al. (1997)
Northwest Frontier—Hari Parbat Mountains: Rice (1996), Kane (1997)
Nangimali (10)
Russia
Polar Ural Mountains—Rai-Iz: Makar-Ruz Shelton (1988), Spiridonov (1998)
Sri Lanka Milisenda and Henn (1999)

Central—Nuwara Eliya: Maskeliya (15)

Southern—Monaragala: Embilipitiya (19), Okkam-
pitiya (5); Ratnapura: Eheliyagoda (25), Pelmadulla
(1), Rakwana (3), Ratnapura (1)
Tajikistan
Turkistan—Pamir Mountains: Nadezhda, Turakuloma Henn et al. (1990b), Smith (1998),
Spiridonov (1998)
Turkistan—Pamir Mountains: Rangkul, near Murgab Smith and Smith (1995)
Thailand
Chanthaburi–Trat—Klung-Khao Saming: Ba Waen, Hughes (1997)
Bo I Rem, Bo Rai, Na Wong, Nong Bon, Tok Prom (1)
Vietnam Kane et al. (1991), Kammerling et
al. (1994a)
Nghe An—Bu Khang: Quy Chau (3) The fine sapphires in these earrings (approxi-
Yen Bai—Luc Yen: Khoan Thong, Nuoc Ngap (2) Henn (1991) mately 16 ct each) are from Myanmar, and
Australia reportedly are untreated. Photo © Tino Hammid
New South Wales—Barrington (9) Sutherland (1996), Sutherland and and Christie's Hong Kong.
Coenraads (1996), Sutherland et
al. (1999)
CORUNDUM—Sapphire
Africa
Kenya Keller (1992), Hughes (1997) Tanga—Kalalani (21) Seifert and Hyrsl (1999)
Central—Thika: Chania River (6) Asia
Eastern—Chandler's Falls: Kubi Kano (18); Garba Afghanistan
Tula (17); Mtitio Andei: Kinyiki Hill (10) Kabul—Jegdalek–Gandamak (7) Bowersox and Chamberlin (1995),
Rift Valley—Lodwar (5); Loldaika Hills: Don Dol (19); Bowersox et al. (2000)
Maralal: Samburu (9); Murua Rith Hills, Pelekech Cambodia Hughes (1997)
Mountains (11); West Pokot (16)
Battambang—Pailin: Phnum Ko Ngoap, Phnum O Ngu and Ngoc (1986), Sutherland
Madagascar Tang, Phnum Yat (1) et al. (1998)
Antananarivo—Antanifotsy (10) Henn et al. (1999b), Pezzotta (1999) Cardamom—Chamnop (3)
Antsiranana—Ambilobe (12) Pezzotta (1999) Ratanakiri—Virochey: Bo Kham, Bokeo, Voeune Sai (2)
Antsiranana—Ambondromifehy: Amboud- Gonthier (1997), Superchi et al. Rovieng—Chamnom (4)
rohefeha (17) (1997), Henn et al. (1999b),
Schwarz et al. (2000) China Galibert and Hughes (1995)
Antsiranana—Milanoa (13) Superchi et al. (1997), Pezzotta Hainan—Penglai-Wenchang
(1999), Laurs (2000) Heilongjiang—Mulan
Fianarantsoa—Andranolava (23) Henricus (1999) Jiangsu—Fujian: Mingxi; Liuhe
Fianarantsoa—Ilakaka–Sakaraha (23) Hänni (1999), Henn et al. (1999a,b), Qinghai
Johnson et al. (1999b), Schmetzer Shandong—Changle: Wutu Guo et al. (1992)
(1999b), Laurs (2000) Xinjiang Uygar—Taxkorgan
Toliara—Amboasary (14), Bekily (26) Henn et al. (1999b), Pezzotta
India Hughes (1997)
(1999)
Andhra Pradesh—Anantapur (20), Kakinada (62), Viswanatha (1982)
Toliara—Andranondambo (15) Kiefert et al. (1996), Milisenda
Nellore (18)
and Henn (1996), Schwarz et al.
(1996b), Gübelin and Peretti (1997) Andhra Pradesh—Khaman (1) Viswanatha (1982), Panjikar (1998)
Toliara—Antsiermene (15) Schwarz et al. (1996b) Jammu and Kashmir—Kargil: Soomjam (12) Hänni (1990), Panjikar (1997a),
Current mining report... (1998)
Toliara—Betroka (27) Koivula et al. (1992b), Henn et al.
(1999b) Karnataka—Hassan (34), Kolar (32), Mysore (33), Viswanatha (1982)
Malawi Tumkur (35)
Southern—Chimwadzulu Hill (2) Henn and Bank (1990), Henn et al. Kerala—Travancore (69) Viswanatha (1982)
(1990a), Emmett (2000) Kerala—Trivandrum (9) Menon et al. (1994), Rajesh-
Nigeria Chandran et al. (1996)
Kaduna—Jemaa Kanis and Harding (1990) Orissa—Kalahandi: Banjipadar, Sargiguda (53) S. Fernandes (pers. comm., 1999)
Mabila Y. Melas (pers. comm., 2000) Orissa—Nawapada: Amera, Katamal (63) Patnaik (1993)
Rwanda Tamil Nadu—Kangayam: Chinnadharapuram, S. Fernandes (pers. comm., 1999)
Malaipatti (54)
Cyangugu (1) Krzemnicki et al. (1996)
Kazakhstan
Tanzania
Qaraghandy—Semizbugy Shelton (1988)
Morogoro—Magogoni (28), Mahenge (19), Dirlam et al. (1992)
Mvuha (30) Laos
Morogoro—Matombo (27) Keller (1992) Annam Highlands—Ban Huai Sai (1) Bosshart (1995), Kammerling et
al. (1995c)
Ruvuma—Songea: Amanimakoro (42) Suleman et al. (1994), Kammer-
ling et al. (1996) Myanmar Hughes and Win (1995), Hughes
(1997)
Ruvuma—Tunduru (2) Suleman (1995), Henn and
Milisenda (1997), Milisenda et al. Kachin—Lonkin: Nanyaseik (15) Kammerling et al. (1994b)
(1997), Burford (1998) Kachin—Mansi: Panhka (16) U Hlaing (pers. comm., 1999)
Singida—Singida (11) Keller (1992) Mandalay—Mogok (numerous deposits) (1) Kane and Kammerling (1992),
Tanga—Handeni (7), Umba Valley (21) Dirlam et al. (1992), Keller (1992) Kammerling et al. (1994b)

Sagaing—Hlaingbwe River Valley: Dawna Hills (14); U Hlaing (pers. comm., 1999) North America
Singu: Chaung-Gyi, New-Yan (19); Thabeitkyin: Canada Wight (1999a)
Kyauk Kyi, Kyauksaikan (12) British Columbia—Slocan Valley: Passmore (Blu Wilson (1999), Coenraads and
Shan—Momeik (Mong Mit) (2) Kammerling et al. (1994b) Moon, Blu Starr, Sapphire Hill) Laird (2000)
Shan—Mong Hkak: Mong Hkak, Mong Hynin (18) Hlaing (1993), Kammerling et al. Labrador
(1994b) United States Hughes (1997)
Shan—Mong Hsak: Mong Hsak River (28); Mong U Hlaing (pers. comm., 1999) Montana—Deer Lodge: Dry Cottonwood Creek Hughes (1995)
Hsu: Wan Kan (3) Montana—Granite: Rock Creek Emmett and Douthit (1993)
Nepal Montana—Judith: Yogo Gulch Allen (1991), Mychaluk (1995)
Gandaki—Ganesh Himal: Dhading (2) Smith et al. (1997) Montana—Lewis and Clark (along Missouri River): Sinkankas (1997)
Russia American Bar, Dana Bar, Eldorado Bar, Emerald Bar,
Far East—Primorski Krai: Kedrovka Y. Shelementiev (pers. comm., French Bar, Magpie Gulch, Metropolitan Bar,
1999) Spokane Bar
Sri Lanka Dissanayake and Rupasinghe South America
(1993), Milisenda and Henn (1999), Brazil
E.G. Zoysa (pers. comm., 1999)
Minas Gerais—Indaiá (18) Epstein et al. (1994), Henn et al.
Central—Badulla: Bibile (33), Haputale (18), Kos- (1994)
landa (18), Lunugala (33), Passara (16); Kegalla: Colombia
Avissawella (9); Matale: Matale (7); Nuwara Eliya:
Hatton (15), Kuruwitenna (13), Maskeliya (15), Cauca—Mercaderes (2) Johnson et al. (2000b)
Nawalapitiya (29), Nuwara Eliya (22), Talawakele
(15); Polonnaruwa: Elahera (8), Kalahagala (14), DIAMOND
Kaluganga Valley (8) Africa
Southern—Hambantota: Ambalantota, Ridiyagama Angola Levinson et al. (1992), Janse (1995)
(11); Kalutara: Alutgama (10), Horana (34); Matara: Lunda Norte—Andrada: Catuca (Catoca) (3);
Akuressa, Morawaka (4); Monaragala: Amarawewa Maxinje: Cuango River (2)
(17), Embilipitiya (19), Kataragama (17), Kochchikatana
Lunda Norte—Andrada: Chitotolo (3) Ambroise (1998)
(17), Kochipatana (6), Monaragala (6), Okkampitiya (5);
Ratnapura: Balangoda (2), Eheliyagoda (25), Kiriella, Lunda Norte—Chicapa and Luachimo Rivers: Khar'kiv et al. (1992)
Nivitigala, Pelmadulla (1), Rakwana (3), Ratnapura (1) Caixepa, Camafuca, Camagico, Camatchia,
Camatue (1)
Tajikistan
Malanje—Banano (4) A. Janse (pers. comm., 1999)
Turkistan—Pamir Mountains: Turakuloma Smith (1998)
Botswana Janse (1995, 1996)
Thailand Hughes (1997)
Central—Orapa: Letlhakane, Orapa (1) Levinson et al. (1992), Duval et al.
Chanthaburi—Tha Mai: Bang Kha Cha, Khao Ploi
(1996)
Waen, Khao Wao (1)
Ghanzi—Ghanzi: Gope (4)
Chanthaburi–Trat—Klung-Khao Saming: Bo I Rem (1)
Kweneng—Jwaneng: Jwaneng (2)
Kanchanaburi—Bo Phloi: Ban Chang Dan, Bo Phloi (2) Schlüssel (1991)
Ngamiland—Tsodilo Hills (3) A. Janse (pers. comm., 1999)
Phetchabun—Wichian-Buri: Ban Khok Samran, Ban
Marp Samo, Khlong Yang (3) Central African Republic Levinson et al. (1992), Janse (1995)
Phrae—Denchai–Wang Chin: Ban Bo Kaeo, Huai Vichit (1992) Haute-Kotto—Mouka Quadda
Mae Sung (4) Haute-Sangha—Berbérati-Carnot: Mambere River Censier and Tourenq (1995)
Sukothai—Si Satchanalai: Ban Huai Po, Ban Pak Sin, Democratic Republic of the Congo (Zaire)
Ban Sam Saen (6) Bandundu—Kwango (Cuango) River (1) A. Janse (pers. comm., 1999)
Ubon Ratchanthani–Si Sa Ket—Nam Yun–Kantha- Kasai Occidental—Tshikapa: Kasai River (2) Janse (1995)
ralak (5)
Kasai Oriental—Mbuji-Mayi: Bushimaie River, Miba, Janse (1995)
Vietnam Kane et al. (1991), Hughes (1997) Talala (3)
Binh Thuan—Phan Thiet: Da Ban, Ma Lam (4) Smith et al. (1995) Ghana
Dong Nai—Xa Gia Kiem: Gia Kiem, Sau Le, Tien Co, Ashanti—Akwatia: Birim River Levinson et al. (1992), Janse
Xa Vo (5) (1996), Stachel and Harris (1997)
Lam Dong—Di Linh: Binh Dien, Di Linh (6) Smith et al. (1995) Guinea
Nghe An—Bu Khang: Bu Khang, Qui Hoop, Kammerling et al. (1994a) Région Forestière—Baloue River Valley: Trivalence Levinson et al. (1992), Janse (1996)
Quy Chau (3)
Région Forestière—Diani River Valley: Aredor, A. Janse (pers. comm., 1999)
Thanh Hoa—Xuan Le: Thong Luan (3)
Hymex
Yen Bai—Luc Yen: Hin Om, Khau Sum, Khoan Kammerling et al. (1994a)
Côte d'Ivoire Janse (1996)
Thong, Lung Thin, Nuoc Lonh, Nuoc Ngap, Phai
Chep (2) Korhogo—Tortiya
Australia Seguela—Seguela Levinson et al. (1992)
New South Wales—Barrington (9) Sutherland and Coenraads (1996), Mali
Webb (1997), Sutherland et al. Kayes—Kéniéba Janse (1996)
(1998, 1999) Namibia
New South Wales—New England Range: Glen Oakes et al. (1996), Sutherland Lüderitz—Orange River: Auchas, Daberas (4) Janse (1995)
Innes, Inverell (10) (1996), Hughes (1997), Aboosally
Lüderitz—Oranjemund: Sperrgebiet (Elizabeth Bay, Gurney et al. (1991), Levinson et
(1998), Neville and von Gnielinski
Namdeb, and other marine deposits) (3) al. (1992), Wannenburgh (1995),
(1999), Sutherland et al. (1999)
Duval et al. (1996)
New South Wales—Oberon: Vulcan State Forest (11) F. L. Sutherland (pers. comm.,
Sierra Leone
1999)
Eastern—Bafi and Sewa Rivers Levinson et al. (1992), Duval et al.
Queensland—Anakie–Rubyvale: Anakie (31) Duffy (1995), Wilson (1995),
(1996), Janse (1996)
Aboosally (1998), Neville and von
Gnielinski (1999) Eastern—Koidu: Tongo A. Janse (pers. comm., 1999)
Queensland—Lava Plains (30) Neville and von Gnielinski (1999) South Africa Levinson et al. (1992)

Cape—Kimberley: Barkley West, Bellsbank, Bult- Janse (1995, 1996) Australia Levinson et al. (1992)
fontein, Dutoitspan, Kimberley, Wesselton (2); New South Wales—New England: Bingara, Barron et al. (1996), Meyer et al.
Orange River: Baken; Postmasburg: Finsch (1) Copeton (14) (1997), Webb and Sutherland
Cape—Namaqualand: Benguela, Kleinzee, and Gurney et al. (1991), Levinson et (1998)
other marine deposits (3) al. (1992), Duval et al. (1996) Northern Territory—Battan: Merlin (18) Jaques (1994), Lee et al. (1997,
Orange Free State—Koffiefontein: Koffiefontein (4) Janse (1995, 1996) 1998)
Orange Free State—Theunissen: Star (8) A. Janse (pers. comm., 1999) Western Australia—Central Kimberley: Aries (16) Edwards et al. (1992), Towie et al.
(1994)
Transvaal—Messina: Venetia (6); Pretoria: Mars- Janse (1995, 1996)
fontein, Oaks, Premier (5) Western Australia—East Kimberley: Argyle (17) Chapman et al. (1996), Pardon
(1999)
Tanzania
Western Australia—East Kimberley: Bow River (17); A. Janse (pers. comm., 1999)
Shinyanga—Shinyanga: Mwadui (Williamson) (12) Dirlam et al. (1992), Levinson et
North Kimberley: Upper Bulgurri River (12)
al. (1992), Janse (1996)
Western Australia—West Kimberley: Ellendale (15) Jaques (1994)
Zimbabwe
North America
Matabeleland South—Limpopo River: River Ranch (3) Duval et al. (1996)
Canada
Asia
Northwest Territories—Lac de Gras: Ekati Levinson et al. (1992), Pell (1994)
China Steiner (1997)
United States
Hunan—Yuan River R. Li (pers. comm., 1999)
Arkansas—Pike: Murfreesboro
Liaoning—Fuxian Janse (1995)
Wyoming–Colorado—Fort Collins: Kelsey Lake Johnson and Koivula (1996c),
Shandong—Mengyin: Changma Dobbs et al. (1994) Hausel (1997), Sinkankas (1997)
Shandong–Jiangsu—Linshu (Xiazhuang) A. Janse (pers. comm., 1999) South America
India Babu (1998) Brazil
Andhra Pradesh—Anantapur: Chigicherla-Gollapalle, Mato Grosso—Alto Paraguai: Nortelândia (25) Cassedanne (1989)
Lattavaram, Vajrakurur (20); Krishna: Lower Krishna
Mato Grosso—Aripuanã: Juina (25)
River Valley (2); Kurnool: Banganapalle, Middle Krish-
na River Valley, Munimadagu (22); Mahbubnagar: Minas Gerais—Diamantina: Campo do Sampaio, Cassedanne (1989), Karfunkel et
Kotakonda, Maddur (23) Datas, Extraçâo, Guinda, São João da Chapada, al. (1994, 1996), N. Haralyi (pers.
Sopa (26); Jequitai (27); Jequitinhonha River Valley: comm., 1998)
Madhya Pradesh—Bastar: Bhejripadar (51), Indravati Grão Mogol, Itacambira–Rio Macaúbas, Serro
River (26), Tokapal (51); Raipur: Bahradih, Jangra, do Cabral (18)
Kodomali, Payalikhand (4)
Minas Gerais—Triângulo Mineiro: Abaeté River, Cassedanne (1989), Gonzaga et
Madhya Pradesh—Panna: Hinota, Majhgawan (25) Chatterjee and Rao (1995) Coromandel (28) al. (1994), Karfunkel et al. (1994)
Maharashtra—Garhchiroli (58) Choudhuri and Gurachary (1993) Pará—Tocantins River (6) Cassedanne (1989)
Orissa—Balangir: Mahanadi River (10) Garlick (1993) Roraima—Branco River: Tepequém (29) Meyer and McCallum (1993)
Orissa—Bhawanipatna (27) J. Panjikar (pers. comm., 1999) Guyana Levinson et al. (1992), Meyer and
Orissa—Sambalpur: Tel River (5) McCallum (1993)
Rajasthan—Chittaurgarh (28) Choudhuri and Gurachary (1993) Cuyuni–Mazaruni—Cuyuni River, Mazaruni River (1)
Uttar Pradesh—Jungel Valley (59) Viswanatha (1982) Potaro–Sirapuni—Potaro River (2)
Uttar Pradesh—Mirzapur (29) Choudhuri and Gurachary (1993) Venezuela Levinson et al. (1992), Meyer and
Indonesia Levinson et al. (1992), Duval et al. McCallum (1993), Heylmun
(1996) (1994, 1995)
Borneo—Kalimantan, Selatan: Martapura; Tengah: Janse and Sheahan (1995) Bolívar—Caroní River (2), Cuyuní River (1), Paragua
Maurateweh River (2)
Borneo—Kalimantan-Barat: Pontianak–Landak Spencer et al. (1988) Bolívar—Guaniamo River: Guaniamo, Quebrada Coenraads et al. (1994), Taylor
River (3) (1999)
Myanmar
Kachin—Lonkin: Nanyaseik (15) Pers. knowl. of author (GB)
GARNET
Kachin—Putao (4) Kammerling et al. (1994b)
Africa
Kachin—Tanaing (20) U Hlaing (pers. comm., 1999)
Eritrea
Pegu—Toungoo (21) Hlaing (1990b), Kammerling et al.
Asmera—Sciumagalle Milisenda and Hunziker (1999)
(1994b), Hlaing and Win (1997)
Ethiopia
Shan—Momeik (Mong Mit): Bo Dae,Kyeintaw, Hlaing (1990b), Kammerling et al.
Mohawk (2) (1994b), Hlaing and Win (1997), Sidamo—Chumba Barot (1993)
pers. knowl. of author (GB) Kenya
Tenasserim—Taninthari River: Theindaw (5) Hlaing (1990b), Kammerling et al. Coast—Mgama-Mindi: GG, Gitshure, Lualenyi, Min- Kane et al. (1990), Keller (1992)
(1994b), Hlaing and Win (1997) keno, Scorpian (21)
Tenasserim—Tavoy River (5) Kammerling et al. (1994b) Coast—Taita Taveta (4) Barot et al. (1995)
Russia Strand (1991), Spiridonov (1998) Rift Valley—Lodwar: Lokirima (5) Barot (1993)
Arkhangelsk—Zimniy Bereg: Kepinskoye, Possoukhova et al. (1999) Madagascar
Verkhotinskaya Antananarivo—Betafo (2) Henn et al. (1999b)
Arkhangelsk—Zimniy Bereg: Zolotitskoye Smirnov (1993), Evseev (1994a), Antananarivo—Sahatany Valley (3) Henn et al. (1999b), Pezzotta (1999)
Sinitsyn et al. (1994), Yushkin Fianarantsoa—Ambositra (16), Ambovombe (28), Henn et al. (1999b)
(1996) Ihosy (29), Ranohira (23)
Middle Ural Mountains—Vischera River Shelton (1988) Fianarantsoa—Ilakaka–Sakaraha (23) Hänni (1999), Henn et al. (1999b)
Yakutia (Sakha)—Anabar: Kuonamka River; A. Janse (pers. comm., 1999) Mahajanga—Maevatanana (25) Johnson and Koivula (1998h)
Nyurba: Botuobinskaya, Nurbunskaya Mahajanga—Mahajanga (30) Henn et al. (1999b), Pezzotta (1999)
Yakutia (Sakha)—Daldyn-Alakit: Aikhal, Krasnup- Levinson et al. (1992), Duval Toamasina—Maralambo (31) Johnson and Koivula (1998f)
resnenskaya, Sytakanskaya, Udachnaya, Yubileynaya, et al. (1996)
Zarnitsa; Malaya-Botuobiya: Internatsionalnaya, Toliara—Ampanihy (32), Itrongay (43), Tolanaro (21) Henn et al. (1999b)
Mir, Sputnik Toliara—Bekily (26) Henn (1999), Schmetzer and

Bernhardt (1999) Tanga—Kalalani (21) Seifert and Hyrsl (1999)

Toliara—Betroka (27) Henn et al. (1999b), Pezzotta (1999) Tanga—Umba Valley (21) Dirlam et al. (1992), Keller (1992)
Toliara—Gogogogo (8) Mercier et al. (1997) Tanga—Usambara Mountains (21) Barot et al. (1995)
Malawi Zambia
Northern—Mzimba (1) C. Hedegaard (pers. comm., 1998) Central—Serenje (8) Mambwe and Sikatali (1994)
Mali Eastern—Lundazi (2) Johnson et al. (1999c)
Kayes—Diakon Brightman and Tunzi (1995), Eastern—Nyimba (7) Mambwe and Sikatali (1994)
Johnson et al. (1995), Lind et al. Southern—Gwembe (9); Mazabuka: Nega Nega (10) Mambwe and Sikatali (1994)
(1995), Johnson and Koivula
(1997b, 1998e) Asia
Mozambique Azerbaijan
Niassa—Cuamba (4) Johnson and Koivula (1996d), Caucasus Mountains—Dashkesan Smith and Smith (1995),
Malango and Taupitz (1996), Bank Spiridonov (1998)
et al. (1998) China
Namibia Jiangsu—Donghai
Kaokoveld—Hartmann Mountains: Kunene River (6) Koivula et al. (1993e), Lind et al. Qinghai—Qui Lien Mountains
(1993), Kammerling et al. (1995d), Xinjiang Uygur—Altai Mountains: Cocoktau, Qibeiling Wang and Liu (1994)
Johnson and Koivula (1996h)
Yunnan More new finds... (1996)
Karibib—Usakos: Usakos (8) Johnson and Koivula (1997e)
India
Outjo—Damara Mountains (5) Wenk (1997), Lind et al. (1998)
Andhra Pradesh—Araku Valley (42) S. Fernandes (pers. comm., 1999)
Nigeria
Andhra Pradesh—Khaman (1), Krishna River (2) Viswanatha (1982)
Oyo—Ogbomosho: Iseyin Milisenda and Zang (1999), Zang
et al. (1999) Andhra Pradesh—Vishakhapatnam (3) Viswanatha (1982), Kasipathi et
al. (1999)
Tanzania
Karnataka—Hassan (34), Mysore (33) Viswanatha (1982)
Arusha—Kangala: Loiborsoit (14) Suleman et al. (1994)
Kerala—Ernakulam (36), Travancore (69) Viswanatha (1982)
Arusha—Komolo: Komolo (14) Keller (1992)
Madhya Pradesh—Bastar: Dampaya, Kuchnur (51); S. Fernandes (pers. comm., 1999)
Arusha—Lelatema: Lelatema Mountains (3) Dirlam et al. (1992), Keller (1992)
Betul: Bisighat, Chunabhuru (52)
Arusha—Merelani (15) Dirlam et al. (1992), Kane et al.
Madhya Pradesh—Deobhog: Jagdalpur (19) Jha et al. (1993)
(1991)
Orissa—Angul: Jhilli, Magarmuhan, Nuagaon (37) Das et al. (1993), Jha et al. (1993)
Arusha—Tiriti (31) Dirlam et al. (1992), Suleman et
al. (1994) Orissa—Deogarh: Jharposi (5); Kalahandi: Ghatpara, Das et al. (1993), S. Fernandes
Dodoma—Mpwapwa (5) Dirlam et al. (1992) Singhjaran (53); Nawapada: Dhamjar, Sardhapur (63); (pers. comm., 1999)
Subarnapur: Naktamunda, Siali (10)
Kilimanjaro—Pare Mountains (16) Keller (1992)
Orissa—Sambalpur: Bagdhapa, Meghpal (5) Das et al. (1993), Current mining
Kilimanjaro—Same: Lemkuna (17) Dirlam et al. (1992) report... (1998)
Lindi—Lindi: Luisenfelde, Nambunju (18) Keller (1992) Rajasthan—Ajmer (14) Viswanatha (1982), Current min-
Lindi—Ruangwa (39) McClure (1999) ing report... (1998)
Morogoro—Magogoni (28), Mahenge (19), Dirlam et al. (1992) Rajasthan—Bhilwara (39) S. Fernandes (pers. comm., 1999)
Mvuha (30)
Rajasthan—Chittaurgarh (28), Tonk (15) Current mining report... (1998)
Mtwara—Masasi: Namaputa (20) Dirlam et al. (1992), Keller (1992)
Rajasthan—Jaipur (40), Jodhpur (41), Udaipur (16) Viswanatha (1982)
Ruvuma—Tunduru (2) Milisenda et al. (1997)
Tamil Nadu—Karur: Manavadi (54); Salem (17) Viswanatha (1982)
Tanga—Handeni (7) A. Suleman (pers. comm., 1999)
Tamil Nadu—Madurai: Oddanchattram (7) S. Fernandes (pers. comm., 1999)
Kazakhstan
Qaraghandy Shelton (1988), Evseev (1994a),
Smith and Smith (1995)
Nigeria became an important source of spessar-
Myanmar Hughes (1997)
tine garnet (here, 5 –13 ct) and rubellite tourma-
Kachin—Putao: Sankawng (4) U Hlaing (pers. comm., 1999)
line (5–25 ct) at the end of the decade. Courtesy Kayah—Bawlake: Bawlake River (27) U Hlaing (pers. comm., 1999)
of Pala International and Bill Barker Co.; photo Mandalay—Mogok: Kyat-Pyin (1) Kammerling et al. (1994b)
by Robert Weldon. Sagaing—Pyawbwe: Pyawbwe East (22) U Hlaing (pers. comm., 1999)
Shan—Lai Hka (8), Mong Kang (23), Mong Mit (2), U Hlaing (pers. comm., 1999)
Namhkan (24)
Shan—Mong Hsak (28) Hlaing and Win (1996)
Pakistan Blauwet et al. (1997)
Northwest Frontier—Neelum Valley (9) Henn (1996), Johnson and
Koivula (1996g)
Northwest Frontier—Swat Valley: Jambil (4) Jackson (1992)
Russia
Far East—Chukot Peninsula: Tavmatey; Kamchatka Smith and Smith (1995)
Penninsula: Chechatvayam; Primorski Krai:
Dalnegorsk
Far East—Primorski Krai: Sinerechenskoye Evseev (1994a), Smith and Smith
(1995)
Karelia—Lake Ladoga: Kitelya; Shuyeretskoye: Evseev (1994b)
Terbe Island
Middle Ural Mountains—Asbest: Bazenovskoye; Smith and Smith (1995),

Perm: Saranovskoye Kolesar (1997) Sagaing—Hkamti: Nansibon, Natmaw (6)

Middle Ural Mountains—Nizhniy Tagil: Bobrowka– Shelton (1988), Evseev (1993a), Russia
Bolshaya Rivers; Verhnij Ufalev: Karkodino, Phillips and Talantsev (1996), Polar Ural Mountains—Rai-Iz: Karovoye; Syum-Keu: Yushkin (1996)
Poldnevaya Spiridonov (1998) Pus'erka
Siberia— Akhtaragda–Viluy Rivers: Chernyshevsky Evseev (1994a), Smith and Smith Polar Ural Mountains—Voikaro-Syniiskii: Levokech- Spiridonov (1998)
(1995), Spiridonov (1998) pelskoye
Southern Ural Mountains—Zlatoust: Akhmatovskaya Evseev (1993a), Smith and Smith Siberia (Khahassia)—Sayan Mountains, Sokhatiny: Spiridonov (1998), V. Bukanov
(1995) Borusskoye, Kashkarskoye and N. Kuznetsov (pers. comm.,
Sri Lanka Dissanayake and Rupasinghe 2000)
(1993), Milisenda and Henn (1999) North America
Central—Badulla: Haputale (18), Passara (16); Guatemala
Kegalla: Avissawella (9); Nuwara Eliya: Hatton (15),
El Progresso—Motagua Valley: Manzanal Harlow (1994), Gendron and
Kuruwitenna (13), Maskeliya (15); Polonnaruwa:
Gendron-Dadou (1999)
Elahera, Kaluganga Valley (8), Kongahawela,
Polonnaruwa (14) Zacapa—Rio la Palmilla G. Harlow (pers. comm., 1999)
Southern—Hambantota: Ambalantota (11), Lunu- Johnson and Koivula (1996a,
JADE—Nephrite
gamwehera, Paskema (30), Ridiyagama (11); Kalu- 1998a), Chandrajith et al. (1998)
tara: Horana (34); Matara: Akuressa, Morawaka (4); Asia
Monaragala: Athiliwewa (20), Embilipitiya (19), China Wang (1996)
Kataragama (17), Okkampitiya (5); Ratnapura: Balan- Guangxi
goda (2), Rakwana (3) Jiangxi
Vietnam Liaoning—Xiu Lan
Yen Bai—Luc Yen (2) Kammerling and Koivula (1994) Qinghai–Gansu—Qilian Mountains
Australia Sichuan
Northern Territory—Harts Range (3) F. L. Sutherland (pers. comm., Taiwan
1999) Tibet
Europe Xinjiang Uygur—Altun Mountains; Kunlun Moun-
Czech Republic tains: Hotan, Yutian; Tian Mountains
Bohemia—Bohemian Hills: Podsedice, Trebenice Schluter and Weitschat (1991), Russia
Korbel (1993) Polar Ural Mountains—Rai-Iz: Nyrdvomenshor Yushkin (1996)
North America Siberia—Buryatia: Khamarkhudinskoye V. Bukanov (pers. comm., 1999)
Canada Siberia—Sayan Mountains, Vitim River: Borto- Sekerina et al. (1996), Spiridonov
British Columbia—McDame Wilson (1999) golskoye, Buromskoye, Kurtushubinskoye, Ospin- (1998), V. Bukanov (pers. comm.,
British Columbia—Slocan Valley: Passmore Wight (1999b), Wilson (1999) skoye, Paromskoye, Ulankhodinskoye 1999)
Quebec—Asbestos: Jeffrey Sinkankas (1997) Australia
Quebec—Black Lake Johnson et al. (1999a), Wilson South Australia—Eyre Peninsula: Cowell (4) Ward (1999a)
and Wight (1999) New Zealand
United States South Island—Otago: Lake Wakatipu; Westland: Keverne (1991)
Arahura and Taramakau Rivers
Alaska—Wrangel: Stikine River Frazier and Frazier (1990c)
North America
California—Ramona: Little Three Foord et al. (1989)
Canada Sinkankas (1997)
Idaho—Benewah: Emerald Creek Sinkankas (1997)
British Columbia—Cassiar Mountains: Polar Jade Ward (1999a,b)
South America
British Columbia—Kutcho Creek, Ogden Mountain Ward (1996b, 1999b)
Brazil
United States Sinkankas (1997)
Minas Gerais—Galiléia: Barra do Cuieté (8) Johnson and Koivula (1999b)
Alaska—Afognak Island: Danger Bay; Baird Moun- Howard (1998)
Minas Gerais—São José da Safira: Poaia (19) R. Wegner and O. Moura (pers.
tains: Kobuk River
comm., 2000)
California—Monterey: Jade Cove Paradise (1985), Ward (1999b)
Rio Grande do Norte—Carnaúba dos Dantas: Pedra R. Wegner and O. Moura (pers.
Bonita (10) comm., 2000) Wyoming—Lander: Granite Mountains Ward (1999b)
Tocantins—Valério: Balisto (42) Wegner et al. (1998) OPAL
Africa
JADE—Jadeite Ethiopia
Asia Shewa—Menz Gishe: Mezezo Downing (1996), Hoover et al.
Japan Koivula and Kammerling (1990) (1996), Johnson et al. (1996)
Hyogo—Oya Chihara (1999) Madagascar
Niigata—Itoigawa: Hashidate Beraketa (50) Henn et al. (1999b)
Niigata—Omi: Himekawa and Kotaki Rivers Chihara (1999) Tanzania
Toyama—Asahi Dodoma—Haneti Hills (22) Keller (1992)
Kazakhastan Kigoma—Kasulu (44) Johnson and Koivula (1998b)
Qaraghandy—Itmurundy Spiridonov (1998) Kilimanjaro—Same (17) A. Suleman (pers. comm., 1999)
Myanmar Htein and Naing (1994, 1995), Zambia
Kammerling et al. (1994b), Ward Southern—Lake Kariba: Maamba (5) Milisenda et al. (1994)
(1997), Galibert and Hughes
Asia
(1999), Hughes et al. (2000)
Indonesia Lambert and Brown (1994)
Kachin—Hpakan: Hpakan, Hpakangyi, Hwehka, Ou Yang (1999)
Makapin, Maw-sisa, Sate Mu, Seng Tong, Tawmaw, Java—Jawa Burat: Labak
Uru River (15); Lonkin (15) Sulawesi—Selatan
Kachin—Laisai (26), Mawhun (25) Sumatra—Bengkulu

Australia QUARTZ—Amethyst/Citrine/Ametrine
New South Wales—Lightning Ridge (1) Gübelin (1990), Coenraads (1995) Africa
New South Wales—White Cliffs (5) Coenraads (1995) Kenya
Queensland—Carbine Creek (27), Jundah (24), Ky- Wise (1993) Eastern—Machakos: Mbooni Hill (1) Keller (1992)
nuna (26), Mayneside (25), Opalton (25), Quilpie (7), Madagascar Henn et al. (1999b), Pezzotta (1999)
Toompine (23), Winton (8), Yowah (22)
Antananarivo—Anjozorobe (42), Antsirabe (3), Betafo
Queensland—Eromanga (6) Coenraads (1995) (2), Mahasolo (34), Soavinandriana (11), Tsiroano-
South Australia—Andamooka (32), Coober Pedy (28) Townsend (1995) mandidy (33)
South Australia—Lambina (29) Brown et al. (1993) Antsiranana—Ambilobe (12), Andapa (19)
South Australia—Mintabie (28) Brown (1992), Townsend (1992, Fianarantsoa—Ambatofinandrahana (28); Ambositra Aurisicchio et al. (1999)
1995) (16); Farafangana: Isamara (35); Fianarantsoa: Laca-
North America misinten (51); Vondrozo (20)
Canada Mahajanga—Boriziny (40), Kandreho (41), Tsara-
tanana (6)
British Columbia—Vernon: Klinker Koivula et al. (1993c), Yorke-
Toamasina—Andilamena (37), Mananara (39),
Hardy (1994), Wight (1999a),
Moramanga (38), Vatomandry (36)
Wilson (1999)
Mozambique
Mexico
Nampula—Alto Ligonha (1) Malango and Taupitz (1996)
Querétaro—Querétaro Spencer et al. (1992), Sinkankas
(1997) Namibia
United States Sinkankas (1997) Grootfontein—Platveld Siding: Dan, Okaruhuiput, Schneider and Seeger (1992),
Platfeld (9) Koivula et al. (1994a)
Idaho—Lemhi: Spencer
Swakopmund—Uis: Brandberg (1) Henn and Lieber (1993)
Nevada—Humboldt: Virgin Valley
Tanzania
Oregon—Morrow: Opal Butte Holzhey (1997)
Arusha—Lelatema (3), Tiriti (31) Keller (1992)
South America
Arusha—Mbulu (40) A. Suleman (pers. comm., 1999)
Brazil
Dodoma—Dodoma: Mdindo (4); Kilosa (6) Keller (1992)
Bahia Koivula et al. (1994b)
Dodoma—Mpwapwa (5) Dirlam et al. (1992), Keller (1992)
Piauí—Pedro II (37) Knigge and Milisenda (1997),
Morogoro—Mvuha (30) Dirlam et al. (1992)
Johnson and Koivula (1999c)
Tanga—Handeni: Negeru, Tamota (7) Keller (1992), Suleman et al.
Rio Grande do Sul—Capão Grande (4) Henn and Balzer (1995)
(1994)
Peru Zambia Mambwe and Sikatali (1994)
Arequipa—Arequipa: Acarí (1) Koivula and Kammerling Central—Mumbwa (12)
(1991a,b), Brown (1996)
Eastern—Lundazi (2)
PERIDOT (Olivine) Southern—Kalomo: Mapatizya, Mwakambiko (1);
Africa Siavonga (11)
Ethiopia Asia
Sidamo—Mega Kammerling and Koivula (1995b) Afghanistan
Tanzania Kapisa—Del Parian (1) Bowersox and Chamberlin (1995)
Arusha—Gelai: Kingiti (38) Keller (1992) Cambodia
Asia Ratanakiri—Virochey: Bo Kham, Voeune Sai, Ngu and Ngoc (1986)
Xempang (2)
China Fashion for green... (1999)
India
Hebei—Zhangjiakou-Xuanhua
Andhra Pradesh—Warangal (43) S. Fernandes (pers. comm., 1999)
Jilin—Changbaishan: Baishishan More new finds... (1996)
Jammu and Kashmir—Himachal Pradesh (65)
Myanmar
Madhya Pradesh—Betul: Bakka, Ratera (52); Jabal- S. Fernandes (pers. comm., 1999)
Mandalay—Mogok: Bernardmyo (1) Hughes (1997) pur: Barela (66)
Mandalay—Mogok: Pyaung-Gaung (1) Kammerling et al. (1994b) Madhya Pradesh—Deobhog: Harrakothi (19) Jha et al. (1993)
Pakistan Orissa—Balangir (10) Choudhuri and Gurachary (1993)
Northwest Frontier—Jalkot Valley, Kohistan: Koivula et al. (1994c,e), Milisenda Kazakhastan
Parla Sapat (7) et al. (1995), Frazier and Frazier Qaraghandy—Vishnevka Spiridonov (1998)
(1997), Aboosally (1999)
Myanmar
Russia
Karen—Hlaingbwe River Valley (14) U Hlaing (pers. comm., 1999)
Siberia—Khatanga: Kugda V. Bukanov (pers. comm., 1999)
Mandalay—Mogok: Sakangyi (1) Kammerling et al. (1994b)
Sri Lanka
Shan—Makmai: Wan Salaung (28) U Hlaing (pers. comm., 1999)
Southern—Monaragala: Embilipitiya (19); Ratnapura: Milisenda and Henn (1999)
Russia
Kolonne (32)
Far East—Bikin: Bikinskoye V. Bukanov (pers. comm., 1999)
Vietnam Kammerling and Koivula (1995a)
Far East—Magadan: Kedon River Smith and Smith (1995)
Annam Highlands—Gai Lai (Pleiku) (7)
Kola Peninsula—Tersky Bereg: Cape Korable V. Bukanov (pers. comm., 1999)
Lam Dong—Di Linh (6)
Lake Baikal—Ust'-Ilimsk: Kroshunovskoye Smith and Smith (1995)
North America
Middle Ural Mountains—Asbest: Vatikha Evseev (1993b), Smith and Smith
Canada (1995), Emlin (1996), Spiridonov
British Columbia—Cherryville: Lightning Peak Wilson (1999) (1998)
United States Polar Ural Mountains—Komi: Khasavarka Evseev (1993b), Spiridonov (1998)
Arizona—Gila: San Carlos Sinkankas (1997), Poeter (1999) Yakutia (Sakha)—Aldan: Obman V. Bukanov (pers. comm., 1999)

Sri Lanka Dissanayake and Rupasinghe South America

(1993), Milisenda and Henn (1999) Brazil
Central—Anuradhapura: Kekirawa (28); Kandy: Minas Gerais—Sapucaia do Norte: Sapucaia (8) B. Cook (pers. comm., 2000)
Galaha (26); Kegalla: Avissawella (9); Kurunegala:
Kurunegala (21); Matale: Rattota (27); Nuwara Eliya: SPINEL
Nuwara Eliya (22)
Africa
Southern—Monaragala: Embilipitiya (19); Ratnapura:
Madagascar
Balangoda (2), Eheliyagoda (25), Rakwana (3), Ratna-
pura (1) Fianarantsoa—Ilakaka–Sakaraha (23) Schmetzer (2000)
Ukraine Toliara—Betroka (27) Henn et al. (1999b), Pezzotta (1999)
Volyns'ka—Vladimir-Volynsky Evseev (1994b) Tanzania
Zhytomyr—Zhytomyr: Volodarsk-Volnskiy Smith and Smith (1995) Morogoro—Magogoni (28), Mahenge (19), Dirlam et al. (1992), Keller (1992)
Matombo (27), Mvuha (30)
North America
Ruvuma—Songea (42) Dirlam et al. (1992)
Canada
British Columbia—Slocan Valley: Nelson Wilson (1999) Ruvuma—Tunduru (2) Milisenda et al. (1997), Thomas
(1997), Burford (1998)
Ontario—Thunder Bay: Keetch, Ontario Gem, Sinkankas (1997), B. Wilson
Panorama (pers. comm., 1999) Tanga—Handeni: Kwachaga (7) Keller (1992)
United States Tanga—Umba Valley (21) Dirlam et al. (1992), Keller (1992)
Arizona—Maricopa: Four Peaks Lurie (1999) Asia
Maine—Oxford Sinkankas (1997) Afghanistan Bowersox and Chamberlin (1995)
Maine—Stow Koivula et al. (1993d) Badakhshan—Kuh-i-Lal (8)
New Hampshire—Carroll Sinkankas (1997) Kabul—Jegdalek (7) Hughes (1994)
North Carolina—Lincoln Sinkankas (1997) Cambodia
South America Battamberg—Pailin (1)
Bolivia Myanmar
Santa Cruz—Rincón del Tigre: Anahí, Yuruty (1) Collyer et al. (1994), Vasconcelos Kachin—Mansi: Panhka (16) U Hlaing (pers. comm., 1999)
et al. (1994), Marcusson (1996), Mandalay—Mogok: Byant Gyi, Htayen Sho, Kammerling et al. (1994b), Hughes
Krzemnicki (2000) Pyin Pit (1) (1997), U Nanda (pers. comm., 1997)
Brazil Shan—Lai Hka: Wan Ying (8); Langhko: Wan Hat U Hlaing (pers. comm., 1999)
Bahia—Brejinho (40); Cabeluda (23); Jacobina (2) R. Batista and D. Epstein (pers. (10); Yawnghwe: Mong Hsauk (11)
comm., 2000), Couto (2000) Russia
Minas Gerais—Buenópolis (26) R. Batista and D. Epstein (pers. Siberia—Aldan: Emeldzhak, Katalakh Evseev (1994a), Smith and Smith
comm., 2000) (1995)
Minas Gerais—Campo Belo (9) Cassedanne (1995) Sri Lanka Dissanayake and Rupasinghe
Pará—Marabá: Alto Bonito (11); Pau d'Arco: Villa Cassini et al. (1999) (1993), Milisenda and Henn (1999)
Esperança (41) Central—Badulla: Haputale (18), Passara (16);
Rio Grande do Sul—Ametista do Sul Priester (1999) Kegalla: Avissawella (9); Nuwara Eliya: Hatton (15),
Rio Grande do Sul—Santa Maria: Planalto (12) Balzer (1999) Kuruwitenna (13), Nawalapitiya (29); Polonnaruwa:
Rondônia—Porto Velho (7) R. Batista and D. Epstein (pers. Elahera, Kaluganga Valley (8)
comm., 2000) Southern—Hambantota: Ambalantota (11); Kalutara:
Roraima—São Luis de Anawa R. Batista and D. Epstein (pers. Alutgama (10), Horana (34); Matara: Morawaka (4);
comm., 2000) Monaragala: Embilipitiya (19), Kataragama (17),
Uruguay Okkampitiya (5); Ratnapura: Balangoda (2), Eheliya-
goda (25), Kalawana, Kiriella, Kuruwita, Nivitigala (1),
Artigas—Artigas (1) Sosso and Roman (1992), Currier
Rakwana (3)
(1997)
Tajikistan
QUARTZ—Rose Turkistan—Khorugh: Kukhilyal Kammerling et al. (1995e), Smith
Africa and Smith (1995)
Madagascar Henn et al. (1999b) Vietnam
Antananarivo—Faratsiho (44), Sahatany Valley (3) Pezzotta (1999) Yen Bai—Luc Yen (2) Kane et al. (1991)
Antananarivo—Tsiroanomandidy (33)
Fianarantsoa—Ambositra (16) Pezzotta (1999) TOPAZ
Toamasina—Ambatondrazaka (22), Moramanga (38) Africa
Toamasina—Andilamena (37) Madagascar Henn et al. (1999b)
Mozambique Antananarivo—Ambatolampy (45) A. Chikayama (pers. comm., 1999)
Nampula—Alto Ligonha (1) Malango and Taupitz (1996) Antananarivo—Faratsiho (44)
Namibia Fianarantsoa—Ambositra (16)
Swakopmund—Swakopmund: Hoffnungsstrahl, Schneider and Seeger (1992) Fianarantsoa—Ilakaka–Sakaraha (23) Pezzotta (1999)
Roselis (7) Mahajanga—Andriamena (46) Pezzotta (1999)
Asia Toamasina—Andilamena (37) Pezzotta (1999)
India Toliara—Mahabe (47)
Karnataka—Mysore (33) S. Fernandes (pers. comm., 1999) Namibia
Madyha Pradesh—Deobhog (19) Jha et al. (1993) Karibib—Usakos: Spitzkoppe (2) Menzies (1995), Cairncross et al.
Tamil Nadu—Kangayam-Karur (54), Salem (17) S. Fernandes (pers. comm., 1999) (1998)
North America Tanzania
United States Arusha—Longido (9) Dirlam et al. (1992)
South Dakota—Black Hills Sinkankas (1997) Morogoro—Magogoni (28); Mvuha (30) Dirlam et al. (1992)

Ruvuma—Tunduru: Lumasulu, Muhuwesi River (2) H. Krupp (pers. comm., 1999) Tajikistan
Zimbabwe Turkistan—Pamir Mountains: Rangkul, near Murgab Skrigitil (1996), Spiridonov
(1998)
Mashonaland North—Mwami–Karoi (2) Shmakin and Wedepohl (1999)
Ukraine
Asia
Volyns'ka—Vladimir-Volynskiy Menzies (1995), Spiridonov (1998)
China More new finds... (1996)
Zhytomyr—Zhytomyr: Volodarsk-Volynskiy Evseev (1994b), Smith and Smith
Guangdong
(1995)
Guangxi
Australia
Xinjiang
New South Wales—New England Range (10) Webb and Sutherland (1998)
Yunnan—Gaoligongshan
Queensland—Mount Surprise (20) F. L. Sutherland (pers. comm.,
India 1999)
Kerala—Trivandrum (9) Menon et al. (1994), Rajesh- North America
Chandran et al. (1996)
Canada
Orissa—Balangir (10) Choudhuri and Guarchary (1993)
British Columbia—Atlin, Mount Foster Wilson (1999)
Orissa—Sambalpur: Baghdapa (5); Subarnapur: S. Fernandes (pers. comm., 1999)
United States
Sonepur (10)
California—Ramona: Little Three Foord et al. (1989)
Kazakhstan
New Hampshire—Carroll, Coos Sinkankas (1997)
Karagandin—Karaganda: Akchatau Smith and Smith (1995)
South America
Myanmar
Brazil
Mandalay—Mogok: Sakangyi (1) Hughes (1997)
Espírito Santo—Santa Teresa (16) Cassedanne and Alves (1994),
Pakistan Blauwet et al. (1997)
Menzies (1995)
Northern Areas—Baltistan: Gone, Nyet Bruk (3); Menzies (1995)
Minas Gerais—Caraí: Mucaia (22); Itaipé: Lavra do Cassedanne and Alves (1994)
Gilgit: Buleche, Shengus (2)
Aziz (22); Pavão: Ariranha (22)
Northwest Frontier—Katlang: Ghundao Hill (6) Aboosally (1999)
Minas Gerais—Ouro Prêto: Boa Vista, Capão, Dom Menzies (1995), Sauer et al. (1996)
Russia Bosco, Vermelhão (38)
Middle Ural Mountains—Asbest: Mursinka Evseev (1994a), Menzies (1995),
Smith and Smith (1995), Kolesar TOURMALINE
(1997), Spiridonov (1998)
Africa
Southern Ural Mountains—Yushno-Uralsk: V. Bukanov (pers. comm., 1999)
Kochkarskoye Kenya Keller (1992)
Transbaikalia—Krasna Chikoi: Malkhan Evseev (1994a) Coast—Kwale (12), Mgama-Mindi (21)
Sri Lanka Dissanayake and Rupasinghe Coast—Voi: John Saul, Kisoli, Yellow (13) Simonet (2000)
(1993), Milisenda and Henn (1999) Rift Valley—Magadi (14); Narok: Osarara (15)
Central—Badulla: Haputale (18), Passara (16); Madagascar Henn et al. (1999b)
Kurunegala: Kurunegala (21); Matale: Matale (7), Antananarivo—Betafo: Anjanabonoina (2) Pezzotta (1996, 1999)
Rattota (27); Nuwara Eliya: Hatton (15), Nawalapitiya Antananarivo—Antsirabe (3); Sahatany Valley: Antan- Lefevre and Thomas (1997),
(29); Polonnaruwa: Elahera (8) drokomby, Antanetyilapa, Ibity (3) Pezzotta (1999)
Southern—Kalutara: Horana (34); Ratnapura: Balan- Fianarantsoa—Ambatofinandrahana (28); Ambositra: Pezzotta (1999)
goda (2), Ratnapura (1) Valzoro (16); Farafangana: Isamara (35); Vondrozo (20)
Fianarantsoa—Fianarantsoa (51)
Fianarantsoa—Ilakaka–Sakaraha (23) Hänni (1999), Pezzotta (1999)
Toamasina—Ambatondrazaka (22); Mananara (39)
Mozambique Malango and Taupitz (1996)
The Usakos mine in Namibia is the source of these Nampula—Alto Ligonha: Muiane, Naipa (1) Henn and Bank (1997)
Nampula—Nacala (5) Correia Neves (1987)
tourmalines (6.94–11.29 ct). Courtesy of James
Namibia
Alger Co.; photo by Robert Weldon.
Karibib—Usakos: Neu Schwaben, Usakos (8) Schneider and Seeger (1992),
Johnson and Koivula (1997f),
Beard (1999)
Nigeria
Oyo—Ogbomosho Johnson and Koivula (1998g),
Schmetzer (1999a)
Plateau—Keffi Kanis and Harding (1990)
Tanzania
Arusha—Babati (23), Merelani (15), Tiriti (31) Dirlam et al. (1992)
Arusha—Landanai: Titus-Tsakiris (32) Keller (1992), Suleman et al. (1994)
Arusha—Lelatema: Lengasti (3) Dirlam et al. (1992), Keller (1992)
Dodoma—Chenene Mountains: Hombolo (33) Keller (1992)
Dodoma—Mpwapwa (5) Dirlam et al. (1992)
Kilimanjaro—Same (17) Dirlam et al. (1992)
Morogoro—Magogoni (28); Matombo: Linai (27); Dirlam et al. (1992)
Mvuha (30)
Ruvuma—Tunduru: Muhuwesi River (2) Milisenda et al. (1997), H. Krupp
(pers. comm., 1999)
Tanga—Daluni (34); Handeni: Kwachaga (7); Keller (1992)
Ngomeni (35)

Tanga—Kwamsisi (36) Dirlam et al. (1992)

Tanga—Umba Valley: Gerevi Hills, Ngombezi (21) Dirlam et al. (1992), Keller (1992),
Suleman et al. (1994)
Zambia
Central—Kabwe: Jagoda (13) Milisenda et al. (2000)
Eastern—Chipata (6) Mambwe and Sikatali (1994)
Eastern—Lundazi: Aries, Kalungabeba (2) Kamona (1994), Mambwe and
Sikatali (1994), Johnson et al.
(1997), Milisenda et al. (2000)
Eastern—Nyimba: Hofmeyer (7) Kamona (1994), Milisenda et al.
(2000)
Asia
Afghanistan Bowersox and Chamberlin (1995)
Konar—Dhray-Pech, Kantiwa, Mualevi, Paprowk,
Tsotsum, Vora Desh
Laghman—Korghal, Mawi, Nilaw-Kolum (3)
China
Yunnan—Gaoligongshan More new finds... (1996)
India
Jammu and Kashmir—Himachal Pradesh (65) Mehta (1997)
Karnataka—Mysore (33) S. Fernandes (pers. comm., 1999)
Madhya Pradesh—Deobhog: Latapara, Mukhagura, Jha et al. (1993)
Sarnabahal, Sendmuna (19)
Orissa—Bagdihi (24); Sambalpur: Sonepur (5) S. Fernandes (pers. comm., 1999)
This gem-quality tanzanite crystal from Merelani,
Myanmar Hughes (1997) Tanzania, measures 8.3 cm long. Courtesy of Pala
Kayah—Hsataw (27) U Hlaing (pers. comm., 1999) International; photo by Jeff Scovil.
Mandalay—Mogok (1) Kammerling et al. (1994b)
Sagaing—Madaya (13) U Hlaing (pers. comm., 1999)
Shan—Makmai (28), Mong Hsu (3), Mong Pan (10) U Hlaing (pers. comm., 1999)
Nepal Niedermayer (1992) Maine—Androscoggin: Auburn Francis (1985)
Bheri—Surketh (6) Maine—Oxford: Mount Apatite, Newry, Paris Francis (1985), Francis et al. (1993)
Gandaki—Langtang (1), Naje (2) South America
Gandaki—Marsyangdi Valley: Manang (2) Koivula et al. (1994d) Brazil
Kosi—Sankhuwasabha: Hyakule, Pahkuwa (4) Bassett (1987) Bahia—Brumado (30) Cassedanne and Roditi (1996)
Mechi—Taplejung: Ikhabu (4) Bahia—Itamarati: Lajedo (1); Itambé: Morro da R. Wegner and O. Moura (pers.
Rapti—Jajarkot (7) Gloria (24) comm., 2000)
Pakistan Blauwet et al. (1997) Ceará—Berilândia; Quixeramobim: Condado (39) R. Wegner and O. Moura (pers.
comm., 2000)
Northern Areas—Gilgit: Buleche, Shengus, Laurs et al. (1998)
Stak Nala (2) Minas Gerais—Araçuaí–Jequitinhonha–Salinas– Cassedanne and Roditi (1996)
Virgem da Lapa: Baixa Grande, Barra de Salinas,
Northwest Frontier—Chitral (1); Neelum Valley:
Lavrinha, Manoel Mutuca, Morro Redondo, Ouro Fino,
Dongar Nar (9)
Pirineus, Salinas, Xanda (18); Malacacheta–Urupuca
Russia River–São José da Safira: Aricanga, Cruzeiro, Gol-
Middle Ural Mountains—Asbest: Lipovka Smith and Smith (1995), Emlin conda, Santa Rosa (19)
(1996), Zagorskii and Peretyazhko Minas Gerais—Conselheiro Pena–Divino das Cassedanne and Roditi (1996),
(1996), Spiridonov (1998) Laranjeiras–Galiléia: Formiga, Itatiaia, Jonas, Steger (1999)
Transbaikalia—Krasna Chikoi: Malkhan, Menzinska Godovikov and Bulgak (1993), Pamaro, Sapo, Urucum (8)
Evseev (1994a), Smith and Smith Minas Gerais—Marambaia (22) Proctor (1984)
(1995), Spiridonov (1998)
Paraíba—Frei Martinho: Alto Quixaba (10) Ferreira (1998)
Transbaikalia—Pervomayskoye: Zavitinskoye V. Bukanov (pers. comm., 1999)
Paraíba—Salgadinho: São José da Batalha (10) Bank et al. (1990), Fritsch et al.
Sri Lanka Dissanayake and Rupasinghe (1990), Brandstätter and Nieder-
(1993), Milisenda and Henn (1999) mayr (1994), Cassedanne (1996),
Central—Badulla: Haputale (18), Passara (16); Kegalla: Laurs and Shigley (2000)
Avissawella (9); Kurunegala: Kurunegala (21); Polon- Rio Grande do Norte—Parelhas: Alto da Cabeça, Karfunkel and Wegner (1996),
naruwa: Elahera, Kaluganga Valley (8) Bulandeira, Mulungu/Boqueirãozinho/Capoeira, Soares (1998), Laurs and
Southern—Hambontota: Ambalantota, Ridiyagama Quintos (10) Shigley (2000)
(11); Kalutara: Horana (34); Matara: Morawaka (4);
Monaragala: Embilipitiya (19), Kochchipatana (6),
ZOISITE (Includes tanzanite)
Okkampitiya (5); Ratnapura: Balangoda (2), Eheliya-
goda (25), Kiriella (1), Kuruwita (1), Rakwana (3) Africa
Tajikistan Zagorskii and Peretyazhko (1996) Tanzania
Turkistan—Pamir Mountains: Kukurt River, Rangkul Skrigitil (1996), Spiridonov (1998) Arusha—Mbuguni: Merelani (15) Barot and Boehm (1992), Dirlam
et al. (1992), Keller (1992), Sule-
Turkistan—Horog: Shakhdara River, Vezdara River
man (1995), McDonald (1999),
North America Wentzell (2000)
United States Sinkankas (1997) Asia
California—Mesa Grande: Himalaya Fisher et al. (1999) Pakistan
California—Pala: Stewart Northern Areas—Skardu (3) Koivula et al. (1992a)

TABLE 2. Localities of the 1990s for less common gemstones.a
Apatite Toamasina—Ambatondrazaka (22)

Brazil R. Wegner and O. Moura (pers. Toliara—Itrongay (43) Weiss (1991)
comm., 2000) Toliara—Mahabe (47)
Bahia—Itambé: Bananeira (24) Myanmar
Bahia—Jacobina: Ibira (2) Koivula et al. (1993a) Mandalay—Mogok: Kyatpyin, Kyaukpyatthat (1) Hughes (1997)
Minas Gerais—Conselheiro Pena: Aldeia (8); Russia
Coroaci: Golconda (19)
Ural Mountains—Kasil-Kishtim: Potaniha Ostrooumov (1991)
Paraíba—Pedra Lavrada: Alto Feio (10)
Sri Lanka
India S. Fernandes (pers. comm., 1999)
Central—Badulla: Haputale, Koslanda (18)
Karnataka—Mysore: Katteri, Melkote (33)
Southern—Galle: Ambalangoda, Mitiyagoda (24); Harder (1992, 1994), Dissanayake
Orissa—Kalahandi: Banjipadar (53) Ratnapura: Balangoda (2), Ratnapura (1) and Rupasinghe (1993), Milisenda
Tamil Nadu—Salem: Kurumbapatti, and Henn (1999)
Peryasoragai (17) Tanzania A. Suleman (pers. comm., 1999)
Kenya Dodoma—Kondoa (41)
Eastern—Embu (2) Barot et al. (1995) Kilimanjaro—Same (17)
Madagascar Rukwa—Sumbawanga (10)
Antsiranana—Milanoa (13) Kammerling et al. (1995a), United States Johnston et al. (1991)
Laurs (2000)
Oregon—Harney: Ponderosa
Toliara—Itrongay (43) Pezzotta (1999)
Oregon—Lake: Plush Henn and Bank (1992)
Myanmar
Mandalay—Mogok: Kyaukpyatthat (1) Hughes (1997) Iolite (Cordierite)
Russia Brazil R. Wegner and O. Moura (pers.
Siberia—Lake Baikal: Sludyanka Y. Shelementiev (pers. comm., comm., 2000)
1999) Paraíba—Nova Palmeira (10)
Sri Lanka Dissanayake and Rupasinghe Rio Grande do Norte—Parelhas (10)
(1993), Milisenda and Henn (1999) Canada
Central—Kegalla: Kegalla (9); Kurunegala: British Columbia—Selkirk Mountains: Slocan Valley Johnson and Koivula (1999a),
Kurunegala (21); Matale: Matale (7), Nalanda (23) Wight (1999b)
Southern—Matara: Akuressa (4), Deniyaya (31); India S. Fernandes (pers. comm., 1999)
Ratnapura: Balangoda (2), Eheliyagoda (25), Rakwana
Karnataka—Tumkur (35)
(3), Ratnapura (1)
Orissa—Boudh: Kantamal, Manmunda (13);
Benitoite Kalahandi: Orhabahal, Urharanga (53); Nawapada:
United States Burhapara (63)
California—New Idria: Benitoite Gem Frazier and Frazier (1990a,b), Tamil Nadu—Kangayam–Karur: Bommagoundanur,
Laurs et al. (1997) Uthampatty (54); Madurai (7)
Charoite Madagascar
Russia Antananarivo—Sahatany Valley: Ibity (3) Lefevre and Thomas (1997)
Siberia—Olekminsk: Murun (Chara River) Konev et al. (1993), Evdokimov Toliara—Toliara (49) Pezzotta (1999)
(1995) Myanmar
Chrome Diopside Mandalay—Mogok (1) Hughes (1997)
Russia Russia
Yakutia (Sakha)—Aldan: Inagli Gadiyatov (1996), Johnson and Siberia—Altai Mountains Y. Shelementiev (pers. comm.,
Koivula (1996e), Spiridonov (1998) 1999)
Feldspar Frazier and Frazier (1993a) (1993), Milisenda and Henn (1999)
Australia Central—Kegalla: Avissawella (9); Kurunegala:
Northern Territory—Harts Range (3) Brown and Bracewell (1984) Kurunegala (21); Nuwara Eliya: Hatton (15); Polon-
Brazil naruwa: Elahera (8)
Minas Gerais—Santa Maria de Itabira (3) Cassedanne (1994), Karfunkel Southern—Monaragala: Embilipitiya (19); Ratnapura:
and Chaves (1994) Ratnapura (1)
Canada Lapis Lazuli
Labrador B. Wilson (pers. comm., 1999) Afghanistan
Finland Badakhshan—Kokcha Valley: Sar-e-Sang (6) Bowersox and Chamberlin (1995)
Lymi—Lappenranta: Ylämaa Frazier and Frazier (1993b), Chile
Johnson and Koivula (1997a) Andes Mountains—Ovalle: Flor de Los Andes, San Ward (1996a), Coenraads and
India Current mining report... (1998), S. Marcelo, Seguridad (1) Canut de Bon (2000)
Fernandes (pers. comm., 1999) Myanmar
Bihar—Kodarma (68) Mandalay—Mogok: Dattaw, Kabaing, Thapanbin (1) Kammerling et al. (1994b)
Bihar—Patna (67) Johnson and Koivula (1997c) Russia
Kerala—Travancore (69) Siberia—Lake Baikal: Malobystrinkskoye Spiridonov (1998)
Orissa Tajikistan
Tamil Nadu—Kangayam–Karur: Karattupalayam, Kammerling et al. (1995b) Turkistan—Pamir Mountains: Lyadzhvardarinskoye Spiridonov (1998)
Kodanthur, Madiakattupudur, Odanalli (54)
Tamil Nadu—Madurai (7); Salem (17) a
This chart includes key producing localities of the decade, with references
Madagascar Pezzotta (1999) to publications in the contemporary literature. The country name is followed
Antananarivo—Betafo: Ambohimanambola, by the province/state/region, then the district, and finally the
Anjanabonoina (2); Faratsiho (44) mine/deposit/occurrence name (in italics). Numbers in parentheses refer to
locations plotted on the regional maps. Some countries are not shown on
Fianarantsoa—Ambositra (16)
these maps, and therefore do not have any numbers indicated.
Mahajanga—Kandreho (41)

United States Urupuca River: Urupuca (19)

Colorado—Italian Mountain: Blue Wrinkle Johnson and Koivula (1998c) Minas Gerais—Conselheiro Pena: Kunzita,
Maw Sit Sit Resplendor (8)
Myanmar Madagascar Henn et al. (1999b), Pezzotta (1999)
Kachin—Kansi: Maw-sit (15) Colombo et al. (2000), Hughes et Antananarivo—Betafo (2), Ilakaka-Sakaraha (23)
al. (2000) Antananarivo—Sahatany Valley: Antsirabe (3) Lefevre and Thomas (1997)
Red Beryl Myanmar
United States Mandalay—Mogok (1) Hughes (1997)
Utah—Beaver: Wah Wah Mountains Aurisicchio et al. (1990), Henn Sri Lanka
and Becker (1995) Southern—Monaragala: Kataragama (17) Milisenda and Henn (1999)
United States
Rhodochrosite
California—Pala: Stewart Sinkankas (1997)
Argentina
Catamarca—Andalgalá: Capillitas (1) Saadi and Grasso (1992), Sugilite
Cassedanne (1998) South Africa
United States Cape—Hotazel: Wessels (7) Shigley et al. (1987)
Colorado—Park: Sweet Home Knox and Lees (1997), Moore et Turquoise
al. (1998)
China
Rhodonite Hubei—Yungaisi Liu (1999)
Canada B. Wilson (pers. comm., 1999) Iran
British Columbia Nischapur—Kuh-I-Binalud: Maaden Gübelin (1999), Meister (1999)
Northwest Territories Mexico
Russia Sonora—Cananea Sinkankas (1997), Lieber (1999)
Middle Ural Mountains—Ekaterinburg: Kuaganovo Brusnitsyn and Serkov (1996) United States Sinkankas (1997), Lieber (1999)
Scapolite Arizona—Tucson: Bisbee, Courtland, Lone Star,
China Morenci, Silver Bell, Sleeping Beauty, Turquoise
Mountain
Xinjiang—Kashi More new finds... (1996)
California—Mohave Desert: Baker, Inyo Mountains
Myanmar
Colorado—Pueblo: Cripple Creek, King’s Manassa,
Mandalay—Mogok (1) Couper (1991), Kammerling et al.
Villa Brove
(1994b), Hughes (1997)
Nevada—Battle Mountain: Austin, Cortez, Tenabo;
(1993), Milisenda and Henn (1999) Tonopah: Dusty Tim, Lone Mountain, Monte Cristo,
Montezuma, Royal Blue
Southern—Hambantota: Ambalantota (11); Kalutara:
Horana (34); Matara: Deniyaya (31); Monaragala: New Mexico—Alamagordo: Jarilla, Lost Mine;
Embilipitiya (19); Ratnapura: Balangoda (2), Ratna- Cerillos: Chaco Canyon, Mount Chalchihuitl, Turquoise
pura (1) Hill; Silver City: Burro Mountains, Little Hatchet
Mountain
Tajikistan
Turkistan—Pamir Mountains: Kurkurt, Rangkul Zolotarev (1993), Kammerling et Zircon
al. (1995f), Skrigitil (1996) Australia
Tanzania New South Wales—New England Range (10) F. L. Sutherland (pers. comm., 1999)
Dodoma—Dodoma (4) Barot et al. (1995) Northern Territory—Harts Range (3) Faulkner and Shigley (1989)
Sphene (Titanite) Queensland—Anakie-Rubyvale (31) F. L. Sutherland (pers. comm., 1999)
Australia Cambodia
Northern Territory—Harts Range (3) McColl and Petersen (1990) Battamberg—Pailin (1) Hughes (1997)
Canada Madagascar Pezzotta (1999)
Quebec—Chibougamau Robinson and Wight (1997) Antananarivo—Antanifotsy (10)
India Fianarantsoa—Fianarantsoa (51)
Tamil Nadu—Karur: Pattukaranur (54) S. Fernandes (pers. comm., 1999) Fianarantsoa—Ilakaka-Sakaraha (23) Hänni (1999), Henn et al. (1999b)
Madagascar Pezzotta (1999) Toliara—Amboasary (14), Betroka (27)
Antsiranana—Daraina (48) Johnson and Koivula (1998i), Myanmar
Laurs (2000) Mandalay—Mogok (1) Hlaing (1990a), Hughes (1997)
Antsiranana—Milanoa (13) Nigeria
Myanmar Kaduna—Jemma C. Arps (pers. comm., 1999)
Mandalay—Mogok (1) Kammerling et al. (1994b), Russia Y. Shelementiev (pers. comm.,
Hughes (1997) 1999)
Russia Far East—Primorskiy Krai
Ural Mountains—Perm: Saranovskoe Hyrsl and Milisenda (1995), Southern Ural Mountains—Chelyabinsk: Ilmen
Kolesar (1997) Mountains and Vishnevie
Sri Lanka Dissanayake and Rupasinghe Sri Lanka Dissanayake and Rupasinghe
(1993), Milisenda and Henn (1999) (1993), Milisenda and Henn (1999)
Central—Polonnaruwa: Elahera (8) Central—Badulla: Haputale (18), Passara (16);
Southern—Galle: Galle (12); Matara: Akuressa, Mora- Kegalla: Avissawella (9); Nuwara Eliya: Hatton (15),
waka (4); Monaragala: Kataragama (17) Nuwara Eliya (22); Polonnaruwa: Elahera (8)
Spodumene—Kunzite/Hiddenite Southern—Kalutara: Alutgama (10); Matara: Akuressa,
Morawaka (4); Monaragala: Embilipitiya (19); Ratna-
Afghanistan Bowersox and Chamberlin (1995) pura: Balangoda (2), Pelmadulla (1), Rakwana (3),
Konar—Kantiwa, Vora Desh (2) Ratnapura (1)
Laghman—Mawi, Nilaw-Kolum (3) Tanzania
Brazil Proctor (1984, 1985) Kilimanjaro—Same (17) A. Suleman (pers. comm., 1999)
Minas Gerais—Galiléia: Barra de Cuieté, Urucum (8); Ruvuma—Tunduru: Muhuwesi River (2) H. Krupp (pers. comm., 1999)

TABLE 3. Localities for cultured and natural pearls.a
Country/ /Area
Country Area/ / Mollusk Predominant pearl color Reference
BodyofofWater
water Mollusk Predominant pearl color Reference
Body
Australia
New South Wales Muller (1999), A. Muller (pers. comm., 2000)
Northern Territory Pinctada maxima (White-lipped White, “cream,” “silver,” “golden” Van Zuylen (1993), N. Paspaley (pers. comm., 2000)
Queensland oyster, gold-lipped oyster) Doubilet (1991); A. Muller, N. Paspaley (pers. comm., 2000)
Western Australia N. Paspaley (pers. comm., 2000)
Western Australia P. albina (Arafura pearl oyster) White A. Muller (pers. comm., 2000)
Canada
British Columbia Haliotis kamtschatkana (Pinto Green to blue, purple, red Shirai (1994), Fankboner (1995), Wentzell (1998), Koethe and
abalone) Bell (1999)
China—Freshwater
Anhui, Hubei, Jiangxi Cristaria plicata (River shell, wrinkle Pearl production in China…(1997), A. Muller (pers. comm.,
shell), Hyriopsis cumingi (Triangle 2000), Tao (2000)
shell)
Guangdong H. cumingi White, “cream,” yellow, orange, Prices stable after years…(1998)
pink, purple, green
Guangxi H. cumingi, H. schlegi (Biwa pearly Peach (1999), A. Muller (pers. comm., 2000), Scarratt et al.
mussel) (2000)
Jiangsu C. plicata, H. cumingi Sin (1993), Pearl production in China…(1997), Sheung (1999),
A. Muller (pers. comm., 2000)
Zhejiang H. cumingi, H. schlegi White, “cream,” yellow, orange, Sheung (1999), A. Muller (pers. comm., 2000), Tao (2000)
pink, purple, green
China—Saltwater
Guangdong (including Hainan Chinese Akoya industry...(1999)
Island) P. Fucata (Chinese Akoya oyster) White, “cream,” yellow, pink, blue
Guangxi Akamatsu (1999), Chinese Akoya industry...(1999), Tao (2000)
Zhejiang P. maxima White, “cream” Tao (2000)
Cook Islandsb P. maculata (Maculated pearl oyster) Buscher (1999)
Black, gray, blue to green
P. margaritifera (Black-lipped oyster) Sims and Fassler (1994), Buscher (1999)
P. maxima White, “cream,” “silver,” “golden” Sims and Fassler (1994)
French Polynesia
Gambier R. Wan (pers. comm., 2000)
Society Islands P. margaritifera, var. cumingi (Black- Black, gray, brown, blue to green, A. Muller (pers. comm., 2000)
Tuamotu Archilpelagob lipped oyster) purple, yellowish green Goebel and Dirlam (1989); R. Wan (pers. comm., 1999); S.
(numerous islands) Assael, M. Coeroli, A. Muller, C. Rosenthal (pers. comm., 2000)
The Chinese freshwater cultured pearls

in this necklace and earrings measure approxi-
mately 8–9 mm long. Courtesy of Frank
Mastoloni Sons; photo by Maha Tannous.
Australia became an important source of South

Sea cultured pearls during the 1990s. The cul-
tured pearls in these earrings (above) are from the
north coast of Australia and measure 12 mm in
diameter. Designed and manufactured by the
Stirrups Collection/Paspaley Pearls.

Country / Area /
Body of water Mollusk Predominant pearl color Reference
Indonesia
Maluku (several islands) Johnson and Koivula (1997d), Muller (1999), A. Muller (pers.
P. maxima “Golden,” white, “cream,” “silver” comm., 2000)
Sulawesi, Sumatra, Sumbawa Muller (1999), A. Muller (pers. comm., 2000)
Japan—Freshwater
Lake Biwa H. schlegeli White, “cream,” pink, “silver,” brown, Shirai (1994)
orange, gray, blue
Lake Kasumiga H. cumingi–H. schlegeli hybrid White, “cream,” lavender, pink C. Gregory (pers. comm., 2000)
Japan—Saltwater Akamatsu (1999)
Ehime A. Muller (pers. comm., 2000)
P. fucata martensii (Akoya oyster) White, “cream,” yellow, gray, blue
Mie (includes Ago Bay) Shirai (1994), S. Akamatsu (pers. comm., 1999), A. Muller (pers.
comm., 2000)
Nansei Shoto (several islands) P. margaritifera Black, gray, brown, blue to green, purple, A. Muller (pers. comm., 2000)
yellowish green, white
P. maxima White, “cream,” “golden,” “silver” A. Muller (pers. comm., 2000)
Mexico
Baja Californiab Pteria sterna (Western winged pearl Black, gray, “silver,” blue to green Hurwit (2000)
oyster)
Baja Californiab Crowningshield (1991), Cariño and Monteforte (1995)
Guyamas P. mazatlanica (Panamanian pearl oyster) Black, gray, “silver,” blue to green M. Goebel (pers. comm., 2000)
Myanmar P. maxima “Golden,” white, “cream,” “silver” Tun (1999),Themelis (2000)
New Zealand
Stewart Island Haliotis iris (Paua, iris, or rainbow Green to blue, purple, red Wentzell (1998), McKenzie (1999)
abalone)
North America
Pacific Coast H. rufescens (Red abalone), H. fulgens Green to blue, purple, red Hurwit (1993, 1994), Fankboner (1995), Koethe and Bell (1999)
(Green abalone)
Philippines Muller (1999)
Mindanao “Golden,” white, “cream”P. maxima “Golden,” white, “cream” Shirai (1994)
Palawan, Surgao Strait P. maxima “Golden,” white, “cream” D. Fiske (pers. comm., 1999)
Visayan Islands Doumenge et al (1991)
South Africa Haliotis Green to blue, purple, red Fankboner (1995)
United States—Freshwater
Tennessee Megalonaias nervosa (Washboard White, gray, “silver,” with “rose” or Latendresse (1999)
mussel blue overtone
United States—Saltwater
Hawaiib P. margaritifera Black, gray, “silver,” blue to green Walther (1997)
Vietnam—Freshwater C. plicata White, “cream,” pink Bosshart et al. (1993)
Vietnam—Saltwater P. fucata White, “cream,” yellow, pink, Vietnam produces Akoya (1999)
aA
more detailed version of this table is available at the Gems & Gemology data depository on the Web site www.gia.edu/gandg.
bIndicates
areas that reemerged in the 1990s after declining earlier in the 20th century due to overharvesting and/or environmental degradation.
Acknowledgments: The authors thank the following indi- Colgem Ltd., Ramat Gan, Israel; D. Epstein, Precious
viduals for providing information or for reviewing the Resources Ltda., Teófilo Otoni, Brazil; S. Fernandes, Gem
manuscript at various stages of its preparation: S. Testing Laboratory, Jaipur, India; D. Fiske, GIA Course
Akamatsu, K. Mikimoto & Co., Tokyo; Dr. C. Arps, Development, Carlsbad; P. and B. Flusser, Overland
National Museum of Natural History, Leiden, The Gems, Los Angeles; O. Galibert, Eye Company Ltd., Hong
Netherlands (retired); S. J. Assael, Assael International Kong; M. Goebel, Marisa Atelier, Beverly Hills,
Inc., New York; J. R. Batista, Pentágono Industrial California; C. A. Gregory, Belpearl, Hong Kong; A.
Exportadora Ltda., Belo Horizonte, Brazil; Dr. K. C. Bell, Grizenko, Russian Colored Stone Co., Golden, Colorado;
K.C.B., San Francisco; Dr. V. Bukanov, Gemological D. Grondin, Meyerin, Switzerland; Dr. E. Gübelin,
Association of Russia, St. Petersburg; A. Chikayama, A. Lucerne, Switzerland; N. Haralyi, IGCE-UNESP, Sao
Chikayama Gem Lab, Tokyo; M. Coeroli and A. Prince, Paulo, Brazil; Dr. G. Harlow, American Museum of
GIE Perles de Tahiti, Papeete, Tahiti, French Polynesia; B. Natural History, New York; Dr. C. Hedegaard, Faarvaag,
Cook, Nature’s Geometry, Graton, California; M. Diallo, Denmark; U T. Hlaing, Taunggyi University, Taunggyi,
New Generation Gem Wholesale, New York; R. Drucker, Myanmar; R. W. Hughes, Pala International, Fallbrook,
Gemworld International, Northbrook, Illinois; I. Eliezri, California; Dr. A. J. A. (Bram) Janse, Archon Exploration,

Carine, Australia; R. Kane, San Diego, California; Dr. H. State University, Moscow; G. Stockton, Los Angeles; A.
Krupp, Wahuwa Mining Ltd., La Costa, California; N. Suleman, Tuckman International Ltd., Arusha, Tanzania;
Kuznetsov, Stone Flower, Fallbrook, California; G. Dr. F. L. Sutherland, Australian Museum, Sydney; Dr. L.
Latendresse, American Pearl Co., Nashville, Tennessee; Tretyakova, Fort Lee, New Jersey; R. Wan, Robert Wan
Dr. A. A. Levinson, University of Calgary, Alberta, Tahiti Perles, Papeete; Dr. R. Wegner, Federal University
Canada; C. Marcusson, Cynthia Renée Co., Fallbrook, of Paraíba, Campina Grande, Brazil; B. Wilson, Alpine
California; F. Mastoloni, Frank Mastoloni & Sons, New Gems, Kingston, Ontario, Canada; E. G. Zoysa, Mount
York; Y. Melas, D. Swarovski & Co., Wattens, Austria; O. Lavinia, Sri Lanka; and Dr. P. C. Zwaan, Netherlands
Moura, ITACOMIL, Governador Valadares, Brazil; A. Gemmological Laboratory, Leiden.
Muller, Golay Buchel Japan, Kobe; U Nanda, Mogok,
Myanmar; Dr. J. Panjikar, Gemmological Association of Assistance with the literature research was provided by
India, Mumbai; N. Paspaley, Paspaley Pearls and South Neil Barron, Judy Colbert, Sheryl Elen, Cathy Jonathan,
Sea Pearl Consortium, Broome, Australia; J. Peach, U.S. Diana Moran, and Ruth Patchick at the Richard T.
Pearl Co., Hermitage, Tennessee; Dr. F. Pezzotta, Museo Liddicoat Library and Information Center. We thank the
Civico di Storia Naturale, Milan, Italy; Philippine following individuals or organizations for supplying pho-
Association of Pearl Producers/Exporters (PAPPE); W. tographs used in this article: Argyle Diamonds, Perth,
Prentice, Finegems.com, Santa Barbara, California; D. Australia; Andrew Cody, Cody Opal (Australia) Pty.
Psomopoulos and D. Sauer, Amsterdam Sauer, Rio de Ltd., Melbourne, Australia; Tino Hammid, Los Angeles;
Janeiro, Brazil; R. Ringsrud, Ronald Ringsrud Co., Horst Krupp; Andy Muller; Nicholas Paspaley; William
Saratoga, California; C. Rosenthal, Rosenthal Pearls, Rohtert, Los Angeles; Jeff Scovil, Phoenix, Arizona; Maha
Manihi, French Polynesia; M. Sarosi, Marc Sarosi Co., Mill Tannous, GIA Gem Trade Laboratory, Carlsbad; Harold
Valley, California; K. Scarratt, AGTA Gemological and Erica Van Pelt, Los Angeles; and Robert Weldon,
Testing Center, New York; Y. Shelementiev, Moscow Philadelphia, Pennsylvania.
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GEMSTONE ENHANCEMENT
AND DETECTION IN THE 1990S
By Shane F. McClure and Christopher P. Smith
Gemstone enhancements and their disclosure

became the most important gemological issue
for the jewelry trade in the 1990s. Growing
public awareness of treatments and the greater
use of sophisticated technology to enhance the
A t the time the previous retrospective article on
gemstone enhancements was published by
Kammerling et al. (1990a), enhancement disclo-
sure was a concern of the jewelry industry, but it was still
not a major international focal point. Since then, the issue of
color and/or apparent clarity of gem materials disclosure has caused a major upheaval throughout the
brought to the forefront the need to maintain
trade, which has extended to all areas of the jewelry busi-
(or in some cases regain) the consumer confi-
ness, including diamonds (figure 1). In some cases, treat-
dence that is so vital to this industry. The
treatments with the greatest impact were ment disclosure—or the lack of it—has severely damaged
those that affected the gems that were com- the sale of certain gem materials by eroding the confidence
mercially most important: heat and diffusion of the consuming public in those gems. When consumers
treatment of ruby and sapphire, “oiling” of feel—rightly or wrongly—that a product is not being repre-
emeralds, and fracture filling of diamonds. At sented honestly, they are likely to stop buying that product.
the end of the decade, the decolorization of One of the most drastic of these situations in the 1990s
diamonds by high pressure and high tempera- concerned emeralds. As a result of several events during the
ture posed one of the greatest identification decade, consumers became aware that emeralds are routine-
challenges ever faced by gemologists world- ly fracture filled, a fact that retailers typically were not dis-
wide. Yet most other gem materials were also
closing. This new awareness coupled with the general lack
subjected to enhancements—ranging from tra-
of disclosure caused the public to feel that there must be
ditional processes as with quench-crackled
quartz to novel “impregnation” techniques something wrong with emeralds and they stopped buying
such as the Zachery treatment of turquoise. them, creating a precipitous drop in the sale and value of
This article discusses the treatments that were these stones (see, e.g., Shigley et al., 2000a).
new or prominent during the ‘90s and suggests This is just one example of events throughout the ‘90s
methods for their detection. that made the subject of treatments—what they involve,
how they can be identified, and how they should be dis-
closed—the most discussed gemological issue of the decade.
ABOUT THE AUTHORS
Many questions about treatment disclosure are still being
debated industry wide, and the answers are usually very
Mr. McClure ([email protected]) is director of
West Coast Identification Services at the GIA complex. For this reason, this article will not seek to address
Gem Trade Laboratory, Carlsbad, California. the many ethical issues that haunt the trade. Rather, we
Mr. Smith is director of the Gübelin Gem Lab, will describe those gem treatments or enhancements that
Lucerne, Switzerland.
were first reported on or commonly performed during the
Acknowledgments: The authors thank John
Koivula, Tom Moses, Alice Keller, and Brendan
last decade, and what can be done to detect them.
Laurs for their help in preparing this article. It is important to recognize that, for some of these
Gems & Gemology, Vol. 36, No. 4, pp. 336–359 enhancements, the detection methods needed have pro-
© 2000 Gemological Institute of America gressed far beyond the ability of most gemologists working
in the trade, primarily because the instrumentation required
336 Enhancement in the 1990s GEMS & GEMOLOGY Winter 2000

is often very sophisticated and expensive. We hope
that this article will provide sufficient information
to help a gemologist recognize when a stone may
have been enhanced by such a method, so that he or
she can determine whether it should be sent to a
laboratory that has the necessary equipment.
THERMAL ENHANCEMENT
Thermal enhancement, or heat treatment, continues
to be the most common type of treatment used for
gems. Heat-treated stones are stable, and the result
is permanent under normal conditions of wear and
care. Heat treatment can be identified in some gem
materials by routine gemological testing, and in oth-
ers only by the use of advanced laboratory instru-
mentation and techniques. In still other gems, heat
treatment is not identifiable by any currently known
method. By the 1980s, virtually every gem species
and variety known had been heated experimentally
to determine if its appearance could be favorably
altered. Many of the methods used both then and
now are crude by modern standards, yet they can be Figure 1. Gemstone enhancement and its disclo-
very effective. During the 1990s, applications of, or sure became a critical issue in the 1990s, affecting
improvements in, previously known technologies not only rubies (here, 6.38 ct), emeralds (4.81 ct),
resulted in new commercial treatments. Perhaps the and sapphires (6.70 ct), but colorless diamonds
most important of these is the use of high pressure (5.05 ct) as well. Photo by Shane F. McClure.
and high temperature (HPHT) to remove color in
some brown diamonds and produce a yellow to yel-
lowish green hue in others. These advances had a
significant impact on the jewelry industry, some enhancement was not the heat treatment itself, but
requiring the investment of enormous amounts of the mostly amorphous substances that were left
time and money to develop identification criteria. behind by the heating process in rubies (such features
Many gemstones—such as tanzanite, aquama- rarely have been encountered in sapphires). The dis-
rine, blue zircon, citrine, and the like—have been closure that such substances were present in fractures
subjected to heat treatment routinely for several and surface depressions caused a great deal of contro-
decades. Not only has the treatment of these stones versy in the industry, which contributed to the signif-
become the rule rather than the exception, but in icant drop in price of heat-treated rubies in the latter
most cases there is no way to identify conclusively half of the decade (see, e.g., Peretti et al., 1995; Shigley
that the gem has been treated. Therefore, heat treat- et al., 2000a). Many in the industry felt that this mate-
ment of these stones will not be discussed here. rial was only a by-product of the heating process
(Robinson, 1995), while others felt that it was put
Ruby and Sapphire. As was the case in the preced- there intentionally (Emmett, 1999). Still others main-
ing decade, the heat treatment of corundum tained that if fractures were being partially healed by
remained a serious issue for the colored stone indus- this process, they were being healed with synthetic
try around the world. This treatment was applied to ruby (Chalain, 1995). Back-scattered electron images
the vast majority of rubies and sapphires (figure 2) showed recrystallized corundum on the surface of one
during the ‘90s to: (1) remove or generate color, (2) heat-treated ruby (Johnson and McClure, 2000).
improve transparency by dissolving rutile inclu- Although the material within the fractures was typi-
sions, and/or (3) partially “heal” (i.e., close by the cally an artificial glass or similar substance, it was
recrystallization of corundum) or fill surface-reach- also found that natural inclusions could melt during
ing fractures or fill surface cavities. the heat treatment and leave behind similar residual
The primary concern that surrounded this by-products (see, e.g., Emmett, 1999).
Enhancement in the 1990s GEMS & GEMOLOGY Winter 2000 337

Figure 2. The vast
majority of rubies
and sapphires are
now routinely heat-
treated. The color or
clarity (or both) can
be improved in many
different types of
corundum by this
process. Photo by
Shane F. McClure.
This debate was fueled primarily by the discov- contain these materials. In fact, the filling of sur-
ery of large quantities of ruby near the town of face-reaching pits, cavities, and fractures with
Mong Hsu in the upper Shan State of Myanmar “glassy” solids was first identified in ruby from
(formerly Burma). Virtually all of this material had Mogok and various deposits in Thailand during the
to be heated to improve its quality, either by early 1980s (Kane, 1984).
removing the blue “cores” that typically occur As the decade began, glassy materials were seen
down the center of the crystals or by filling or par- less frequently at the surface of heat-treated rubies,
tially healing the many fractures (see, e.g., Peretti where they appeared as areas of lower surface luster
et al., 1995). The fluxes used during the heat-treat- in fractures and cavities. Recognizing that this was
ment process melt, flow into surface-reaching frac- the evidence many laboratories used to detect such
tures and cavities, and subsequently re-solidify on fillings, heat treaters and others in the trade began
cooling as an amorphous, vitreous solid (i.e., a to routinely immerse the rubies in hydrofluoric acid
glass). Because the fluxes can dissolve solid materi- to remove the surface material (figure 3). Conse-
al in the fractures or even part of the corundum quently, gemologists had to focus more on the
itself, the treatment process also may result in the material that was still present in the fractures
formation of polycrystalline and/or single-crystal within the interior of the stone, which is much
material in the fissure (see, e.g., Emmett, 1999). more difficult (if not impossible) to remove with
Currently, researchers and other gemologists are acids. Note that the amount of residual glassy
investigating the nature of the materials left behind material left in partially healed or filled fractures is
after the heating process in Mong Hsu ruby. It is typically minuscule.
important to note, however, that heat-treated At the beginning of this decade, gemological lab-
rubies from any locality (including Mogok) could oratories had vastly different policies (see below)

concerning the nomenclature used to disclose these addition to the more sophisticated control of tem-
substances, which included “glass,” “glassy,” “glass- perature and atmosphere, some electric furnaces
like,” or “a solid foreign substance.” In 1995, the were also equipped for elevated pressure (Karl
Asian Institute of Gemmological Sciences in Schmetzer, pers. comm., 2000). Such advanced
Bangkok became the first laboratory to introduce a techniques led to the successful heat treatment of
system to denote the amount of this material that blue sapphires from Mogok, which was previously
was present in a particular ruby. At the same time, not commonplace (Kenneth Siu, pers. comm.,
they introduced the term residue to denote this sub- 1997).
stance (Johnson, 1996a). Their system described the Heat treatment alters many of the properties and
presence of residue as minor, moderate, or signifi- internal characteristics of rubies and sapphires. For
cant. Most internationally recognized laboratories those laboratories that provide locality-of-origin deter-
have since adopted similar terminology. minations, such modifications—coupled with the
In fact, during this period, discussions took place greater number of corundum sources found during the
in the trade and among laboratories specifically to decade—only added to the complexity of determining
address these nomenclature issues. Nevertheless, it the geographic origin of a ruby or sapphire (see, e.g.,
will be very difficult for all international gemologi- Schwarz et al., 1996). However, a number of articles
cal laboratories to reach a consensus on how to pre- did address the techniques used and the effects of heat
sent or describe this form of treatment, because dif- treatment on sapphires from localities such as
ferent regions of the world have quite differing Kashmir (Schwieger, 1990), Sri Lanka (Ediriweera and
views on the subject. In the U.S., the trade demands Perera, 1991; Pemadasa and Danapala, 1994), Mon-
more open disclosure because of legal concerns (see, tana (Emmett and Douthit, 1993), Australia
e.g., Weldon, 1999a). On the opposite side of the (Themelis, 1995), and Mogok (Kyi et al., 1999).
spectrum are Southeast Asia and the Far East, Proving that a stone has not been heat treated is
where the trade typically wants little disclosure often no simple matter, and it may require a signifi-
(see, e.g., Hughes and Galibert, 1998). Between these cant amount of experience. Little new information
two is Europe, which traditionally follows the rules was published in the ‘90s concerning the identifica-
and regulations set out by CIBJO (International tion of this treatment in corundum. The criteria of
Confederation of Jewellery, Silverware, Diamonds, the ‘80s, most of which require the use of a micro-
Pearls and Stones [see Editions 1991 and 1997]). scope, still apply. These include spotty coloration,
All of these factors served to confuse people in the cottonball-like inclusions, broken or altered rutile
trade and consumers alike. They not only contribut- silk, internal stress fractures around solid inclusions,
ed to a dramatic decrease in the price of heated altered mineral inclusions, and chalky bluish to
rubies, but they also created greater demand for non- greenish white fluorescence to short-wave ultravio-
heated rubies and sapphires by the end of the decade. let radiation (see, e.g., Kammerling et al., 1990a). It
Besides the continuation of the heating practices has been suggested that enhancement can be effect-
described in the previous retrospective article ed in some rubies and sapphires by heating them at
(Kammerling et al., 1990a), there were some signifi- lower temperatures, which might not produce the
cant new developments during the 1990s relating to evidence normally seen in heat-treated corundum
the heat treatment of sapphire as well as ruby. First, (John Emmett, pers. comm., 2000). This would make
equipment became increasingly more advanced. In identification of the treatment even more difficult.
Figure 3. Rubies that have been

fracture filled with a glassy sub-
stance can be detected by the lower
luster in reflected light of the glassy
material within the fractures (left).
In the mid-‘90s it became common
for treaters or dealers to immerse
these stones in hydrofluoric acid to
remove this surface evidence (right).
Photomicrographs by Shane F.
McClure; magnified 40×.

Russia, had been produced in type Ia
diamonds by high pressure/high tem-
perature annealing techniques (figure 4).
On March 1, 1999, Lazare Kaplan International
subsidiary Pegasus Overseas Limited announced
that they planned to market diamonds that the
General Electric Company (GE) had enhanced by a
proprietary new process (Rapnet, 1999). GE scien-
tists soon confirmed that they were using HPHT
annealing to remove color from type IIa brown dia-
monds (figure 5; see box A of Moses et al., 1999).
This development sent a shockwave throughout the
international diamond industry (see, e.g., Barnard,
1999; Weldon, 1999b,c). Gemological and research
laboratories around the world soon began the task of
developing a means to detect these HPHT-enhanced
diamonds (see, e.g., Moses et al., 1999; Chalain et al.,
1999, 2000). Currently, several characteristics have
been identified that may indicate if a diamond has
been exposed to HPHT conditions. Unfortunately,
most are not within the scope of techniques avail-
able to the average gemologist, because they depend
Figure 4. The color enhancement of diamond
heavily on absorption and/or photoluminescence
moved to the forefront late in the decade, when spectral features present at low temperatures (see,
it was learned that new high pressure/high tem- e.g., Fisher and Spits, 2000; Reinitz et al., 2000b;
perature techniques had been developed that Smith et al., 2000). Nevertheless, the process may
could turn brown type IIa diamonds colorless produce some indications that are visible with a
and turn brown type Ia diamonds, similar to the microscope. These relate primarily to damage
rough diamonds shown here, yellow-green caused by the extreme conditions of the treatment,
(inset, 4.45 ct). Photo by Shane F. McClure; such as etched or frosted naturals, or fractures that
inset photo by Maha Tannous. are partially frosted or graphitized where they come
to the surface (figure 6). It must be emphasized that
these are indications only, and they may be difficult
to recognize for all but the most experienced
Diamond. The close of the decade witnessed a dra- observers.
matic new development in thermal enhancement. By the end of the decade, a number of different
Beginning in approximately 1996, intense yellow to groups in various countries were modifying the
greenish yellow to yellowish green type Ia diamonds color of diamonds by exposure to HPHT conditions
began to enter the international diamond market (see, e.g., Moses and Reinitz, 1999). The majority of
(see, e.g., Reinitz and Moses, 1997b). Soon thereafter these stones are the yellow to yellowish green type
it became known that the color in these diamonds, Ia diamonds, but more than 2,000 “decolorized”
which were primarily thought to have originated in type IIa diamonds had been seen in the GIA Gem
Figure 5. This 0.84 ct piece of type

IIa diamond rough was HPHT
annealed by General Electric for
GIA researchers. The original dark
(approximately equivalent to Fancy)
brown material (left) was changed
to approximately “G” color (right)
after being subjected to the process.
Photos by Elizabeth Schrader.

Trade Laboratory by the end of 2000. Most recently,
HPHT-processed pink type IIa diamonds and even a
limited number of blue type IIb diamonds have
appeared (Hall and Moses, 2000).
Tourmaline. The 1989 discovery of elbaite tourma-

line in Brazil’s Paraíba State revealed colors that had
never before been seen in this gem species. It was
soon determined that exposure to high tempera-
tures could produce a vivid blue or green hue in
some crystals from this deposit; the “emerald”
green was not known to occur naturally (Fritsch et
Figure 6. This fracture in an HPHT-annealed
al., 1990). The heat treatment of these tourmalines yellow-green diamond has partially graphitized,
(commonly referred to as “Paraíba” tourmaline) which is an indication that the stone has been
continued throughout the 1990s, even though finds subjected to high pressure/high temperature
of this material declined as the decade progressed. conditions. However, the presence of graphitiza-
Other types of tourmaline from various countries tion should not be construed as proof of treat-
also continued to be heat treated during the 1990s. ment. Photomicrograph by Shane F. McClure;
However, as with the Paraíba material, such treat- magnified 31×.
ment cannot be identified in these tourmalines by
standard gemological methods.
As is the case with many other materials, at this
Topaz. Pink topaz continues to be produced by time heat treatment in zoisite is not detectable in
exposing brownish yellow to orange “Imperial” most cases.
topaz from Brazil to elevated temperatures (figure
7). This color does occur naturally in topaz from a Amber. Several reports in the ‘90s described a kind
number of localities, including Brazil. of surface-enhanced amber, where a dark brown
The most recent report on the mining and heat layer of color is generated at a shallow depth by
treatment of Imperial topaz was done by Sauer et al. exposing the amber to controlled heating, up to
(1996). This article described a possible new test for
detecting heat treatment in topaz. The limited num-
ber of heated stones in this study showed a distinct
change in short-wave UV fluorescence from a very Figure 7. Heat treatment of brownish yellow to
weak to moderate chalky yellow-green in the orange Imperial topaz from Brazil changes the
untreated stones to a generally stronger yellowish or color of the material to pink, such as the piece
shown here on the lower left. The larger crystal
greenish white in the treated stones. As the authors
weighs 115.0 ct. Photo by Maha Tannous.
noted, more research is needed to determine the reli-
ability of this test.
Zoisite. Most people in the trade are now familiar

with the fact that the color of the vast majority of
tanzanite in the market is the result of the heat
treatment of brown zoisite. In 1991, however, trans-
parent green zoisite was discovered. Although the
finds to date have been relatively small and sporadic
at best, limited experimentation showed that only a
small percentage of this material responded to heat
treatment, changing from the original bluish green
through brownish green to a greenish blue. Barot
and Boehm (1992) suggested that green zoisite was
not routinely being heated because of the rarity of
this material.

and large diffusion-treated sapphires—some exceed-
ing 20 ct—were produced (e.g., Koivula and
Kammerling, 1991b). By the mid-‘90s, however,
interest in this material had declined dramatically
(Koivula et al., 1994). We believe that, for the most
part, these stones were being marketed and disclosed
properly, although there were several incidents of
diffusion-treated sapphires being “salted” in parcels
of natural-color blue sapphires (Brown and Beattie,
1991; Koivula et al., 1992d).
Identification of this material is best accom-
plished by immersing it in methylene iodide.
Figure 8. This heat-treated amber bead has been
ground down on opposite sides to show that the
Diffusion treatment in sapphires is characterized
color imparted by the treatment is confined to a by color concentrations along facet junctions,
thin surface layer. The dark brown hue fades on patchy surface coloration, and higher relief in
prolonged exposure to light. Photomicrograph immersion when compared to an untreated stone
by Shane F. McClure; magnified 10×. (Kane et al., 1990). It was recently reported that
some diffused sapphires do not show the character-
istic concentrations along facet junctions, which
are caused by the stones being repolished after
approximately 220°C (Crowningshield, 1993; treatment (Emmett, 1999). This was attributed to
Hutchins and Brown, 1996; Safar and Sturman, the possible use of a molten titanium-bearing flux
1998). In many cases, the interior of this material is instead of a powder, which could eliminate the
left almost colorless (figure 8). With prolonged expo- need for repolishing. Such stones can still be identi-
sure to light, however, the dark surface layer proved fied by the “bleeding” of color into surface-reaching
to be unstable, fading to a much lighter tone. features such as “fingerprints,” fractures, and cavi-
This treated amber can be recognized by a dull, ties, or by their characteristic higher relief in
chalky green fluorescence to long-wave UV, rather immersion.
than the stronger orange fluorescence of untreated The most significant new development in diffu-
material, as well as by the presence of numerous sion treatment during the decade was the introduc-
tiny gas bubbles in swirling clouds just below the tion of red diffusion-treated sapphire (often called
surface of the stone. diffusion-treated ruby), as described by McClure et
al. (1993). This type of diffusion treatment never
Other Gem Materials. It seems that people in our seemed to gain wide usage, probably because of the
trade have a fascination with exposing gemstones to difficulties inherent in diffusing chromium into the
heat, just to see what happens. Some examples of surface of corundum. These difficulties result in a
this reported during the past decade include chang- very shallow surface layer of color, as well as in
ing the color of blue benitoite to orange (Laurs et al., some unwanted colors such as purple and orange
1997), yellow chalcedony to carnelian (Brown et al., (Koivula and Kammerling, 1991f,g; McClure et al.,
1991), and rhodolite garnet to a more brownish 1993; Hurwit, 1998). One of the authors (CPS) was
color with a metallic oxide coating (Johnson and informed that when this material first came out,
Koivula, 1997a). several prominent ruby dealers in Bangkok paid
very high prices for diffusion-treated “rubies” that
DIFFUSION TREATMENT were represented as heated only.
Corundum. At the beginning of this decade, the Diffusion-treated “rubies” can be identified read-
trade witnessed a dramatic resurgence in diffusion- ily by their patchy or uneven surface coloration,
treated blue sapphire (e.g., Kane et al., 1990; Hargett, color concentrations along facet junctions, relative-
1991). This resurgence was attributed to a new tech- ly high relief in immersion (figure 9), very high sur-
nique that allowed for a much deeper penetration of face concentrations of chromium, very high refrac-
the diffused color, which came to be known as “deep tive index, patchy bluish white to yellowish white
diffusion” in the trade. For a time, these stones short-wave UV fluorescence, and atypical dichroism
seemed to have a certain degree of trade acceptance, (see, e.g., McClure et al., 1993).

Figure 9. Immersion
in methylene iodide
reveals the patchy
surface coloration,
color concentrations
along facet junctions,
and high relief (when
compared to untreat-
ed stones) of these
red diffusion-treated
sapphires. Photo by
Shane F. McClure.
Occasionally encountered were corundums that types of artificially irradiated gems appeared on the
owed their asterism, as well as their coloration, to market, although there were a number of changes or
diffusion treatment (e.g., Crowningshield, 1991, improvements made to the methods used with some
1995c; Johnson and Koivula, 1996c, 1997c). Even already well-known irradiated gems, such as blue
colorless synthetic corundum was diffusion treated topaz (Fournier, 1988; Skold et al., 1995). During this
(Koivula et al., 1994; Crowningshield, 1995b; decade, gemologists and gem laboratories continued
Johnson and Koivula, 1998a). to see irradiated gem materials, but very little of
what they saw was actually new.
Topaz. We first encountered what was being repre-
sented as “diffusion treated” topaz in 1997 (Johnson
and Koivula, 1998d). However, it is still not clear if
the cobalt-rich powders employed during the Figure 10. “Diffusion treated” green-to-blue
enhancement process actually diffuse into the lat- topaz (here, 4.50–5.86 ct) was first seen in the
tice of the topaz. Nevertheless, the green-to-blue late 1990s. While it has not yet been proved ade-
colors of this material (figure 10) are quite different quately that the color is actually diffused into
from the orange, pink, or red hues we have seen in these stones, the extremely shallow color layer is
as hard as topaz. Photo by Maha Tannous.
topaz colored by a surface coating (Johnson and
Koivula, 1998d; Hodgkinson, 1998; Underwood and
Hughes, 1999). The “diffusion treated” material is
easily identified by its spotty surface coloration.
The colored layer is as hard as topaz and is so thin
that no depth was visible in a prepared cross-sec-
tion, even at 210× magnification (Johnson and
Koivula, 1998d).
IRRADIATION
In the 1980s, experimental and commercial irradia-
tion played a significant role in the arena of gem-
stone treatment (Kammerling et al., 1990a). During
the following decade, however, the role of irradiation
diminished considerably when compared to other
forms of enhancement. In the 1990s, very few new

Radioactivity is a word that stirs particularly
strong emotions in the public at large. This is pri-
marily due to a widespread lack of understanding
concerning the various forms of irradiation and their
short-lived or long-lasting effects. If there is anything
that generates press quickly, it’s the detection of
residual radioactivity in an irradiated gem and the
potential threat to health it suggests. Diamond,
ruby, chrysoberyl, spodumene, and topaz are a few of
the gem materials that have shown residual radioac-
tivity after color enhancement by irradiation.
Diamond. Irradiation to improve or induce color in

diamond is generally performed on faceted stones,
because usually the need for color improvement can
be determined accurately only after a stone has been
cut. However, rough diamonds are also occasionally
irradiated. A 13.12 ct treated-color yellow rough dia-
mond was reported late in the decade (Reinitz, 1999).
Figure 11. The red color in this 0.55 ct synthetic Treatment of rough is a highly questionable practice,
diamond was produced by irradiation and sub-
since such material is often misrepresented. The fact
sequent annealing. Photo by Robert Weldon.
that some treatment methods produce only a shal-
low layer of color that can be removed easily on
faceting strongly suggests that the treatment is only
done to deceive.
Likewise, there was little progress in detection Unfortunately, most radiation-induced color pat-
methods. For many gems, no test or series of tests, terns in faceted diamonds, such as those produced
destructive or nondestructive, is currently available to by electron bombardment, are subtle and difficult to
establish whether they have been subjected to irradia- detect. Careful inspection with a gemological
tion. Unless the technique used produces a visually microscope, however, may show color zoning that
distinctive pattern in a treated stone, such as the is directly related to the facet shape of the diamond
“umbrella effect” seen around the culet of a cyclotron- (Fritsch and Shigley, 1989). Artificially irradiated
treated diamond, the use of irradiation to improve a diamonds that show subtle but diagnostic forms of
gemstone’s color still can be difficult or impossible to color zoning in blue to green (Hargett, 1990;
detect gemologically. For example, although treaters Hurwit, 1993; Moses and Gelb, 1998) and reddish
have used irradiation to produce intense pink-to-red purple (Reinitz and Moses, 1998) were encountered
colors in near-colorless to light pink tourmaline for regularly throughout the 1990s. Diffuse transmitted
many years, this well-known form of color enhance- light is useful in the detection of treatment in these
ment is still not detectable. This is also the case for stones if the light can be directed through the dia-
blue topaz, as well as for many other gem materials mond. To facilitate light transmission, total or par-
that are routinely irradiated. tial immersion of the diamond in methylene iodide
Yet another factor to consider in the detection of is often helpful.
any suspected means of treatment, including irradia- A number of treated pink to purplish pink dia-
tion, is economics. While it may be economically monds encountered in the ‘90s (Crowningshield
feasible and even imperative to attempt to detect irra- and Reinitz, 1995; King et al., 1996) did not show
diation-induced color enhancement in a fashioned color zoning that could be related to irradiation.
green diamond, the same is usually not the case with In such cases, both the diamond’s reaction to UV
respect to smoky quartz or blue topaz. The low value radiation (bright, chalky orange to both long- and
of the starting materials, and the limited potential short-wave) and its spectrum (sharp absorption lines
gain in value of those materials after color enhance- at 595, 617, and 658 nm) are distinctive of treat-
ment, does not warrant a significant expenditure in ment. Although irradiation-produced pink in dia-
laboratory time to attempt to detect the treatment. monds was previously rare and usually accidental

(Kammerling et al., 1990a), significant quantities of
laboratory-irradiated pink diamonds (typically melee-
size) appeared on the market in the latter half of
the decade.
Also encountered in the 1990s were diamonds
irradiated to such a dark green that they appeared
essentially opaque and black in all jewelry appli-
cations. These diamonds are identified by the fact
that they are dark green instead of the dark gray of
natural black diamonds, which is caused by inclu-
sions (Kammerling et al., 1990b). Some of these
“black” stones are treated in a nuclear reactor,
which can result in residual radioactivity. One
such treated diamond examined in the GIA labo-
ratory was sufficiently radioactive to render it
Figure 12. A characteristic property of irradiated
unlawful to sell for almost 37 years (Reinitz and
red synthetic diamonds is their short-wave UV
Ashbaugh, 1992). Another report on “black” irra- fluorescence, which typically shows a strong
diated diamonds stated that the residual radioac- green “cross” in the center of the stone sur-
tivity was related to metallic polishing residues in rounded by weak orange. Photomicrograph by
surface-reaching cracks that became radioactive John I. Koivula; magnified 15×.
when the stones were irradiated. Prolonged boil-
ing in acid removed the radioactive residues and
rendered these treated diamonds safe (Koivula et
al., 1992h).
Irradiation and annealing also can change syn- The isotopes responsible for the residual radioac-
thetic diamonds from yellow and brownish yellow tivity in these stones were not determined, so we do
to red (figure 11—Moses et al., 1993; Kammerling not know just how long the stones would remain
and McClure, 1995c). These treated synthetic radioactive. To date, no information has become
stones do not present significant identification prob- available as to the precise source of these rubies and
lems because they have distinctive spectra (the their original starting color.
same as for treated pink diamonds mentioned These radioactive rubies cannot be recognized by
above) and all the internal characteristics expected any standard gemological means. The only indica-
of synthetic diamonds. The short-wave UV fluores- tions are their brownish color and the black crust.
cence is particularly distinctive, as these treated- However, these indications are unreliable. For-
color red synthetic diamonds almost always show a tunately, we know of no further reports of these
bright green “cross” in the middle of the table with stones in the marketplace.
orange throughout the rest of the stone (figure 12;
Moses et al., 1993). Chrysoberyl. Yet another form of radioactive gem
material appeared in the 1990s. Hundreds of carats
Ruby. Radioactive rubies were new to the gem trade of cat’s-eye chrysoberyl of an unusual dark brown
in the 1990s. These stones first appeared on the color were sold at gem markets around the world.
market in Jakarta, Indonesia, and were reported in These cat’s-eyes showed a dangerous level of
the trade press in mid-1998 (“Indonesia: Irradiated radioactivity—50 times greater than that which is
ruby…,” 1998). Two of these stones were examined legally acceptable in the United States—and were
by Ken Scarratt at the AGTA Gemological Testing thought to have been treated in a nuclear facility in
Center, who subsequently loaned them to GIA for Indonesia (perhaps the same source as for the
photography and further study (Johnson and radioactive rubies described above). The original
Koivula, 1998c). The slightly brownish red stones starting material is believed to have come from
closely resembled rubies from East Africa. Both Orissa, India (Weldon, 1998b). All dark brown cat’s-
showed clear evidence of heat treatment and were eye chrysoberyls are suspect until they are tested for
partially coated with a black crust of unknown ori- radioactivity by a properly equipped gemological
gin that appeared dark brown along thin edges. laboratory.

No tests are presently available to detect the treat-
ment in these stones.
Beryl. Maxixe beryl, the dark blue beryl that owes

its color to natural or (usually) artificial irradiation,
appeared again in the 1990s, in at least one instance
as a substitute for tanzanite (Reinitz and Moses,
1997a). Another report reviewed its susceptibility to
fading (in most cases, dark blue is an unstable color
in beryl) and the gemological properties used to rec-
ognize this type of beryl (Wentzell and Reinitz,
1998).
DYEING
Figure 13. These two “Ocean Green” irradiated
topazes (3.00 and 3.13 ct) were originally the Although dyeing is one of the oldest treatments
same color, but after being taped to a south-fac- known, the 1990s witnessed a number of apparently
ing window for one day, the stone on the left new variations on beryl, corundum, jade, and opal,
lost almost all of its green component. Photo by among other gem materials. Especially convincing
Maha Tannous. were dyed quartz and quartzite imitations of gems
such as amethyst and jadeite. At the same time, the
proliferation of inexpensive cultured pearls brought
with it a multitude of colors produced by dyes.
Topaz. Large amounts of irradiated blue topaz con-
tinued to be seen in the international gem market. Beryl. In addition to the standard dyeing techniques
Irradiated green topaz with unstable color (figure used to enhance pale green beryls to an emerald color
13) was reported (see, e.g., Koivula et al., 1992f; or colorless beryl to aquamarine (e.g., quench crack-
Ashbaugh and Shigley, 1993). It was marketed ling, or drill holes coated with dye; Koivula et al.,
under the trade name Ocean Green Topaz. Because 1992b), the market saw the continued use of green
the color is produced by irradiation in a nuclear oils and the introduction of green Opticon as fracture
reactor, like other reactor-treated gems this green fillers (Koivula and Kammerling, 1991a). Using a
topaz has the potential to be radioactive. The color combination of heat (to increase porosity and thus
ranges from light to medium tones of yellowish color penetration) and dye, Dominique Robert of
and brownish green through a more saturated green Switzerland turned massive beryl with intergrown
to blue-green. On exposure to one day (or less) of quartz into imitations of ornamental materials such
sunlight, the green component fades, leaving a typi- as charoite and sugilite, as well as turquoise and coral
cal blue topaz color. The relative tone and satura- (Koivula et al., 1992e). As is the case with most dyed
tion remain the same. stones, the treatment was readily identifiable by the
The original starting material is said to have presence of dye concentrations in the fractures.
come from Sri Lanka. Green topaz has been report-
ed to occur in nature, but it is very rare. With this in Corundum. Although the red staining of quartz that
mind, any green topaz should be suspected of some has been heated and quenched (“crackled”) to induce
kind of treatment. fissures dates back hundreds of years, for the first
time gemologists identified corundum in which frac-
Quartz. Pale gray cat’s-eye quartz was being irradi- tures had been induced and the pale sapphires then
ated to a dark brown to enhance the appearance of dyed a purplish red. These stones were recognized by
the chatoyancy by having the bright, reflective, the irregular color distribution and the presence of a
inclusion-caused “eye” appear against a dark back- yellow fluorescence confined to the stained frac-
ground (Koivula et al., 1993a). Also reported was the tures; they also lacked the red fluorescence and Cr
gamma irradiation (followed by heat treatment) of lines in the spectroscope that are characteristic of
colorless quartz to produce colors ranging from ruby (Schmetzer et al., 1992). A similar process was
green through yellow and orange to brown (Pinheiro also seen in dyed natural star corundum (Schmetzer
et al., 1999). All of the colors were stable to light. and Schupp, 1994). Dyed red beads examined in the

GIA Gem Trade Laboratory responded to a simple
acetone test; removal of the dye from one bead
revealed that it originally was a pale green sapphire
(Crowningshield and Reinitz, 1992).
Jadeite. Colored substances have been used to fill

cavities in bleached and impregnated jadeite (John-
son and McClure, 1997b). These fillers are readily
visible with a microscope.
Of particular concern was the identification of
dye in a green jadeite bangle that did not show the
typical dye band with the handheld spectroscope
(Johnson et al., 1997). This piece first aroused suspi-
cion when the expected absorption bands for Figure 14. Careful microscopic examination
chromium were not seen in the spectroscope. The revealed dye concentrations in this piece of
bangle was of sufficient color that these bands jadeite, which did not show the dye spectrum
should have been present if the color was natural, typical of this type of material. Photomicro-
so the piece was examined very carefully with a graph by Shane F. McClure; magnified 34×.
microscope. Fortunately, in this case the dye was
evident as color concentrations along grain bound-
aries (figure 14).
they were dyed. Other indications of silver nitrate
Opal. Because of its porosity, opal has long been staining include damage to the nacre layers or, occa-
subjected to enhancements such as the “sugar” sionally, a dimpled surface (Moses, 1994). Of partic-
treatment commonly used on Andamooka material ular concern toward the end of the decade was the
to darken the background so the play-of-color is prevalence of dyed “golden” South Sea cultured
more prominent (see, e.g., Brown, 1991). During the pearls. Unfortunately, the natural or treated origin
1990s, however, we also saw opal darkened by silver of these pearls often cannot be determined (“Pearl
nitrate (similar to the treatment used to produce treatments...,” 1998). Whereas the colors of dyed
black in pearls). As with the sugar-treated material, saltwater pearls are usually fairly limited (black,
the silver nitrate treatment is evidenced by the pres- brown, dark green, and “golden”), freshwater cul-
ence of dark irregular specks (Koivula et al., 1992i). tured pearls have been dyed in a wide array of hues,
In still another process, opal-cemented sandstone is including “silver,” “bronze,” and bright “pistachio”
soaked in an organic solution and then carbonized
at temperatures over 500°C to produce an attractive
carving material (Keeling and Townsend, 1996).
Particularly interesting was the introduction of dark
Figure 15. This cultured pearl was turned black
blue enhanced opal, produced by soaking a highly with a metallic oxide, most likely by the use of a
porous chalky white hydrophane opal in a mixture silver nitrate solution. Photo by Jennifer Vaccaro.
of potassium ferrocyanide and ferric sulfate (Koivula
et al., 1992c). This material looks black to the
unaided eye, but strong transmitted light reveals its
unnatural dark blue body color.
Pearls. Numerous examples of black cultured salt-

water pearls that had been dyed with a silver nitrate
solution (figure 15) were seen during the ‘90s,
including some mixed with natural black pearls in a
fine necklace (DelRe, 1991). The treated pearls were
first spotted by the lower contrast on the X-ray film
between the shell bead and the nacre; their chalky
green appearance to long-wave UV confirmed that

fact, many of these issues have continued into the
new millennium.
Diamond. Clarity enhancement of diamonds by

fracture filling began in the late 1980s, with the first
comprehensive article on the subject published by
Koivula et al. (1989). This first article focused on the
product from Yehuda Diamond Corp., the only
company performing this treatment at the time.
Five years later, another comprehensive article
(Kammerling et al., 1994b) dealt not only with the
then-current Yehuda product, but also with filled
Figure 16. Quartzite dyed green to imitate diamonds from newer players in this field, especial-
jadeite, as illustrated by these 8 mm beads, was ly Koss and Goldman-Oved (figure 17).
commonly seen in the 1990s. Photo by Maha Clarity enhancement of diamonds became a seri-
Tannous.
ous issue when the lack of disclosure by certain
U.S. retailers led to devastating exposés in the
national media (see, e.g., “Everyone’s best friend,”
green (Johnson and Koivula, 1999). In many cases 1993). In particular, two St. Louis jewelers were
these dyed pearls can be identified by their unnatu- accused of selling filled diamonds without disclos-
ral color alone, or by the presence of dye concentra- ing the treatment (“Five on your side,” 1993), which
tions around drill holes or just under the surface of eventually led to the destruction of their business
the pearls. and even the tragic death of one of them (“Rick
Chotin…,” 1994).
Quartz. For literally thousands of years, quartz has The key identifying feature for fracture-filled dia-
been quench-crackled and dyed to imitate more valu- monds remains the flash effect: the different colors
able gem materials such as ruby and emerald. During seen when the fracture is viewed at an angle nearly
the last decade, we observed for the first time quartz parallel to its length, first in darkfield and then in
beads that had been quench-crackled and dyed to brightfield. Colors seen perpendicular to the frac-
imitate amethyst (Reinitz, 1997b). In at least one ture are not flash colors and are due to diffraction
sample, green dye had been mixed with an epoxy within feathers that most often contain only air.
resin such as Opticon before it was introduced into The 1994 article by Kammerling et al. showed that
the quench-crackled stone (Koivula et al., 1992j). while the identifying features of filled diamonds
Of particular interest were unusual dyed quartzites from the three manufacturers were similar in many
(a metamorphic rock composed primarily of quartz respects, there were differences in the intensity and
grains) in colors such as purple (to imitate sugilite; hue of the flash colors from one product to another;
Reinitz and Johnson, 1998). One of the most convinc- however, no flash effect was sufficiently unique to
ing of such imitations was quartzite dyed to imitate identify a particular manufacturer. This was also
jadeite, both lavender (Koivula and Kammerling, the case with other microscopic features typical of
1991c) and green (figure 16; Kammerling, 1995a). As filled stones, such as trapped gas bubbles, areas of
with most dyed gems, though, dye concentrations in incomplete filling (particularly at the surface), and
the fractures and between grains provided a strong cloudy fillings.
indication of treatment. A number of other studies concerning clarity
enhancement of diamonds were published during
CLARITY ENHANCEMENT the first half of the 1990s (Scarratt, 1992; Nelson,
The previous retrospective article titled this section 1993, 1994; Sechos, 1994; McClure and Kammerling,
“Oiling/Fracture Filling.” Since that time, it has 1995). All were aimed at disseminating the identifi-
become commonplace to refer to such treatments as cation criteria for this treatment to as many people
clarity enhancement, because that is the objective. in the trade as possible.
As mentioned in the introduction to this article, the Also noteworthy was the discovery that rough
issue of disclosure of clarity enhancement had some diamonds were being filled and then shipped to
damaging effects on the trade during the 1990s. In Africa to be sold (Even-Zohar, 1992). This obvious

Figure 17. Clarity enhancement
of diamonds can be very effec-
tive, as illustrated by these
before (left) and after (right)
views of a 0.20 ct diamond that
was treated by the Goldman-
Oved Company. Photomicro-
graphs by Shane F. McClure.
attempt to defraud buyers was quickly condemned eler was not told that the stone had been clarity
by the diamond industry, and a resolution was enhanced and did not take the time to look at the
eventually passed by the combined leadership of the diamond with magnification for the telltale signs.
International Diamond Manufacturers Association Such were the circumstances with a 3.02 ct dia-
and the World Federation of Diamond Bourses that mond that was eye clean before the jeweler started
prohibited the filling of rough or the selling of filled repair work on the ring in which it was mounted
rough (Even-Zohar, 1994). (Hargett, 1992b). The large, eye-visible fractures that
Filled fractures were observed in several colors of appeared in the center of the stone when the
fancy diamonds, including yellow (McClure and mounting was heated created a difficult situation
Kammerling, 1995), pink (Reinitz, 1997a), and for the jeweler. This scenario has been played out
brown (Sechos, 1995). The yellow-to-orange flash many times since then. A later report described
effect normally seen in darkfield illumination was filler material that actually boiled out of the frac-
almost not visible in the yellow diamond, although tures and deposited on the surface of the diamond
the dark blue brightfield flash color stood out quite in small droplets (Johnson and McClure, 1997a).
nicely on the yellow background. The color appear-
ance of the pink diamond improved as the numer- Emerald. There has never been a better example of
ous large fractures in the stone were made transpar- the impact that a gem treatment can have on the
ent by the treatment. jewelry business than what occurred with emeralds
Variations in the flash effect were reported occa- during the last decade. Even though emeralds have
sionally. One diamond showed a vivid blue flash undergone some sort of clarity enhancement for
color that resembled a dark “navy” blue ink splotch centuries (figure 18), not until the 1990s did this
(Hargett, 1992a). In some filled diamonds, the flash treatment and its disclosure become a critical issue
colors are so subtle as to be easily overlooked; in for the trade. A series of unfortunate events created
such cases, the use of fiber-optic illumination is a loss of consumer confidence, particularly in the
invaluable (Kammerling and McClure, 1993a). United States, that had a devastating effect on the
Conversely, another note reported flash colors that emerald market. Bad press in the form of high-pro-
were so strong as to appear pleochroic in polarized file lawsuits, and local and national television
light (Johnson, 1996b). exposés on programs such as Dateline NBC
Johnson et al. (1995) reported a filling material (“Romancing the stone,” 1997), contributed to this
with an unusual chemical composition: It con- problem, but they were certainly not the only
tained thallium in addition to the more typical trace cause. One noted emerald dealer pointed out that
elements found in fillers, Pb and Br. They speculat- this lack of consumer confidence started in 1989,
ed that this might have been one of the earlier filled when a synthetic resin called “palm oil” or “palma”
diamonds, as there were rumors that some of the became prevalent for fracture filling in Colombia
first fillers contained thallium. (Ringsrud, 1998). He attributed the problem to the
Even though much has been published about the fact that this substance, which has an R.I. of 1.57,
inability of diamond filler materials to withstand hides fractures too efficiently and is notoriously
heat, gemological laboratories commonly see filled unstable. He estimated that in approximately 20%
diamonds that were damaged during jewelry repair of the stones treated with “palm oil,” the filler
procedures. In almost all cases seen to date, the jew- would turn white and become translucent in only a

Figure 18. Clarity enhancement
of emeralds has been done for
centuries, but it became a signif-
icant issue for the trade in the
1990s. Many saw the dramatic
effect this treatment can have on
an emerald for the first time
with the publication of photos
that showed stones before
enhancement (left) and after
(right). Photos by Maha Tannous.
few months, so that fractures that had been virtual- claims regarding their ability to hold up under nor-
ly invisible became obvious to the unaided eye. One mal conditions of wear and care. In fact, this fea-
can only speculate as to the potential impact of ture has been the focus of marketing efforts by sev-
such deterioriation on the consumer, who probably eral of the treaters who offer hardened resins
was not told the emerald had been filled at the time (Johnson and Koivula, 1997b; Weldon, 1998a;
of purchase. “New type of epoxy resin,” 1998; Fritsch et al.,
These and other aspects of the issue were heavi- 1999a; Roskin, 1999).
ly debated in the trade press (see, e.g., Bergman, An interesting development during this debate
1997; Federman, 1998; Schorr, 1998). Three major came when many in the industry claimed that a
concerns surfaced: (1) what types of fillers were desirable feature of a filler would be the ability to
being used, (2) how permanent or durable each filler remove it. Because some of these resins decompose
was, and (3) how much filler was present in any and turn white or cloudy with time, dealers recog-
given stone. nized that they eventually would need to be
The types of fillers being used for clarity removed so that the stones could be retreated. This
enhancement of emeralds have expanded dramati- was a valid concern, as attempts to remove these
cally during the last decade. Kammerling et al. unstable fillers often have been unsuccessful
(1991) noted that in addition to traditional fillers (Themelis, 1997; Hänni, 1998).
such as cedarwood oil, treaters had started to use Also during this decade, a number of laboratories
epoxy resins, the most popular of these being maintained that they could comfortably make the
Opticon. This article also mentioned that propri- distinction between specific types of fillers and
etary filling substances were being developed by began to offer such a service (see, e.g., Hänni et al.,
several other companies (Zvi Yehuda Ltd. of Israel, 1996; Weldon, 1998c; Hänni, 1998, 1999; Kiefert et
CRI Laboratories of Michigan, and the Kiregawa al., 1999). Others believe that while these fillers
Gemological Laboratory of Japan). may be separated into broad categories, it can be dif-
Since that time, many other fillers have been ficult or even impossible to identify mixed fillers or
introduced, and the infamous “palm oil” was iden- stones that have been treated multiple times with
tified as probably being the liquid epoxy resin different fillers (Johnson et al., 1999).
Araldite 6010 (Johnson et al., 1999). Treaters also In light of this debate, many have suggested that
started to use hardened epoxy resins, with the idea the amount of filler in a given emerald is perhaps
that they would be more durable than the liquid more important than the kind of filler used
materials, which tended to leak out over time. The (Johnson and Koivula, 1998b; Drucker, 1999). Thus,
formulas for these resins are considered proprietary many laboratories offer a service that classifies the
and carry names such as Gematrat, Permasafe, and degree of enhancement. In most cases, the system
Super Tres. uses four or more classifications, such as none,
The durability of the individual fillers remains minor, moderate, and significant (see, e.g.,
the subject of ongoing research. There is little McClure et al., 1999).
debate as to the nonpermanence of “palm oil” or The criteria used to detect fillers in emeralds
cedarwood oil (see, e.g., Kammerling et al., 1991; have been described at length by various
Federman, 1998; Kiefert et al., 1999). However, researchers (see, e.g., Johnson and Koivula, 1998b;
those who use other fillers have made various Hänni, 1999). These criteria primarily consist of

flash effects (figure 19), incomplete areas of filling
or gas bubbles (figure 20), and whitish or deteriorated
filler within the fractures—all of which can be seen
with magnification.
Additional information about emerald fillers was
published throughout the decade. Hughes
Associates, the manufacturer of Opticon, reported
that the refractive index of Opticon can range from
1.545 to 1.560, depending on the amount of harden-
er added (Koivula et al., 1993b). The chemistry of
fillers was closely examined to determine if it could
be an aid in identification (Johnson and
Muhlmeister, 1999). Unfortunately, the answer was
no. The new hardened filler Permasafe was charac- Figure 19. The flash effect is one feature that can
terized by Fritsch et al. (1999a). Early on, two be used to identify if an emerald has been filled.
Brazilian dealers reported that some treaters were The two most common colors, orange and blue,
adding a green coloring agent to Opticon (Koivula are seen in this stone in a fracture that is other-
and Kammerling, 1991a), a practice that is not wise almost invisible. Photomicrograph by Maha
acceptable in the trade. Tannous; magnified 15×.
Other Gem Materials. Of course, it was inevitable

that clarity enhancement would find its way into
other gem species. We know of two reported inci- behind voids in the structure of the jadeite, which
dences in the ‘90s: one in alexandrite (Kammer- make the grain boundaries of the aggregate material
ling and McClure, 1995a), and the other in a readily visible, and many fractures may appear. Not
pyrope-almandine garnet (Kammerling and only do these voids and fractures adversely affect
McClure, 1993b). the translucency of the gem material, but they also
can affect the durability of the jadeite, so that it is
IMPREGNATION more susceptible to breakage (Fritsch et al., 1992).
Impregnation of porous gem materials with different It is because of these adverse effects that the sec-
kinds of polymers to improve their appearance or
durability has been widespread for many years. The
1990s saw major developments concerning the use
of this treatment technique on a number of impor- Figure 20. Another feature that can help deter-
tant gem materials. mine whether an emerald has been filled is the
presence of gas bubbles or unfilled areas within
Jadeite. The most significant gem material affected a very low relief fracture. Photomicrograph by
by impregnation during the last decade was jadeite. Shane F. McClure; magnified 22×.
The treatment process, which is often referred to as
“bleaching,” caused such an uproar in the jade
industry that jadeite sales in Japan fell as much as
50% over a three-month period in the beginning of
the decade (“New filler threatens jadeite sales in
Japan,” 1991).
“Bleaching” actually involves a two-step pro-
cess. First the jadeite is immersed in an acid to
remove the brown iron oxide staining that is so
common in this material. This staining gives the
stone a brown coloration that is less desirable and
therefore detrimental to its value. The result after
“bleaching” is a color such as pure green or green
and white. Unfortunately, this process leaves

The origins of this treatment lie somewhere in
the mid-1980s, and an early report was given by
Hurwit (1989). The beginning of the ‘90s saw an
explosion of bleached jadeite on the market. Since
no in-depth studies had been done on the material
at that time, there were no procedures in place to
identify it. Once this became widely known, and
all jadeite became suspect, the price of jadeite
plummeted.
The first comprehensive study on the identifica-
tion of bleached and impregnated jadeite was pub-
lished by Fritsch et al. (1992). These researchers
found that the only conclusive way to detect if a
Figure 21. All of these jadeite cabochons have piece had been treated was to examine its infrared
been bleached and subsequently impregnated spectrum for the telltale “signature” of the polymer
with a polymer to improve their appearance. filler. Subsequently, a number of other identifica-
The overall result is usually quite effective. tion methods were described, such as the use of X-
Photo by Maha Tannous. ray photoelectron spectroscopy (Tan et al., 1995)
and diffuse reflectance Fourier-transform infrared
(FTIR) spectroscopy (Quek and Tan, 1997), as well
as the use of a simple drop of acid (described in
ond step of the process is necessary: The “bleached” Fritsch et al., 1992, and elaborated in Hodgkinson,
jadeite is impregnated with a polymer (usually an 1993). Some of these methods were even used to
epoxy resin) to fill the voids and return the stone to identify polystyrene as one of the polymers used
an acceptable translucency (figure 21). This addition (Quek and Tan, 1998). However, infrared spec-
of a foreign material created the need for a new clas- troscopy remains the easiest test to perform, provid-
sification of jadeite. The bleached and polymer- ed one has the necessary equipment. By the end of
impregnated material came to be known as “B the decade, several jadeite dealers had purchased an
jade.” “A jade” refers to jadeite that has not been FTIR spectrophotometer so they could personally
treated at all, and “C jade” is used for dyed jadeite. test all the jadeite they handle.
It was also noted early on that the structural
damage caused by the bleaching process could be
seen in reflected light with a microscope (figure
Figure 22. Structural damage caused by the bleach- 22—Ou-Yang, 1993; Moses and Reinitz, 1994;
ing process is clearly seen in this treated jadeite. Johnson and DeGhionno, 1995). This surface tex-
Also visible is a large fracture filled with the ture has been referred to as having an etched or
impregnating polymer. Photomicrograph by Shane honeycomb-like appearance, which is a manifesta-
F. McClure; magnified 30×. tion of the gaps or voids left between the individual
grains in the jadeite structure. Articles were pub-
lished on the use of a scanning electron microscope
to study and document this phenomenon so that it
might be used as an aid in identification (Tay et al.,
1993, 1996).
Tests conducted on the durability of this materi-
al found that long-term exposure to detergents
could damage or remove some of the filler. Also,
heating at 250°C can turn the treated jadeite brown
(Johnson and Koivula, 1996b).
Some particularly unusual examples were
reported: a bangle bracelet with internal gas bubbles
generated by the filling of cavities that were created
when the acid etched out carbonates within the

Figure 23. These
turquoise cabochons
were treated by the
Zachery process,
which decreases the
porosity of the materi-
al, making it less like-
ly to discolor with
time and wear. Photo
by Maha Tannous.
jadeite (Koivula, 1999), a necklace that had a mix- there is no evidence that it adds any polymers or
ture of treated and untreated jadeite beads other foreign material. The end result is turquoise
(Kammerling, 1995b), and the first reported instance that does not absorb oils or other liquids during
of a bleached and polymer-impregnated lavender wear and therefore does not discolor, as most natu-
jadeite (Kammerling et al., 1994a). ral turquoise does in time. The turquoise can be
The most important thing for the gemologist to treated without changing its original color, or the
remember about this treatment is that it can be color can be darkened, depending on the wishes of
identified conclusively only by sophisticated means the client.
such as infrared spectroscopy. There may be some Regardless of the actual enhancement mecha-
indications, such as a yellow fluorescence, low spe- nism, the only way to prove conclusively that an
cific gravity, or coarse surface texture, but these do individual piece of turquoise has been treated by
not prove that a piece of jadeite has been treated. this process is through chemical analysis, since
Zachery-treated turquoise usually has an elevated
Turquoise. Turquoise is notorious for being impreg- potassium content. Visual indications of this treat-
nated. Because its inherent porosity makes it sub- ment include a slightly unnatural color, a very high
ject to discoloration from wear, treatment is very polish, and blue color concentrations along surface-
common. As one might expect, impregnation of reaching fractures (figure 24).
turquoise with plastics (Kammerling, 1994a,b) and
oils (Koivula et al., 1992g, 1993c) was still prevalent Opal. While there were no new advances in the
in the 1990s. impregnation or “stabilization” of some kinds of
The most significant turquoise treatment that matrix opal, which has been a common practice for
came to light in the ‘90s may not be an impregnation many years, there were a few other notable develop-
at all. Called Zachery treatment after the man who ments with regard to opal.
developed it, this process actually was introduced in The hydrophane opal mentioned in the Dyeing
the late 1980s, although the first major study did not section, which was treated to resemble Australian
appear until 1999 (Fritsch et al., 1999b). During this black opal, was also impregnated with a plasticized
decade, millions of carats of Zachery-treated liquid to seal the porosity and improve the trans-
turquoise entered the trade (figure 23). parency after the dyeing process (Koivula et al.,
The process is still a closely guarded secret, so 1992c).
exactly how it effects the change in turquoise is not Impregnated synthetic opal appeared on the mar-
completely understood. We do know that Zachery ket during this decade. It is not difficult to identify,
treatment reduces the porosity of turquoise, but because the specific gravity (around 1.80–1.90) is

The surface coating of colorless topaz was wide-
spread, with different processes being used by the
end of the decade. Orange, pink, and red material
(see, e.g., figure 25) showed a spotty surface col-
oration (detected with low magnification) that was
easily scratched by a sharp object. Although the pro-
cess was originally represented as diffusion treat-
ment, these colors (unlike the green-to-blue surface-
treated topaz described in the earlier Diffusion
Treatment section) were probably produced by sput-
ter coating (Johnson and Koivula, 1998d).
Thin metallic coatings remained popular for
treating both quartz and topaz, as crystals and as
faceted stones (figure 26). Microscopic examination
of gold-coated blue to greenish blue “Aqua
Figure 24. Although Zachery treatment can be Aura”–treated samples, which made their debut in
proved only through chemical analysis, the pres- the late 1980s, revealed unnatural coloration at
ence of color concentrations along fractures in the
facet junctions and an irregular color distribution on
turquoise is a good indication. Photomicrograph
some facets (figure 27—Koivula and Kammerling,
by Shane F. McClure; magnified 10×.
1990a; Kammerling and Koivula, 1992). Durability
testing of these gemstones showed that even though
the coating is relatively hard and chemically inert
(Koivula and Kammerling, 1990a), care must be
too low for untreated material (Kammerling and taken to avoid damage during jewelry manufactur-
McClure, 1995b; Kammerling et al., 1995; Fritsch, ing or repair (Koivula and Kammerling, 1991d).
1999). However, controversy arose when some in New colors and effects were created in coated
the trade objected to the use of the term synthetic quartz by using different combinations of metallic
in association with this material, because it is elements. These included purple, yellow, green, and
impregnated with plastic. This nomenclature issue red hues created by Au, Bi, Pb, Cr, Ti, and other ele-
is still being investigated and discussed. ments (Johnson and Koivula, 1996a), as well as a
“rainbow” iridescence that was reportedly caused
SURFACE COATINGS
Changing the color of gem materials by the use of
colored surface coatings was a very popular treat-
ment throughout the 1990s, as it has been for cen-
turies. We continue to see different kinds of coat- Figure 25. These topazes were originally repre-
ings on various gems, sometimes to imitate more sented as being diffusion treated, but they actu-
valuable stones and sometimes to create a unique ally were coated with a color layer that was eas-
look not associated with a natural material. ily scratched off. The pink stone is 3.19 ct and
the red one, 3.29 ct. Photo by Maha Tannous.
Plastic remained a popular coating substance. To
improve transparency and luster, treaters used both
plastic and wax to coat jadeite (Koivula and Kam-
merling, 1990b, 1991i). Plastic also provided stability
to fossilized ammonite that was unstable due to nat-
ural frost shattering in surface deposits (Koivula and
Kammerling, 1991h). A transparent colored plastic
coating was used to impart an emerald-like appear-
ance to beads fashioned from light green beryl
(Crowningshield, 1995a). The presence of air bubbles
and abnormal surface irregularities visible with mag-
nification, as well as reaction to a “hot point,” are
the best means to identify this type of coating.

by an Ag/Pt coating (Koivula and Kammerling,
1990e). A colorless sapphire with a yellowish orange
coating that was seen in the early 1990s also might
have been treated by such a process (Moses and
Reinitz, 1991).
The demand for certain colors of sapphire led to
the resurfacing of some “old tricks” in Sri Lanka
that used organic compounds to create surface coat-
ings (Koivula and Kammerling, 1991b). Pale or col-
orless rough was turned yellow by boiling in water
(sometimes with wax added) that contained the
branches or bark of a local tree. Some Sri Lankans
took a similar “low-tech” approach to imitate pink
sapphire rough: The treater placed the pale or color-
less sapphire in his mouth along with a local berry,
chewed the berry to create the pink coating, and fol- Figure 26. Aqua Aura treatment was still used
lowed this by smoking a cigarette (which reportedly extensively on quartz (the two inside stones)
improves the durability of the coating). These treat- and topaz (the two outside stones) throughout
ments may seem unimportant, but to the gem the ‘90s. Photo by Robert Weldon.
buyer alone in a remote area of Sri Lanka, knowing
about them could mean the difference between a
successful trip and a disaster.
Coated diamonds were still encountered in the was to improve the luster and overtone of the
laboratory during the 1990s, although less frequent- white mabe pearls. A spotty, uneven color distribu-
ly. One such stone showed a brownish purple-pink tion suggested the presence of an enhancement, but
color that rarely occurs naturally in diamonds only by disassembling a sample could the coating
(Crowningshield and Moses, 1998). Although the be confirmed.
exact nature of the coating substance could not be To produce a dark background and thus bring
identified, its speckled appearance over the entire out the play-of-color, opal was subjected to several
stone suggested a sputtering process. Diamond-like coatings, including: (1) black paint on the base of
carbon (DLC)—an amorphous brown material with diaphanous opal from Australia (Brown et al., 1991),
a hardness between that of diamond and corun-
dum—was used experimentally at the beginning of
the decade to coat several gemstones, which result-
ed in greater durability (Koivula and Kammerling, Figure 27. Aqua Aura treatment is easily detected
1991e). More recently, DLC was identified on a by the presence of unnatural surface coloration on
treated-color “black” diamond by Raman analysis; the facets of a stone. Photomicrograph by John I.
researchers used the same method to tentatively Koivula; magnified 12×.
identify a carbide compound on a treated-color
green diamond (Reinitz et al., 2000a).
New pearl coatings presented some significant
identification challenges in the 1990s. A strand of
lustrous black circled cultured pearls was found to
be coated with a form of silicone called poly-
dimethyl siloxane (Hurwit, 1999). A peculiar
smoothness, sticky feel, and slight anomalous reac-
tion to a thermal reaction tester were the only
clues to the presence of the coating; advanced tech-
niques were needed to identify it. Mabe assembled
blister pearls also were coated, but Hurwit (1991)
reported that the lacquer coating was applied to the
plastic dome under the layer of nacre. The effect

(2) a dark plastic-like material on portions of a als—continues to challenge many gemologists.
Mexican opal (Koivula and Kammerling, 1990c), Within the last year, we have already seen signifi-
and (3) sugar-treated opal that appeared to be further cant new developments in the laser drilling of dia-
coated with a plastic-like substance (Koivula and monds (McClure et al., 2000), as well as in the
Kammerling, 1990d). All of these coatings were material used to fill fractures in diamonds (Shigley
readily apparent with microscopic examination. et al., 2000b). In addition, there has been recent talk
Two other relatively isolated occurrences of of new filling processes that will bring true clarity
coatings deserve mention. A brittle glass-like coat- enhancement to higher-refractive-index colored
ing was responsible for the dark violet-blue color stones such as ruby, sapphire, and alexandrite
of some drilled quartz beads (Kammerling and (Arthur Groom, pers. comm., 2001). Also, the tech-
McClure, 1994). This coating, possibly applied by nology being used to create the “diffusion treated”
an enameling process, was identified though a blue-green topaz can be applied to other gem mate-
combination of microscopic examination of the rials, and it is likely that some of these will reach
drill holes, hardness testing, and advanced tech- the market in the future. One of the authors (SFM)
niques. Koivula et al. (1992a) noted that acrylic has already seen colorless quartz turned pink by this
spray could be used to enhance the luster of mas- process. All of these developments will undoubted-
sive gem materials such as lapis lazuli and jadeite. ly create more identification challenges.
Such a coating is easily identified: With magnifica- Some of the issues regarding disclosure may not
tion, slight concentrations are seen in surface have solutions that will be agreeable to everyone in
irregularities, and the acrylic can be easily the industry. However, there were a number of
removed if it is rubbed with a cotton swab that has meetings in the latter half of the ‘90s at which lead-
been dipped in acetone. ers of prominent gemological laboratories and trade
It is interesting to note that the use of coatings organizations worldwide met to establish better
has spread to some laboratory-grown materials. A communications and greater consistency in report-
company in northern California trademarked the ing terminology. These meetings illustrate the
name Tavalite (Johnson and Koivula, 1996d) for determination of the jewelry industry to address
cubic zirconia that had been treated with an optical these issues and find solutions that will benefit
coating. The process created six different colors that members of the trade and consumers alike.
had a different appearance in reflected and transmit- The 1980s retrospective article asked the ques-
ted light. This product was very easy to identify, in tion, “What new treatments might face us in the
that it does not resemble any other material. not-too-distant future?” Yet technological advances
in the last 10 years have produced treatments, such
CONCLUSION as removing the color from brown diamonds, that
It can safely be said that events of the 1990s most of us would not have thought possible at the
changed the attitude of the entire industry toward beginning of the decade. Without a doubt, technolo-
treatments and disclosure, which today constitute gy will continue to advance at an even faster rate
the single most important issue facing the trade. during the next decade. The only thing we can guar-
Identification of some of the significant treat- antee is that there will be no end to fresh challenges
ments—such as glass-filled rubies, HPHT-processed in treatment identification and disclosure as we
diamonds, and a variety of irradiated gem materi- enter the new millennium.
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Federman D. (1998) Fair play. Modern Jeweler, Vol. 97, No. 2, p. 108. No. 4, p. 278.
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Fritsch E. (1999) GN: Polymer-impregnated synthetic fire opal from ural jadeite. G&G, Vol. 32, No. 1, pp. 61–62.
Kyocera. G&G, Vol. 35, No. 2, pp. 153–154. ——— (1996c) GN: Sapphires with “induced” stars. G&G, Vol. 32, No.
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Moon M. (1990) Gem-quality cuprian-elbaite tourmalines from São p. 308.
José da Batalha, Paraíba, Brazil. G&G, Vol. 26, No. 3, pp. 189–205. ——— (1997b) GN: A new emerald filler. G&G, Vol. 33, No. 2, p. 148.
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Identification of bleached and polymer-impregnated jadeite. G&G, phires. G&G, Vol. 33, No. 4, pp. 308–309.
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Louarn G. (1999a) Première caractérisation du PERMASAFE, nou- ——— (1998b) GN: A preliminary report from the First World Emerald
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——— (1998d) GN: Surface-treated topaz. G&G, Vol. 34, No. 2, pp. to-purple diamonds. G&G, Vol. 32, No. 3, pp. 207–208.
143–144. Koivula J.I. (1999) GTLN: Jadeite with unusual evidence of enhance-
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55–56. Koivula J.I., Kammerling R.C., Eds. (1990a) GN: Faceted gems with
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droplets of filling material. G&G, Vol. 33, No. 3, p. 213. ——— (1990b) GN: Jade “processing.” G&G, Vol. 26, No. 4, p. 309.
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——— (2000) GTLN: An investigation of fracture fillers in Mong Hsu ——— (1990d) GN: “Plastic”-coated sugar-treated opal. G&G, Vol. 26,
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Johnson M.L., Muhlmeister S. (1999) GN: The chemistry of emerald ——— (1990e) GN: “Rainbow” quartz: A new enhancement. G&G, Vol.
fillers. G&G, Vol. 35, No. 4, p. 219. 26, No. 4, pp. 307–308.
Johnson M.L., McClure S.F., DeGhionno D. (1995) GTLN: Diamond— ——— (1991a) GN: Colored Opticon for emeralds. G&G, Vol. 27, No. 1,
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——— (1997) GTLN: Jadeite jade—Dyed impregnated bangle without a ——— (1991b) GN: Deceptive color coating of sapphires in Sri Lanka.
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Johnson M.L., Elen S., Muhlmeister S. (1999) On the identification of ——— (1991c) GN: Dyed quartzite imitation of dyed jadeite. G&G, Vol.
various emerald filling substances. G&G, Vol. 35, No. 2, pp. 82–107. 27, No. 2, pp. 122–123.
Kammerling R.C. (1994a) GTLN: Detecting impregnated turquoise. ——— (1991d) GN: Faceted Aqua Aura update. G&G, Vol. 27, No. 2, p.
G&G, Vol. 30, No. 3, p. 190. 122.
——— (1994b) GTLN: Turquoise, dyed and impregnated. G&G, Vol. 30, ——— (1991e) GN: Faceted gems coated with diamond-like carbon.
No. 2, pp. 120–121. G&G, Vol. 27, No. 3, p. 186.
——— (1995a) GTLN: Dyed quartzite, imitating jade. G&G, Vol. 31, ——— (1991f) GN: More experimentation with blue diffusion-treated
No. 2, pp. 125–126. sapphires…and red stones too. G&G, Vol. 27, No. 3, pp. 187–188.
——— (1995b) GTLN: Treated and untreated beads in one necklace. ——— (1991g) GN: More on diffusion-treated sapphires. G&G, Vol. 27,
G&G, Vol. 31, No. 1, p. 55. No. 1, p. 53.
Kammerling R.C., Koivula J.I. (1992) An examination of ‘Aqua Aura’ ——— (1991h) GN: Plastic-treated ammonite. G&G, Vol. 27, No. 1, p. 52.
enhanced fashioned gems. JofG, Vol. 23, No. 2, pp. 72–77. ——— (1991i) GN: Plastic-treated jadeite. G&G, Vol. 27, No. 2, p. 122.
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——— (1995a) GTLN: Alexandrite—Fracture-filled, with high R.I. val- ——— (1992b) GN: Beryl beads with multiple color enhancements.
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——— (1995b) GTLN: Impregnated synthetic opal. G&G, Vol. 31, No. ——— (1992c) GN: Blue enhanced opal. G&G, Vol. 28, No. 1, p. 63.
4, pp. 267–268. ——— (1992d) GN: Diffusion-treated sapphire cabochons sold as natu-
——— (1995c) GTLN: Synthetic diamond, treated-color red. G&G, Vol. ral. G&G, Vol. 28, No. 3, pp. 204–205.
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Kammerling R.C., Kane R.E., Koivula J.I., McClure S.F. (1990b) An ——— (1992g) GN: Modern-day turquoise oiling. G&G, Vol. 28, No. 2,
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——— (1998) GTLN: Diamond—Color treated from orangy yellow to ——— (1999c) Industry speculates about new process. ProJ, Vol. 2, No.
reddish purple. G&G, Vol. 34, No. 3, pp. 213–214. 5, pp. 45–46.
Reinitz I.M., Koivula J.I., Elen S., Buerki P.R., Muhlmeister S. (2000a) Wentzell C.Y., Reinitz I. (1998) GTLN: Maxixe beryl, faded and fading.
GTLN: Diamonds—With evidence of another new diamond treat- G&G, Vol. 34, No. 4, p. 284

SYNTHETIC GEM MATERIALS
AND SIMULANTS IN THE 1990S
By John I. Koivula, Maha Tannous, and Karl Schmetzer
The 1990s witnessed important develop-

ments in the commercial viability of gem-
quality synthetic diamonds. Improvements
in, and new applications for, existing synthe-
sis pr ocesses in the production of colored
stones such as ruby, sapphire, emerald,
T he decade of the 1990s was probably the first in mod-
ern gemological history where advances in the pro-
duction and identification of synthetics and simu-
lants were overshadowed by treatment processes and the
detection of enhancement in gem materials. This was due
primarily to the emergence of new diamond treatments (i.e.,
quartz, and alexandrite have had an impact
as well. The development and commercial- color enhancement and decolorization) and to the prolifera-
ization of a variety of new synthetics and tion and further development of existing techniques for
simulants, such as synthetic moissanite and altering the apparent clarity of gemstones (e.g., laser drilling
flux-grown synthetic spinel, also played an of diamonds, “glass” filling of rubies, oiling, and heat treat-
important role in shaping the past decade for ment), as discussed by McClure and Smith (2000) elsewhere
the gem and jewelry industry. in this issue. However, some important new synthetics
were developed, others were improved, and the presence of
so many synthetic gem materials and simulants had a sig-
nificant impact on the trade (see, e.g., figure 1).
Although synthetic diamond continued to cause great
concern in the gem industry during the ‘90s, perhaps even
more important commercially was the introduction of a
new diamond simulant: near-colorless synthetic moissanite.
For most skilled gemologists, synthetic moissanite is easy to
identify because of its nonisotropic optical character and
ABOUT THE AUTHORS other distinctive properties; however, it reads as “diamond”
Mr. Koivula is chief research gemologist, and Ms. on most conventional diamond testers. The alarm it quickly
Tannous is senior staff gemologist, at the GIA generated in the trade illustrates the panic that can result
Gem Trade Laboratory in Carlsbad, California. Dr.
Schmetzer is a research scientist residing in from a perceived threat to the diamond industry. And the
Petershausen, near Munich, Germany. level of concern that continues to exist points out the gener-
Acknowledgments: The authors are indebted to al lack of even basic gemological knowledge among many in
Dr. Mary L. Johnson, manager of GIA Research the trade, as well as the danger inherent in relying on testing
in Carlsbad, for help in preparing certain sections
for publication and for performing archival
instruments that may give inaccurate results.
research for this article. Both Russia and China were important sources of syn-
Gems & Gemology, Vol. 36, No. 4, pp. 360–379 thetic colored gem materials in the 1990s. In particular, the
© 2000 Gemological Institute of America collapse of the former Soviet Union made available equip-
ment and intellectual resources that had previously been
360 Synthetics in the 1990s GEMS & GEMOLOGY Winter 2000

Figure 1. Numerous synthetics and simu-
lants were either introduced or, in most
cases, gained or maintained a strong
commercial presence during the 1990s.
These include, from the top (left to right):
Row 1—1.09 ct flux-grown synthetic red
spinel, 1.14 ct Czochralski-pulled syn-
thetic blue sapphire, 1.29 ct synthetic cit-
rine, 1.81 ct synthetic red beryl, 0.96 ct
Tairus hydrothermal synthetic emerald;
row 2—0.83 ct flux-grown synthetic blue
spinel, 1.02 ct black and 1.48 ct white
Gilson synthetic opal, 0.73 ct hydrother-
mal synthetic amethyst; row 3—0.43 ct
synthetic moissanite, 1.15 ct Tairus
hydrothermal synthetic ruby, 0.66 ct
Czochralski-pulled synthetic alexandrite,
0.58 ct De Beers experimental synthetic
diamond. Photo by Maha Tannous.
devoted to (and developed for) military research. For space limitations and the focus of the Gems &
decades, the Russians had been working on Gemology audience, review of the published litera-
advances in various methods of crystal growth for ture—during the period 1990 to 1999—has been
electronics, communications, and laser applica- confined mainly to information that appeared in
tions. These efforts led to important developments gemological journals on materials that have been
in hydrothermal crystal growth (from hot aqueous seen commercially in the jewelry trade. (See
solutions on oriented seed crystals): synthetic ruby Nassau, 1997, for a general review of the chronology
and sapphires, synthetic quartz (amethyst, citrine, of the growth and commercialization of synthetic
and ametrine), and synthetic emerald and alexan- gem materials, which includes developments up to
drite, as well as synthetic spinel, forsterite (a tan- the mid-1990s.) Readers are advised to use the pres-
zanite imitation), and a number of other gem mate- ent article as a “guide” to the literature of the last
rials, all of which are discussed below. A general decade, and to consult the cited references for
review of synthetic crystal growth and the produc- details on each subject, particularly regarding meth-
tion of artificial gem materials (both colored stones ods of identification.
and diamonds) in Russia during this decade is pro-
vided by Balitsky (2000). SYNTHETIC DIAMOND
While some Chinese synthetics have been stud- Single-Crystal Synthetic Diamonds. From the vol-
ied gemologically, few details are available on pro- ume of published literature, the most important
duction figures or growth facilities. However, we do developments in gem synthesis would appear to
know that the Chinese introduced a synthetic have been in the area of synthetic diamonds.
hydrothermal emerald into the marketplace In 1990, De Beers announced that the largest
(Schmetzer et al., 1997) and have been heavily synthetic diamond to date was a 14.2 ct crystal
involved in the production of other synthetics. grown for experimental purposes at their Diamond
Although other countries such as Japan and the U.S. Research Laboratory in Johannesburg, South Africa
also had significant synthesis activities, Russia and (Koivula and Kammerling, 1990b). The yellow crys-
China were dominant in colored stone synthesis tal, reportedly of “good” industrial quality, took
during the decade. more than 500 hours to grow under high-
This article provides a general overview of devel- pressure/high-temperature (HPHT) conditions.
opments in the production and identification of Since that time, one of us (JIK) has seen 30+ ct yel-
synthetic diamond, moissanite, ruby, sapphire, low to brownish yellow synthetic diamond crys-
emerald and other beryls, quartz, alexandrite and tals—with areas of gem quality—that were grown
chrysoberyl, spinel, forsterite, opal, and other syn- experimentally by De Beers. These synthetic dia-
thetics, as well as simulants and imitations. Given monds were marketed for industrial applications in
Synthetics in the 1990s GEMS & GEMOLOGY Winter 2000 361

to prevent the incorpo-
ration of nitrogen and
boron impurities (Shig-
ley et al., 1993b). In
addition, they experimentally synthesized large (up
to 3 ct) colorless carbon-13 diamonds, which—theo-
retically—could be harder than carbon-12 based dia-
monds (Koivula and Kammerling, 1991b). Sumi-
tomo and De Beers also grew near-colorless synthet-
ic diamonds (figure 2; see, e.g., Shigley et al., 1997).
However, like those from General Electric, they
were grown experimentally for high-tech applica-
tions, and thus have not been encountered in the
jewelry industry (J. Shigley, pers. comm., 2000).
Russian scientists did produce near-colorless
synthetic diamonds (Koivula et al., 1994b) for sale
in the gem market. These were grown as cuboctahe-
Figure 2. Both Sumitomo and De Beers grew near- dral crystals in a molten metal flux by a belt-type
colorless synthetic diamonds for experimental apparatus. For some time during the ‘90s, Tom
purposes. The faceted De Beers near-colorless syn- Chatham (Chatham Created Gems, San Francisco)
thetic diamonds shown here (inset) weigh 0.41 to attempted—unsuccessfully—to achieve commer-
0.91 ct. The two Sumitomo synthetic diamond cial production via presses in Russia and the U.S.
crystals (0.23 and 1.25 ct) exhibit a cuboctahedral Nevertheless, there was greater availability of
form, which is typical of synthetic diamonds from
gem-quality synthetic diamonds in the course of the
all known manufacturers. Left, photo © GIA and
Tino Hammid; inset photo © GIA.
decade. Not only did the Thai-Russian joint-venture
company Tairus offer limited quantities of loose
synthetic diamonds, but they also began to promote
yellow Russian synthetic diamonds set in rings and
pendants of high quality (figure 3), which were mar-
1993, at which time the largest crystal weighed keted by Superings in Los Angeles (Johnson and
34.80 ct and required more than 600 hours of grow- Koivula, 1996). Toward the end of the decade, visi-
ing time. Note, however, that the gem-quality syn- tors to the Tucson gem shows were able to pur-
thetic diamonds that were commercially available chase small quantities of Russian-produced synthet-
in the 1990s were much smaller (see below). Most ic diamonds, faceted and rough, in various as-grown
synthetic diamonds are yellow, often with brown and treated colors (see, e.g., Johnson and Koivula,
overtones; the color is associated primarily with the 1999; Smith and Bosshart, 1999). However, the lim-
presence of nitrogen. The 1990s saw experimenta- ited quantities of near-colorless synthetic diamonds
tion with, and limited production of, diamonds being marketed to the trade as crystals are generally
with impurities such as nickel and cobalt (Kanda, less than 0.50 ct, with the faceted goods typically
1999), as well as boron (Rooney et al., 1993; Reinitz, less than 0.30 ct (J. Shigley, pers. comm., 2000);
1999b). It was also discovered that the typical most are highly included. The GIA Gem Trade
brownish orange to yellow synthetic diamonds Laboratory also began to see synthetic diamonds
could be treated to create red to brownish red colors submitted for reports, including a group of 18 satu-
(Moses et al., 1993). rated orangy yellow to greenish yellow synthetic
It is clear, however, that the economic produc- diamonds ranging from 0.10 to 0.71 ct (Reinitz,
tion of near-colorless synthetic diamonds in a size 1999a). Note that the metallic flux inclusions, as
and quality suitable for jewelry was at least one of well as yellow luminescence and phosphorescence
the goals explored by diamond synthesizers during to short-wave ultraviolet radiation, made it easy to
the last decade (Rooney et al., 1993; Shigley et al., identify this material as synthetic. The cuboctahe-
1997). By 1990, General Electric had demonstrated dral crystal form is typical of gem-quality synthetic
that they could grow near-colorless type IIa dia- diamonds from all known manufacturers (again, see
monds exceeding 1 ct using a transition-metal flux figure 2; J. Shigley, pers. comm., 2000).

To keep pace with synthesis technology, a num-
ber of reviews (Shigley et al., 1992, 1997; Nassau,
1993; Sunagawa, 1995) and gemological studies
(Shigley et al., 1993a,b) were written. A wall chart
focusing on the separation of natural and synthetic
diamonds was published to educate members of the
jewelry trade (Shigley et al., 1995). Advances in dia-
mond synthesis will undoubtedly be monitored
closely throughout the current decade.
Synthetic Diamond Thin Films. Synthetic diamond

(and diamond-like carbon, or DLC) thin films can be
grown by chemical vapor deposition or CVD (see,
e.g., Spear and Dismukes, 1994; Buerki, 1996).
Typically deposited as a polycrystalline or drusy
layer, their use as coatings on gems is discussed in Figure 4. One of the most important simulants
introduced this decade was near-colorless syn-
the “Treatments” article in this issue (McClure and
thetic moissanite. These two 6.5 mm synthetic
Smith, 2000). Dr. E. Fritsch had two faceted dia- moissanites (1.74 ct total weight) are set in 18K
monds (0.33 and 0.36 ct) and a 1.15 ct piece of rough gold earrings. Courtesy of Charles & Colvard.
coated with a thin film of boron-bearing blue syn-
thetic diamond by low-pressure hot-filament syn-
thesis (Koivula and Kammerling, 1991a). In this
experiment, the facet junctions were not covered
very well and the resulting product conducted elec- tricity better than natural blue diamonds. In 1992, a
2-mm-high, gem-quality crystal of CVD-grown syn-
thetic diamond was seen (Koivula et al., 1992e), and
in 1995 production of a 1,600 ct disk, 28 cm in
diameter and 1.5 mm thick, was announced (Klages,
Figure 3. Fashioned Russian-made yellow syn-
thetic diamonds were mounted in platinum and 1995). Subsequently, Dr. E. Fritsch saw a parure set
marketed as fine jewelry. Courtesy of Superings; with drusy CVD synthetic diamond (Johnson and
photo by Shane F. McClure. Koivula, 1997c), so the jewelry potential of this
material was finally realized (Winter and Gäbler,
1998). It continues, however, to be extremely limited.
SYNTHETIC MOISSANITE
AND RELATED MATERIALS
In the late 1990s, near-colorless synthetic moissan-
ite (silicon carbide; figure 4) was offered commer-
cially as a diamond simulant (Nassau et al., 1997;
Nassau, 1999; Chalain and Krzemnicki, 1999).
While one of us (JIK) has known of synthetic
moissanite as small faceted stones for over three
decades, the earlier samples were strongly colored
in shades of blue and green, and posed no real threat
to the diamond trade. However, near-colorless syn-
thetic moissanite has generated a great deal of atten-
tion: Because its thermal properties are so close to
those of diamond, it reads as “diamond” on most
of the thermal probes (“diamond testers”). Never-
theless, while this material has excellent hardness
+
(Mohs 91/4 ), it still is not nearly as hard as dia-
mond. More importantly, the synthetic moissanite

currently grown for jewelry purposes crystallizes in
the hexagonal crystal system and is doubly refrac-
tive (as compared to singly refractive diamond).
With a birefringence equivalent to that of tourma-
line, this material is easy to separate optically from
diamond (see, e.g., the references cited above and
Hodgkinson, 1998). Even though all of the faceted
synthetic moissanite examined so far in the trade
has been cut so that the optic axis is perpendicular
to the table facet (which makes it easy to find the
uniaxial optic figure in polarized light, but mini-
mizes the effects of the birefringence in the table-up
Figure 6. The production and marketing of the
position), doubling can be seen by reflection when
Novosibirsk-grown Tairus hydrothermal synthet-
the observer focuses past the culet. Through the ic ruby (here, 0.43–1.05 ct) were significant devel-
crown, the double refraction is quite obvious (figure opments in the synthetic gem industry. Photo by
5), even with a 10¥ loupe. Maha Tannous.
Since the commercial introduction of near-color-
less synthetic moissanite in 1997, some further
technical developments on silicon carbide and relat-
ed materials have been patented (see Carter et al., SYNTHETIC RUBY
1998; Hunter and Verbiest, 1998), including the use Hydrothermal crystal growth was an important syn-
of synthetic moissanite as a coating on diamond thesis technique for colored stones throughout the
(Nassau et al., 1999). The continuing development decade. The most significant development in ruby
of these super-hard silicon carbide-related materials synthesis involved the combined production and
could be important in the production of future dia- commercialization of a product hydrothermally
mond simulants. grown by Tairus in Novosibirsk, Russia (figure 6).
While the hydrothermal synthesis of ruby was not
new to the 1990s, improvements in the growth
technique and the aggressive marketing by Tairus
were significant developments. Several studies
Figure 5. Synthetic moissanite is fairly easy to
revealed that the most distinctive characteristic in
identify with a microscope or a loupe. When you
look through the crown, doubling of the back
these hydrothermal rubies was the presence of
facets readily reveals the doubly refractive nature strong irregular growth features—striated and heavi-
of this diamond simulant. Photomicrograph by ly roiled (also referred to as zigzag- or mosaic-like)
John I. Koivula; magnified 20¥. patterns—which are easily seen with a microscope
(figure 7) or even a 10¥ loupe (Peretti and Smith,
1993; Peretti et al., 1997; Sechos, 1997; Schmetzer
and Peretti, 1999). These features look similar to
those seen in other Russian hydrothermal synthet-
ics, particularly synthetic emeralds.
Anhydrous crystal growth methods (those that
do not use water) to synthesize corundum for com-
mercial jewelry applications included melt tech-
niques (Czochralski pulling and flame fusion) and
flux growth. None of these techniques was new to
gem synthesis in the ‘90s, but all produced signifi-
cant quantities of synthetics that entered the
gem market. As in decades past, Czochralski-
pulled synthetics were sometimes represented in-
correctly as “recrystallized” rubies or sapphires
(Kammerling et al., 1995d; Nassau, 1995). Also as
in the past, the vast majority of synthetic rubies

Figure 7. A zigzag-like growth structure is charac-
teristic of some of the Russian hydrothermal syn-
thetic rubies and sapphires examined to date.
Photomicrograph by John I. Koivula; magnified 25¥.
were grown by flame fusion; the same identifica-

tion criteria continue to apply (i.e., gas bubbles and
curved striae). Nevertheless, the number of “obvi-
ous” flame-fusion synthetics submitted to gemo-
logical laboratories suggests a distressing lack of
gemological knowledge in the trade as a whole.
Jewelers apparently are still finding it difficult to
identify material produced by this 100-year-old
technology.
For flux-grown synthetics, at the beginning of
the ‘90s P.O. Knischka of Steyr, Austria, was pro-
ducing synthetic rubies of incredible size—crystals
over 5 cm long and faceted stones as large as 67 ct
(Koivula and Kammerling, 1990e; see, e.g., figure 8). Figure 8. Knischka synthetic ruby crystals were
Identification is no problem, though, as all grown in relatively large sizes, as evidenced by
Knischka synthetic rubies contain characteristic this 40.65 ct sample. Photo by Robert Weldon.
glassy two-phase inclusions. With the death of
Professor Knischka in the mid-1990s, production of
this material apparently ceased.
The Russians also produced limited quantities
of flux-grown synthetic rubies, using tungstate thetic rubies that had been produced and marketed
fluxes containing lithium and molybdenum (Henn by J. O. Crystal Co. in California since the early
and Bank, 1993a; Henn, 1994). Two of the distinc- 1980s (see Kane, 1983). This similarity included
tive internal features are triangular metallic (prob- the general lack of platinum in the finished prod-
ably platinum) inclusions and gas bubbles, which uct, and the orange color of larger flux inclusions.
result from the contraction of flux inclusions The Douros rubies were marketed as faceted
before they solidified. stones up to 5 ct.
Also introduced in the 1990s was a flux-grown Muhlmeister et al. (1998) demonstrated the
synthetic ruby that reportedly was manufactured effectiveness of trace-element chemistry (measured
in Piraeus, Greece (figure 9). Gemological investi- by energy dispersive X-ray fluorescence [EDXRF]
gations (Hänni et al., 1994; Henn and Milisenda, spectrometry) in the separation of natural and syn-
1994) showed that this Douros flux synthetic was thetic rubies. Nearly all currently produced synthet-
virtually identical to the flux-grown Ramaura syn- ics can be identified by their trace elements.

were colored by iron and titanium. Schmetzer and
Peretti (1999, 2000) also examined a group of experi-
mental Russian hydrothermal synthetic sapphires,
and found that the yellow samples were colored by
iron, that iron and titanium together produced blue,
that cobalt resulted in green, that manganese
caused reddish orange, and that vanadium or a com-
bination of iron, chromium, and nickel produced
material with a color change. Whether or not these
hydrothermal synthetics prove to be economic
remains to be seen, but the color possibilities are
most interesting.
During the decade, Chatham Created Gems pro-
Figure 9. The properties of Douros flux-grown duced flux-grown pink synthetic sapphires
synthetic rubies (here the crystal is 44.74 ct and (Kammerling et al., 1994), including an 884 ct crys-
the faceted samples, 2.14–4.93 ct) closely tal that was examined at GIA (Koivula et al., 1994a;
resemble those of Ramaura synthetic rubies. figure 12). While these synthetic sapphires have
Photo by Robert Weldon. essentially the same properties and inclusions as
Chatham’s flux-grown synthetic ruby, their lower
chromium content is responsible for the pink color.
A few of these pink samples contained an interest-
SYNTHETIC SAPPHIRE ing grid-like structure of tiny inclusions under their
While melt techniques also were responsible for the table facets, but these were the exception rather
bulk of synthetic sapphires sold in the ‘90s, as with than the rule.
synthetic ruby the real news was their hydrother- Czochralski-pulled synthetic pink sapphire was
mal crystal growth in Novosibirsk and their mar- grown by Union Carbide (Johnson et al., 1995), but
keting through Tairus. Peretti et al. (1997) reported with Ti3+ as the dominant chromophore (figure 13).
on inclusions in Russian hydrothermal synthetic Large stones can be cut from the pulled rods; the
sapphires and rubies, while Thomas et al. (1997) largest rod section examined in that study weighed
described Tairus sapphires that had been doped 343.33 ct. These products fluoresce blue to short-
with varying trace amounts of nickel and chromi- wave UV, which helps separate them from natural
um to achieve a broad range of colors (figure 10). pink sapphires when no inclusions are present. In
Growth structures (Schmetzer and Peretti, 1999, recognition of their titanium content, these syn-
2000; figure 11) and, as might be expected, nickel thetic stones have been called “Ti-sapphire.”
content was found to be important for identifying The separation of natural from synthetic color-
these synthetics. Smirnov et al. (1999) described less sapphires was also addressed in the ‘90s (Elen
experimental Russian hydrothermal synthetic blue and Fritsch, 1999). If no distinguishing inclusions
sapphires that—like their natural counterpart— are present, a search in polarized light may reveal
Figure 10. Tairus marketed Russian hydrothermal synthetic sapphires in a broad range of colors that were
produced by different trace-element dopants. Left = greenish blue samples, colored by Ni 2+ and Ni 3+ (the
rough sample is 9.99 ct); center = synthetic ruby (2.17 ct) and pink sapphires, colored by Cr 3+; and right =
yellow synthetic sapphires, colored by Ni 3+ (the largest is 4.74 ct). Photos by M. Glas.

Figure 11. The hillock-like growth structure shown
here in an intense pink sample appears to be a fea-
ture diagnostic of Russian hydrothermal synthetic
rubies and sapphires. Photomicrograph by Karl
Schmetzer; magnified 50¥.
Figure 12. Chatham Created Gems produced

the so-called Plato lines that are indicative of flame- this 884 ct flux-grown pink synthetic sapphire
fusion growth. Short-wave UV radiation may show and the accompanying faceted material. Photo
curved growth zoning in some colorless synthetic by Robert Weldon.
sapphires. EDXRF analysis revealed higher concen-
trations of trace elements such as gallium, iron, and
titanium in natural colorless sapphires. These trace
elements also cause a reduction in short-wave UV through gemological laboratories into the year 2000,
transparency, so that natural colorless sapphires although for the most part this product was not
appear opaque to this test, while their synthetic new. Schmetzer and Kiefert (1990) found that some
counterparts appear transparent (figure 14). Elen and natural and hydrothermal synthetic emeralds could
Fritsch (1999) described a tester that was specially be separated by means of infrared spectroscopy in
designed for this purpose. the 3500–3800 cm-1 range. The exceptions were
low-alkali-bearing natural (e.g., from Colombia and
SYNTHETIC EMERALD AND OTHER BERYLS
Synthetic Emerald. Although significant quantities
of hydrothermal synthetic rubies and sapphires Figure 13. This attractive titanium-doped
were grown during this period, the two most Czochralski-pulled synthetic pink sapphire, here
important hydrothermal synthetic gem materials 1.20 ct, has been referred to as “Ti-sapphire.”
Photo by Maha Tannous.
in terms of quantity produced and availability were
beryl (mainly emerald) and quartz (mainly
amethyst). Hydrothermal synthetic emeralds were
available from both China and Russia, although
significantly more was published on the latter.
Schmetzer et al. (1997) examined synthetic emer-
alds that emerged from Guilin, China (figure 15).
They reported the presence of (1) oriented needle-
like tubes (spicules) and cone-shaped voids that
were typically associated with small chrysoberyl
crystals (figure 16), and (2) growth and color zoning.
Both of these internal features are believed to be
diagnostic of this material.
Large numbers of faceted high-quality Russian
hydrothermal synthetic emeralds continued to pass

oriented 45° to the c-axis almost eliminated the
growth features. The reddish brown inclusions
were identified as iron oxides.
Other Synthetic Beryls and Overgrowths. Russian

crystal growers also manufactured and marketed
hydrothermal synthetic red beryl and aquamarine
during the ‘90s, although neither product was total-
ly new to the decade (see, e.g., Koivula and Kam-
merling, 1988). Synthetic red beryl was described by
Henn and Milisenda (1999a,c), who reported irregu-
larly oriented subgrain boundaries as the most diag-
Figure 14. When viewed with the short-wave nostic property and iron, cobalt, and manganese as
UV transparency tester, natural colorless sap- the colorants. A number of interesting hydrother-
phires typically appear opaque and synthetic mal synthetic bicolored beryls also have been pro-
sapphires are transparent. Photo by Shane Elen. duced in Russia—typically manganese-colored red
beryl grown over seed plates of hydrothermal syn-
thetic emerald. A strongly bicolored synthetic beryl
crystal, with a purplish pink core and purplish blue
Nigeria) or synthetic (e.g., Russian hydrothermal) rim (figure 18), showed very distinctive color zoning
emeralds. Sechos (1997) documented some distinc- and associated orangy red and dark reddish orange
tive microscopic properties of Australian (Biron) and pleochroism (Johnson et al., 1999b). In this instance,
Russian hydrothermal synthetic emeralds. EDXRF analysis determined that the coloring ele-
Tairus also marketed an “improved” hydrother- ments were primarily manganese in the core, and
mal synthetic emerald from its Novosibirsk opera- manganese, chromium, and copper in the rim.
tion (figure 17) that showed virtually no diagnostic A hydrothermal synthetic aquamarine showed
growth structures (Koivula et al., 1996). However, diagnostic growth structures, or cellular patterns, of
samples of this material were found to contain subgrain boundaries (Schmetzer, 1990). At the end
diagnostic clusters of tiny red-brown and white
particles. Further study of the growth method and
resulting growth-related properties (Schmetzer,
1996), as well as the inclusions (Schmetzer and
Bernhardt, 1997), revealed that the use of seeds Figure 16. This dense pattern of nailhead
spicules and chrysoberyl crystals, usually locat-
ed near the seed plate, is typical of that seen in
the hydrothermal synthetic emeralds produced
in Guilin, China. Photomicrograph by John I.
Figure 15. Guilin, China, is the source of these Koivula; magnified 30¥.
attractive hydrothermal synthetic emeralds. The
crystals weigh 10.78 and 14.75 ct; the faceted
piece is 1.14 ct. Photo by Maha Tannous.

of the decade, Henn (1999a) described hydrothermal
synthetic aquamarine from recent Russian produc-
tion that contained characteristic swirl-like growth
structures, and Smirnov et al. (1999) noted such pat-
terns in similar Novosibirsk material that was mar-
keted via Tairus.
Other manufacturers also experimented with
potentially marketable colors of beryl. A synthetic
pink beryl colored by titanium (Ti3+) was reported
by Brown (1990) and Fritsch et al. (1992). Grown in
Perth, Australia, by Biron International Ltd., this
synthetic had a slightly lower specific gravity than
would be expected for natural morganite. Faceted
examples up to 20 ct have been seen.
Relatively thin overgrowths of synthetic emer-
ald on natural beryl were again reported in the
1990s. For example, “Emeraldolite” from France
consists of opaque white natural beryl with an
overgrowth produced by the flux method (Robert et Figure 17. These hydrothermal synthetic emer-
al., 1990). In Russia, thin layers of hydrothermal alds (0.17–0.41 ct) were newly produced in
synthetic emerald were grown on large, elongated, Novosibirsk during the ‘90s, another product
marketed by the Thai-Russian joint venture
and rounded seeds of transparent colorless natural
Tairus. Photo by Maha Tannous.
beryl (Henn and Bank, 1993b) that typically were
not visible in the final product. Given that the
hydrothermal growth technique has been used to
produce many colors of synthetic beryl, there is no unknown how much of this material is being pro-
reason why overgrowths in other colors could not duced, or how most of it is distributed.
be produced. While there was little new methodology for the
commercial production of other varieties of
SYNTHETIC QUARTZ hydrothermal synthetic quartz, several studies
Commercially, the most important variety of syn- detailed the processes used to grow, and in certain
thetic quartz during the ‘90s was hydrothermally instances also treat, synthetic quartz for gem appli-
grown synthetic amethyst. This material was wide- cations (see, e.g., Balitsky et al., 1999b). Again, it
ly used in the trade, primarily because it was so dif- seems that Russia and China were the most
ficult to detect: Unless inclusions and characteristic
twinning patterns are present, synthetic amethyst
can be conclusively identified in most cases only
with Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy Figure 18. Distinct color zoning is evident in this
(Zecchini and Smaali, 1999). Even by the late 1980s, 9.3 mm wide crystal of Russian hydrothermal syn-
the presence of Brazil-law twinning was no longer a thetic bicolored beryl. Photo by John I. Koivula.
guarantee of natural origin, as the Russians and oth-
ers were growing synthetic amethyst twinned on
the Brazil law.
The synthesis process had become even more
sophisticated by the late 1990s, when it was learned
that round seeds were used in Beijing for the pro-
duction of synthetic amethyst (Johnson and
Koivula, 1998), which resulted in crystals with no
obvious seed plate. Also, because of the orientation
and domed shape of the seeds used by the Chinese
producers, the resulting synthetic crystals have the
external morphology of natural amethyst. It is

significant participants in researching and produc- typically found in natural quartz (see, e.g., Balitsky
ing this material (Landmann, 1999). et al., 1999b). If synthetics grown under these condi-
There were significant developments in the growth tions are marketed commercially as substitutes for
and treatment steps needed to make synthetic natural gems, then the identification criteria on
ametrine (Balitsky et al., 1999a; figure 19), which has which we currently rely also might change.
been commercially produced hydrothermally from
alkaline solutions since 1994. It can be identified by SYNTHETIC ALEXANDRITE
a combination of characteristics, including twinning AND CHRYSOBERYL
and color zoning. EDXRF analysis revealed higher Czochralski-pulled synthetic alexandrite was mar-
concentrations of iron, manganese, potassium, and keted in the 1990s under the trade names Nicholas
zinc than have been found in natural ametrine. The Created Alexandrite and Allexite. Koivula and
infrared spectra of the synthetic citrine portions Kammerling (1991d), Koivula et al. (1992d), and
showed a more intense absorption in the 3700–2500 Brown and Kelly (1995) examined a number of
cm-1 range than is seen in the natural counterpart. Nicholas Created samples and found that some
Details of the synthesis and identification of showed a curved internal growth structure. The color
Russian hydrothermal synthetic pink quartz also change was from a purplish red in incandescent light
were provided by Balitsky et al. (1998; figure 20). Sold to greenish blue in day or fluorescent light, with
under the trade name Flamingo Quartz, this product medium to medium-dark tones. While many of the
is grown in autoclaves using an ammonium fluoride faceted samples examined were virtually flawless,
solution. As grown, the synthetic quartz is colorless. the cabochons usually contained at least a few easily
Phosphorus is the chromophore, and the pink color is observed gas bubbles, which are useful in their identi-
produced by a combination of irradiation and heat- fication. The color change in Allexite is from reddish
ing. Since approximately 200 kg are produced each purple to bluish green (Koivula et al., 1992c). Curved
year, there is a good chance that synthetic pink growth features readily identify this material as syn-
quartz will be encountered in the trade. When there thetic, and occasionally minute gas bubbles are seen.
are no inclusions to aid in detection, the presence of Generally, however, Allexite appears flawless at first
an intense broad band around 3420 cm-1 in the IR inspection, which should arouse suspicion.
spectrum provides a useful diagnostic feature. In the mid-1990s, Russian flux-grown synthetic
There is ongoing experimentation with quartz alexandrite (in twinned and single crystals) was
growth techniques that even more closely duplicate reported by Kammerling et al. (1995e) and
nature. In particular, experiments are being done
under conditions of high temperature and pressure,
using supercritical fluids and trace elements that are
Figure 20. Large amounts of transparent synthetic
pink quartz (here, 1.95–16.06 ct) also entered the
gem market during the past decade. Manufactured
Figure 19. Hydrothermal synthetic ametrine in Russia, this hydrothermal synthetic was sold as
was commercially grown for the first time in the Flamingo Quartz. Photo by Maha Tannous.
1990s. This crystal weighs 98.55 ct and the cut
sample, 7.53 ct. Photo by Maha Tannous.

Figure 21. Russian flux-grown synthetic alexan- Figure 22. The irregular nature of the curved
drite, such as these crystals (4.89 and 1.64 ct) growth bands is distinctive of the green nonphe-
and the faceted sample (1.07 ct), appeared on nomenal synthetic chrysoberyl that entered the
the market in the mid-1990s. Photo (in incan- market in the mid-‘90s. Photomicrograph by
descent light) by Maha Tannous. Karl Schmetzer; immersion, magnified 60¥.
Schmetzer et al. (1996). Using a flux containing thetic red spinel and cobalt in the blue, with subor-
molybdenum, germanium, and bismuth, the dinate iron in both. The flux-grown synthetic blue
Russians have produced crystals weighing several spinels can be identified by their inclusions, UV flu-
carats, from which faceted stones exceeding a carat orescence, and absorption spectrum. If no inclusions
have been cut (figure 21). Chromium, vanadium, and are present, the red material requires chemical anal-
iron were found to be the chromophores for a color ysis to determine zinc content, since natural spinel
change from brownish red to bluish green. The pres- contains significantly more zinc. Synthetic crystals
ence of typical flux inclusions and inclusion patterns weighing over 10 ct were available.
makes most samples relatively easy to identify.
Other synthetic chrysoberyls were produced in
the 1990s. Johnson and Koivula (1997d) reported on
green vanadium-colored synthetic chrysoberyl that Figure 23. Although Russian flux-grown synthetic
had no change of color. This material sometimes red and blue spinels (here, 0.30–1.23 ct) were
contains slightly elongated bubbles and irregular introduced in the 1980s, they were not fully char-
curved growth zones that are best observed with acterized until the ‘90s. Photo by Maha Tannous.
immersion (figure 22). More recently, Krzemnicki
and Kiefert (1999) documented bluish green, light
green, and pink synthetic chrysoberyl. Vanadium is
the coloring agent in the green and bluish green
material, while titanium is responsible for the pink
color.
SYNTHETIC SPINEL
Although Russian flux-grown synthetic red spinel
was first noted by Bank and Henn (1989) and
Koivula and Kammerling (1989), it was not until the
1990s that both the red and blue varieties (figure 23)
were fully characterized (Bank and Henn, 1990;
Brown et al., 1990; Hodgkinson, 1991; Henn and
Bank, 1992; Muhlmeister et al., 1993; Johnson and
Koivula, 1997b). This research showed that traces of
chromium were responsible for the color in the syn-

rod-shaped crystals, which ranged up to 2.5 cm in
diameter and 20 cm long. Not only was this mate-
rial virtually free of inclusions, but it also showed
slightly lower values for specific gravity and
refractive indices than those recorded for peridot,
due to a low iron content. Johnson and McClure
(1999) and Henn (1999b) subsequently described
Russian Czochralski-pulled synthetic forsterite
with a color and pleochroism (blue and pink;
caused by cobalt) that made it an excellent substi-
tute for tanzanite (figure 24). In fact, some of this
material has been submitted to the GIA Gem
Trade Laboratory for identification. However, the
lower refractive indices (1.635 –1.671, versus
Figure 24. With their color and strong pleochroism,
these cobalt-doped synthetic forsterite samples
1.695–1.702 for tanzanite) provide an easy means
closely resemble tanzanite. The largest cushion of separation. Gas bubbles also may be present in
mixed cut weighs 6.15 ct. Courtesy of Tom this synthetic.
Chatham; photo by Maha Tannous.
SYNTHETIC OPAL
Kyocera of Kyoto, Japan, manufactured and market-
ed plastic-impregnated synthetic opals in the form
In a detailed study of Verneuil (flame-fusion) syn- of polished irregular nodules in white and a variety
thetic spinels, Rinaudo and Trossarelli (1998) noted of bright colors (Kammerling et al., 1995c). Freeform
various patterns of anomalous birefringence when polished nodules up to about 5 ct were available at
samples were observed in different orientations. the time of that report (see, e.g., figure 25). The bright
colors and the unnatural appearance of the play-of-
SYNTHETIC FORSTERITE color are an immediate give-away that these opals
In 1994, Nassau described synthetic forsterite and are not natural. Synthetic orange “fire opal” also
synthetic peridot. The chromium-doped synthetic was introduced by Kyocera in the 1990s, as a substi-
forsterite crystals were grown by the Czochralski tute for the natural material from Mexico (Henn
method at the Ageo City Central Research Labor- and Milisenda, 1999b); infrared spectroscopy
atory of the Mitsui Mining and Smelting Co. in revealed the presence of resin as a stabilizer.
Tokyo. A peridot-like color was attained in the Synthetic opals produced in China and Russia
were described by Henn et al. (1995). The Chinese
material proved to be plastic-impregnated with a
corresponding low density. The Russian synthetic
Figure 25. These polished freeforms (3.59–4.30 opal also had a low density, and some of the black
ct) are typical of Kyocera plastic-impregnated material resembled natural opal that had been
synthetic opals. Photo by Maha Tannous.
sugar- and acid-treated. Both products showed
acceptable play-of-color.
In general, synthetic opals are easy to identify
unless they are set in a mounting that restricts
examination. Depending on how the stone was
oriented when it was cut, diagnostic visual char-
acteristics (such as columnar structural pattern-
ing) may or may not be visible.
Because of the presence of certain additives, such
as plastics used as binding agents, some gemologists
and researchers do not necessarily agree that all so-
called synthetic opals actually qualify as true syn-
thetics. This is a nomenclature problem that hope-
fully can be sorted out in the coming decade.

MISCELLANEOUS SYNTHETICS
We continue to see a variety of unusual, if not out-
right weird, new synthetics that can be fashioned as
gemstones. It is unlikely that any of these materials
will ever have a large market, or achieve wide
acceptance. However, such materials are submitted
to gemological laboratories and must be identified
accurately. One example is synthetic sodalite (figure
26; Koivula et al., 1992b). Experimentally grown in
China as heavily included and twinned colorless
crystals up to 57 ct at the time of that report, the
blue color is due to irradiation.
Recker and Wallrafen (1992) and Henn (1999c)
documented synthetic fresnoite, a barium titanium
silicate grown by the Czochralski method for tech-
nical applications. It is reported that crystals of dif-
ferent colors can be grown by the addition of vari-
ous dopants, but only the yellow-to-orange materi-
al is within the color range of the natural mineral. Figure 26. Irradiation is responsible for the blue
Also, natural fresnoite contains fluid inclusions, color in this 20.38 ct crystal of synthetic
sodalite from China. Photo by Robert Weldon.
which are absent from the Czochralski-pulled syn-
thetics. Only a few very tiny gas bubbles have been
observed as inclusions in synthetic fresnoite.
Russian manufacturers have also used Czoch-
ralski pulling to grow pink and orange transparent those seen in the natural material, and the fact that
crystals of yttrium aluminum perovskite (YAP; they lack manganese.
Linton, 1997). Like most melt-pulled synthetic crys-
tals, synthetic perovskite can be virtually flawless. MISCELLANEOUS SIMULANTS
This absence of internal features, together with the AND IMITATIONS
color (gem-quality perovskite is black, dark brown, or Amber simulants composed of small chunks and
“amber” to dark yellow), should at least warn gemol- angular fragments of natural resin set in yellow to
ogists that they might be dealing with a synthetic. brownish yellow plastic were available (Kammer-
Limited quantities of bright blue-green synthetic
phenakite, flux grown in Russia, also became avail-
able in the ‘90s (Koivula et al., 1994c). The crystals
examined were transparent, but contained brownish Figure 27. These synthetic zincites (1.35–3.26 ct)
yellow flux inclusions that would separate them were fashioned from material that was an acci-
easily from their natural counterpart. These crys- dental by-product of an industrial kiln process
tals, which weighed up to 12.5 ct, could potentially used to produce zinc-based paint in Silesia,
yield faceted material up to 6 ct. Poland. Photo by Maha Tannous.
Another ‘90s synthetic, which actually became
quite popular both as crystal specimens and faceted,
was zincite from Silesia, Poland (Kammerling and
Johnson, 1995). The crystals—some more than 15
cm long—were reported to have formed by vapor
deposition as an accidental by-product of an indus-
trial kiln process used to produce zinc-based paint.
The faceted samples examined in 1995 (as large as
several carats) were yellow, orange, orangy red, and
(a very few) yellowish green (see, e.g., figure 27).
These synthetic zincites can be readily distin-
guished by their inclusions, which do not resemble

tured imitation of charoite that was marketed
under the name Royal Russianite by Marchant
Enterprises of Anchorage, Alaska. The material
examined was purple, opaque, and unevenly col-
ored in swirled light and dark tones. A thermal
reaction tester produced an acrid odor, as would be
expected of a plastic.
A so-called reconstructed lapis lazuli was found
to consist of barium sulfate with a polymer bond-
ing agent and pyrite inclusions (Kammerling et al.,
1991a). Since this imitation does not consist of
natural material, reconstructed lapis lazuli is a
misnomer.
Figure 28. This 8.32 ct amber simulant is com- Manning International in New York introduced
posed of plastic with embedded fragments of
a composite imitation of crystal opal that consisted
natural resin. Photo by Maha Tannous.
of synthetic opal fragments in glass (Kammerling
and Koivula, 1993; figure 29). Sold under the name
Gemulet, the material was offered as faceted stones,
small spheres, and tear drop–shaped cabochons.
ling et al., 1995a; figure 28). The material was pro- Although not new to the decade, Majorica imi-
duced in Gdansk, Poland, and has been described tation pearls were ubiquitous on the world market.
as pressed, reconstructed, reconstituted, or syn- Hanano et al. (1990) provided a detailed description
thetic amber. of the manufacturing process for this very success-
An assembled simulant for Madagascar emerald ful pearl imitation, which uses lead-based glass
consisted of a cabochon of colorless beryl for the beads coated with “pearl essence,” a mixture of
dome and a base of heavily included colorless beryl, guanine extracted from fish scales and binding and
with a green cement layer between the two coloring agents.
(Koivula and Kammerling, 1990a). Nontransparent white, pink, and black synthetic
Johnson et al. (1999a) reported on a manufac- cubic zirconia (CZ) manufactured in Russia was mar-
keted in cabochons and beads as substitutes for pearls,
black chalcedony, and black diamonds (Kammerling
et al., 1991b; figure 30). CZ’s high specific gravity
Figure 29. “Gemulet” is an opal imitation that compared to the materials for which it substitutes
is composed of synthetic opal fragments in will make items such as long bead necklaces feel rel-
glass. Photomicrograph by John I. Koivula; atively heavy. Chalain (1999) provided an update on
magnified 15¥. this material as a black diamond substitute.
Tanzanite imitations entered the market in the
1990s. As reported by Kiefert and Schmidt (1996),
some of the most popular tanzanite imitations were
a dark violet calcium phosphate glass, a violet
flame-fusion synthetic corundum marketed as Blue
Coranite, and a purple YAG sold as Purple Coranite.
Since none of these imitations has the same gemo-
logical properties as natural tanzanite, separation is
relatively straightforward. Synthetic forsterite as a
tanzanite imitation (again, see figure 24) was dis-
cussed above.
IMITATION ROUGH
The deceptive alteration or manufacture of gem
rough and crystal specimens continued throughout
the 1990s. So far, these creations have been rela-

tively easy to detect. However, when dealing with
gem rough, just as when purchasing fashioned
gems, it’s important to know that synthetics and
simulants are everywhere: caveat emptor—“let the
buyer beware.”
As expected, diamonds were frequently a target
mineral for this form of fakery. Cubic zirconia was
carved to look like diamond crystals (Crowning-
shield and Moses, 1996), and topaz was fashioned to
resemble diamond rough (Crowningshield and
Reinitz, 1997; figure 31). Since topaz has essentially
the same specific gravity as diamond, heft provided
no indication of the deception.
Imitation emerald crystals were the most com-
mon form of rough colored stone deception. The
materials used ranged from green glass (Koivula and
Kammerling, 1990c) to natural quartz fragments
held together by a green cement (Koivula and
Figure 30. Black, nontransparent cubic zirco-
Kammerling, 1990d; figure 32) to quartz coated with
nia from Russia was used as a black diamond
green plastic (Johnson and Koivula, 1997a). These
simulant. The faceted sample weighs 6.60 ct.
manufactured items often would pass a superficial Photo by Shane F. McClure.
inspection. They usually exhibited a somewhat dis-
torted hexagonal habit, although in one instance a
glass imitation displayed only five sides. Typically,
they also were “decorated” with at least a little and Kammerling, 1991c; figure 33). Gemological
light orangy brown limonitic coating that had small testing and EDXRF analysis identified these samples
rock fragments and some mica flakes attached. This as synthetics. Kammerling et al. (1995b) reported on
pseudo-matrix was designed to provide a more real- laboratory-grown masses of transparent dark purple
istic appearance. GGG seen in Taunggyi, Myanmar, that had been
Ruby and sapphire were also faked. Cobbed as
well as tumbled, and otherwise realistically abraded,
flame-fusion synthetic rubies were sold as natural
rough and preformed rubies from Vietnam (Koivula Figure 32. Purchased in Zambia, these two imi-
tation emerald crystals are composed primarily
of quartz fragments that are held together by a
green binding agent; the larger sample weighs
Figure 31. Fashioned to imitate diamond rough, 63.35 ct. Notice that a dusting of matrix has
these two “crystals” (63.65 and 28.88 ct) were been applied to provide a more realistic appear-
identified as topaz. Photo by Nicholas DelRe. ance. Photo by Robert Weldon.

fashioned to resemble sapphire crystals and were
being sold as coming from a “new locality.”
Kane (1991) reported on a “crystal” that had been
fashioned from flame-fusion synthetic ruby to look
like red beryl. The slightly abraded 23-mm-long
hexagonal prism (38.05 ct) contained curved striae
and gas bubbles, and showed very strong red UV flu-
orescence. Because these features are not found in
natural red beryl, this simulant was easy to identify.
Probably the most unusual example encountered
in the 1990s was an assembled imitation watermel-
on tourmaline crystal with minor amounts of exter-
nal “matrix” material (Koivula et al., 1992a; figure
34). This 667 ct specimen consisted of a rock crystal
quartz core, a coating of a dark pink coloring agent,
and then a layer of mineral fragments in cement.
All were contained within long, thin slices of tour-
maline on the surface; two of these were dark blue,
with the remainder dark yellowish green.
Figure 33. All of these pieces of tumbled rough Many other interesting fakes were also docu-
and cobbed material (3.79–15.17 ct) were pur- mented throughout the ‘90s (see, e.g., “Fake gems
chased in Vietnam as ruby, but only the small- pose threat…” [1999] for examples seen in Africa).
est and darkest piece of rough (pictured at the Therefore, this section serves only as an introduc-
bottom) proved to be natural. All of the others tion to this ongoing problem.
were flame-fusion synthetics that had been
fashioned to mimic their natural counterpart. CONCLUSION: LOOKING TO THE FUTURE
Photo by Shane F. McClure. What does the future hold for synthetics and simu-
lants? Undoubtedly, technology will continue to
advance, and will bring improvements in existing
Figure 34. This 667 ct imitation watermelon synthesis techniques and the resulting products.
tourmaline crystal is made up of a complex Increasing research to produce crystals for high-
assembly of several materials; only portions of technology applications should result in a better
the outermost surface are tourmaline. Photo by
understanding of crystal growth mechanisms. This
Maha Tannous.
will likely result in larger and higher-quality crys-
tals, and the application of growth conditions
resembling nature will probably produce more natu-
ral-looking synthetics. We should also expect to see
a continued (perhaps expanding) variety of laborato-
ry-grown materials (many of which may have no
natural counterparts).
The technology of gemstone identification also
will move forward. Optics for gemological micro-
scopes will be improved over the next decade so
that we will see more, and see more clearly. The
detection levels for, and ease of operation of, the
advanced instruments that have become increasing-
ly important over the last decade undoubtedly will
be improved over the next 10 years.
Will new synthesis processes be developed?
Probably. Will the synthetic products grown by
them be more difficult to identify? Possibly. What
new synthetics will we have to deal with? That’s

hard to say. But if we follow existing research processes and gemstone treatment in the form of
trends in the crystal growth industry as they relate regrowth and repair of broken natural gemstones.
to gemology, then we may see a new breed of dia- Possible precursors are flux-induced fingerprints in
mond simulants. Chief among these might be a flame-fusion synthetics and experimental
gem-quality isotropic polytype of synthetic hydrothermal synthetic beryl overgrowths on natu-
moissanite or the development of other super-hard ral beryl seeds.
materials, such as cubic boron nitride, that could It is important to remember, however, that we
have gemological applications as diamond simu- should not focus solely on the products and tech-
lants. For colored stones, commercial quantities of nologies themselves as we prepare for the chal-
synthetic zoisite as a substitute for tanzanite might lenges of the coming years. When you consider that
be realized, as well as chromium-doped synthetic nearly century-old synthetics and simulants contin-
pink topaz. For the most part, however, future ue to challenge many in the trade, we must also
developments in synthetics will continue to question our preparedness. In this electronic age,
revolve around the “big four”—diamond, emerald, while we have advanced our methods of conducting
ruby, and sapphire—since the possibility for profit business and have refined our sales techniques to a
is highest with these materials. For diamonds in science, some gem and jewelry professionals still
particular, the market for smaller goods is particu- have difficulty identifying even the most rudimen-
larly vulnerable to developments in synthetics tary flame-fusion synthetics, or doubly refractive
since testing melee-size stones may be cost pro- synthetic moissanite. A sound working knowledge
hibitive. More hydrothermal synthetic rubies and of the identifying characteristics for all synthetics,
sapphires also might appear on the market, as well past and present, is vital. Jewelers and gemologists
as more synthetic beryl in different colors. with these skills will be most ready to tackle future
We also might see a marriage between synthesis developments in synthetic gem materials.
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Japan. Gem: Z. Dt. Gemmol. Ges., Vol. 48, No. 1, pp. 45–48. ——— (1990b) GN: De Beers announces world’s largest synthetic diamond
——— (1999c) Synthetische rote Berylle aus Rußland. Gem: Z. Dt. crystal. G&G, Vol. 26, No. 4, p. 300.
Gemmol. Ges., Vol. 48, No. 2, pp. 97–104. ——— (1990c) GN: Glass imitation emerald crystal. G&G, Vol. 26, No. 1,
Henn U., Ackermann L., Schoder K. (1995) Synthetische Opale aus China pp. 108–109.
und Rußland. Gem: Z. Dt. Gemmol. Ges., Vol. 44, No. 1, pp. 9–15. ——— (1990d) GN: Imitation emeralds from southern Africa. G&G, Vol.
Hodgkinson A. (1991) Synthetic red spinel. AusG, Vol. 17, No. 11, pp. 26, No. 2, pp. 167–168.
466–468. ——— (1990e) GN: Knischka synthetic ruby update. G&G, Vol. 26, No. 3,
——— (1998) Scottish Gemmology Conference report: Synthetic moissan- pp. 236–237.
ite, diamond and some distinctions. Scottish Gem Lab News, Nov. 16, ——— (1991a) GN: Bluish gray synthetic diamond thin films grown on
pp. 1–12. faceted diamonds. G&G, Vol. 27, No. 2, pp. 118–119.
Hunter C.E., Verbiest D. (1998) Silicon carbide gemstones. U.S. Patents ——— (1991b) GN: G.E. synthesizes large carbon-13 diamonds. G&G,
5,723,391, issued March 3, 1998, and 5,762,896, issued June 9, 1998. Vol. 27, No. 4, pp. 254–255.
Johnson M.L., Koivula J.I., Eds. (1996) GN: Tairus synthetic diamonds in ——— (1991c) GN: More synthetics sold as natural ruby in Vietnam.
jewelry. G&G, Vol. 32, No. 2, pp. 128–129. G&G, Vol. 27, No. 4, pp. 260–261.
——— (1997a) GN: Emerald rough–buyer beware! G&G, Vol. 33, No. 2, ——— (1991d) GN: New synthetic alexandrite, G&G. Vol. 27, No. 1, p.
pp. 150–151. 53.
——— (1997b) GN: New information on flux-grown red spinel from Koivula J.I., Kammerling R.C., Fritsch E., Eds. (1992a) GN: Assembled imi-
Russia. G&G, Vol. 33, No. 2, pp. 151–152. tation watermelon tourmaline. G&G, Vol. 28, No. 4, p. 279.
——— (1997c) GN: Synthetic diamond thin film jewelry. G&G, Vol. 33, ——— (1992b) GN: Experimental sodalite from China. G&G, Vol. 28, No.
No. 2, pp. 143–144. 2, p. 139.
——— (1997d) GN: Update on vanadium-bearing synthetic chrysoberyl. ——— (1992c) GN: New synthetic alexandrite. G&G, Vol. 28, No. 3, p.
G&G, Vol. 33, No. 2, pp. 148–149. 207.
——— (1998) GN: Synthetic amethyst grown over round seeds. G&G, Vol. ——— (1992d) GN: Synthetic alexandrite gets new name. G&G, Vol. 28,
34, No. 1, pp. 54–55. No. 1, p. 63.
——— (1999) GN: Synthetic diamonds widely available. G&G, Vol. 35, ——— (1992e) GN: An update on diamond research. G&G, Vol. 28, No. 4,
No. 1, pp. 47–48. pp. 268–269.
Johnson M.L., McClure S.F. (1999) GTLN: Synthetic forsterite, a new tan- ——— (1994a) GN: Chatham flux-grown pink synthetic sapphires. G&G,
zanite imitation. G&G, Vol. 35, No. 2, pp. 139–140. Vol. 30, No. 1, pp. 56–57.
Johnson M.L., Mercer M.E., Fritsch E., Maddison P., Shigley J.E. (1995) ——— (1994b) GN: Near-colorless Russian synthetic diamond examined.
“Ti-Sapphire”: Czochralski-pulled synthetic pink sapphire from Union G&G, Vol. 30, No. 2, pp. 123–124.
Carbide. G&G, Vol. 31, No. 3, pp. 188–195. ——— (1994c) GN: Synthetic phenakite from Russia. G&G, Vol. 30, No.
Johnson M.L., Koivula J.I., McClure S.F., DeGhionno D., Eds. (1999a) GN: 3, pp. 199–200.
Manufactured products imitating charoite. G&G, Vol. 35, No. 4, pp. Koivula J.I., Kammerling R.C., DeGhionno D., Reinitz I., Fritsch E., John-
221–222. son M.L. (1996) Gemological investigation of a new type of Russian
——— (1999b) GN: Synthetic beryl showing zoned pleochroism. G&G, hydrothermal synthetic emerald. G&G, Vol. 32, No. 1, pp. 32–39.
Vol. 35, No. 2, pp. 152–153. Krzemnicki M.S., Kiefert L. (1999) Bluish green, light green, and pink syn-
Kammerling R.C., Johnson M.L. (1995) An examination of ‘serendipitous’ thetic chrysoberyl. G&G, Vol. 35, No. 3, p. 175.
synthetic zincite. JofG, Vol. 24, No. 8, pp. 563–568. Landmann A. (1999) Synthetische Quarzkristalle—Kristalleigenschaften,
Kammerling R.C., Koivula J.I. (1993) A composite imitation of crystal hydrothermale Züchtung und gemmologische Unterscheidung von
opal. AusG, Vol. 18, No. 5, pp. 162–163. natürlichen Quarzkristallen. Gem: Z. Dt. Gemmol. Ges., Vol. 48, No.
Kammerling R.C., Koivula J.I., Fritsch E. (1991a) Characterization of a so- 3, pp. 129–140.
called “Reconstructed Lapis Lazuli.” AusG, Vol. 17, No. 11, pp. Linton T. (1997) Yttrium aluminum perovskite. AusG, Vol. 19, No. 10, pp.
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Kammerling R.C., Koivula J.I., Kane R.E., Fritsch E., Muhlmeister S., McClure S.F., Smith C.P. (2000) Gemstone enhancement and its detection
McClure S.F. (1991b) An examination of nontransparent “CZ” from in the 1990s. G&G, Vol. 36, No. 4, pp. 336–359.
Russia. G&G, Vol. 27, No. 4, pp. 240–246. Moses T.M., Reinitz I.M., Fritsch E., Shigley J.E. (1993) Two treated-color
Kammerling R.C., Koivula J.I., Fritsch E. (1994) An examination of synthetic red diamonds seen in the trade. G&G, Vol. 29, No. 3, pp.
Chatham flux-grown synthetic pink sapphires. JofG, Vol. 24, No. 3, pp. 182–190.
149–154. Muhlmeister S., Koivula J.I., Kammerling R.C., Smith C.P. Fritsch E.,
——— (1995a) GN: Amber simulant: Natural resin in plastic. G&G, Vol. Shigley J.E. (1993) Flux-grown synthetic red and blue spinels from
31, No. 2, pp. 134–136. Russia. G&G, Vol. 29, No. 2, p. 81–98.
——— (1995b) GN: GGG as a corundum fake. G&G, Vol. 31, No. 4, pp. Muhlmeister S., Fritsch E., Shigley J.E., Devouard B., Laurs B.M. (1998)
285–286. Separating natural and synthetic rubies on the basis of trace-element
——— (1995c) GN: Kyocera plastic-impregnated synthetic opals. G&G, chemistry. G&G, Vol. 34, No. 2, pp. 80–101.
Vol. 31, No. 2, pp. 137–139. Nassau K. (1993) Five different types of synthetic diamond. Canadian
——— (1995d) GN: “Recrystallized” synthetics. G&G, Vol. 31, No. 1, p. Gemmologist, Vol. 14, No. 1, pp. 8–12.
71. ——— (1994) Synthetic forsterite and synthetic peridot. G&G, Vol. 30,
——— (1995e) GN: Russian flux-grown synthetic alexandrites. G&G, Vol. No. 2, pp. 102–108.
31, No. 4, p. 285. ——— (1995) Reconstituted, reconstructed, recrystallized, regrown—
Kanda H. (1999) Color of high-pressure synthetic diamonds. G&G, Vol. again!, Jewelers’ Circular Keystone, Vol. 166, No. 9, September, pp.
35, No. 3, pp. 174–175. 94–97.
Kane R.E. (1983) The Ramaura synthetic ruby. G&G, Vol. 19, No. 3, pp. ——— (1997) The chronology of synthetic gemstones. JofG, Vol. 25, No. 7,
130–148. pp. 483–490.
——— (1991) GTLN: Synthetic ruby: Manufactured mineral specimen. ——— (1999) Moissanite: A new synthetic gemstone material. JofG, Vol.
G&G, Vol. 27, No. 1, pp. 43–44. 26, No. 7, pp. 425–438.
Kiefert L., Schmidt S.Th. (1996) Some tanzanite imitations. G&G, Vol. 32, Nassau K., McClure S.F., Elen S., Shigley J.E. (1997) Synthetic moissanite:
No. 4, pp. 270–276. A new diamond substitute. G&G, Vol. 33, No. 4, pp. 260–275.
Klages C.-P. (1995) Metastable diamond synthesis—Principles and applica- Nassau K., Coleman T.G., Hunter C.E. (1999) Gemstones formed of sili-
tions. European Journal of Mineralogy, Vol. 7, No. 4, pp. 767–774. con carbide with diamond coating. U.S. Patent 5,882,786, issued
Koivula J.I., Kammerling R.C., Eds. (1988) GN: Unusual synthetic beryls March 19, 1999.
from the Soviet Union. G&G, Vol. 24, No. 4, pp. 252–253. Peretti H.A., Smith C.P. (1993) A new type of synthetic ruby on the mar-

ket: Offered as hydrothermal rubies from Novosibirsk. AusG, Vol. 18, flux–grown synthetic alexandrite. G&G, Vol. 32, No. 3, pp. 186–202.
No. 5, pp. 149–156. Schmetzer K., Kiefert L., Bernhardt H.-J., Beili Z. (1997) Characterization
Peretti A., Mullis J., Mouawad F., Guggenheim R. (1997) Inclusions in syn- of Chinese hydrothermal synthetic emerald. G&G, Vol. 33, No. 4, pp.
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ods (Tairus, Novosibirsk, Russia). JofG, Vol. 25, No. 8, pp. 541–561. Sechos B. (1997) Identifying characteristics of hydrothermal synthetics.
Recker K., Wallrafen F. (1992) Fresnoit—ein neuer synthetischer AusG, Vol. 19, No. 9, pp. 383–388.
Schmuckstein. Z. Dt. Gemmol. Ges., Vol. 41, No. 4, pp. 176–177. Shigley J.E., Fritsch E., Reinitz I., Moon M. (1992) An update on Sumitomo
Reinitz I. (1999a) GTLN: Group of 18 synthetic diamonds submitted at gem-quality synthetic diamonds. G&G, Vol. 28, No. 2, pp. 116–122.
one time. G&G, Vol. 35, No. 2, p. 139. Shigley J.E., Fritsch E., Koivula J.I., Sobolev N.V., Malinovsky I.Y.,
——— (1999b) GTLN: Synthetic diamond—Black. G&G, Vol. 35, No. 2, p. Pal’yanov Y.N. (1993a) The gemological properties of Russian gem-
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Rinaudo C., Trossarelli C. (1998) On the anomalous birefringence of Shigley J.E., Fritsch E., Reinitz I. (1993b) Two near-colorless General
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TECHNOLOGICAL DEVELOPMENTS
IN THE 1990S:
THEIR IMPACT ON GEMOLOGY
By Mary L. Johnson
In the last decade, technology has improved

how we synthesize, process, identify, and oth-
erwise study gem materials. Significant trends
include: the widespread availability of com-
puterized communication; the application of
T he other articles in this retrospective issue address
tangible subjects: localities, synthetic gem materi-
als, treated gems, and jewelry. In contrast, this
article is about a concept, technology—about how we per-
form tasks differently in the gem trade than we did 10 years
synthesis techniques to gem treatments; the ago. A moment’s reflection will convince the reader that the
increased prominence of treated synthetics;
changes in the last decade have been enormous, and perva-
the greater need for expensive instrumentation
to solve gem problems in general, and the
sive. This broad overview is intended to examine the many
broader availability of small dedicated instru- technological innovations—new methods, new instruments,
ments to solve specific problems; and the and new applications for known instruments—that charac-
adaptation of techniques from other sciences. terized the last decade, and to point the reader to further
Potentially applicable technology must be information. Three trends have been especially important: (1)
evaluated critically to assess its usefulness the rise of computer-related communication; (2) the increas-
and appropriateness to solve a particular ing sophistication of gem treatments, to the point of blurring
gemological problem. the boundaries between treatment and synthesis (e.g., high
pressure/high temperature–processed diamonds [figure 1] and
flux-like fillings and new growth in heat-treated rubies); and
(3) the growing need for instrumentation-based identification
for gem treatments (e.g., B-jade) and synthetics (e.g., synthet-
ic amethyst). Some widely heralded developments, however,
such as the introduction of (doubly refractive) synthetic
ABOUT THE AUTHOR moissanite as a diamond simulant, reinforce the continued
Dr. Johnson ([email protected]) is manager importance of “classical” gemology in this increasingly tech-
of research and development at the GIA Gem nological industry.
Trade Laboratory in Carlsbad, California.
Acknowledgments: Jacquelyn Haahr and Barak BACK TO THE BEGINNING:
Green consolidated references; Dr. James
Shigley, John Koivula, Kim Cino, and Mark Parisi
WHERE WERE WE IN 1990?
engaged in discussions that much improved this The Spring 1990 issue of Gems & Gemology (Fritsch and
manuscript. Robert Kane, Dr. Ilene Reinitz, and Rossman, 1990) described four key challenges from the previ-
Thomas M. Moses also had helpful comments
on the manuscript. Dr. James Shigley, Elizabeth ous decade that stimulated technological developments in
Schrader, Dr. Karl Schmetzer, Brendan Laurs, gem testing: (1) the availability of smaller, more powerful com-
and Stuart Overlin obtained illustrations. puters for instrument control; (2) the introduction of new syn-
Gems & Gemology, Vol. 36, No. 4, pp. 380–396 thetic gem materials; (3) the advent of new treatments to meet
© 2000 Gemological Institute of America the growing market for colored stones; and (4) the need to pro-
duce more and better information about gem materials to
380 Technologies of the 1990s GEMS & GEMOLOGY Winter 2000

Figure 1. At the end of the 1990s, Raman spec-
trometry became an important technique for
detecting HPHT-processed type IIa diamonds,
such as this 0.45 ct E-color GE POL diamond
(inset). Photoluminescence spectra (below)
obtained with this technique show features—
particularly the ratio of the 575 to the 637 nm
peak—that can be used to separate the vast
majority of HPHT-processed from untreated
type IIa diamonds. To achieve high-resolution
spectra, the diamonds are cryogenically
cooled in a specially designed sample cham-
ber using liquid nitrogen (left). A laser beam is
focused through the optical microscope, and a
mirror is used to deflect the beam into the
sample chamber. Photos by Elizabeth
Schrader (inset) and Joe Duffy (left).
meet demand by consumers for better disclosure, diamonds). Other experimentally used detection
especially concerning possibly radioactive gem mate- techniques were: nuclear magnetic resonance
rials. Greater computer power meant that more data (NMR), electron spin resonance (ESR), and proton-
could be processed faster; computer controls also low- induced X-ray emission (PIXE).
ered the cost of synthesis by providing better repro- Technological changes since 1990 have had an
ducibility and yield. New or improved synthesis tech- impact on virtually every aspect of the gem busi-
niques included Czochralski pulling, hydrothermal ness, but most importantly for the gemologist they
growth, “image furnaces” and skull melting (e.g., for have affected communication, cut evaluation, devel-
YAG), and HPHT synthesis, especially for diamonds. opment of new gem treatments (and proliferation of
Chemical vapor deposition (CVD) was used to pro- synthetics), and growing reliance on more
duce thin-film coatings of (synthetic) diamond and “advanced” techniques. Some of the procedures we
diamond-like carbon; other important treatments of use today have been developed within the last
the ‘80s were irradiation (especially of topaz), fracture decade, but many are refinements of, or adaptations
filling of diamonds and emeralds, and the treatment from, earlier technologies. This review does not
of synthetics to resemble treated natural materials. attempt to achieve completeness, but is intended as
By 1990, established analytical techniques with a summary of those technological developments
gemological applications included: electron micro- that were most important to the gem trade in com-
probe analysis, X-ray fluorescence (XRF) for bulk puters and communication, gemstone cutting, syn-
chemical analyses, infrared and Raman spec- thesis and treatment, and gem identification (both
troscopy, and cathodoluminescence (especially of classical methods and advanced techniques).
Technologies of the 1990s GEMS & GEMOLOGY Winter 2000 381

worldwide less than two hours after it first came to
GIA’s attention (Alex Angelle, pers. comm., 2000).
Computers connect a businessperson to an on-line
community, with forums for discussion (Voorhees et
al., 1999) and specialized commerce sites (business-
to-business—B2B—and business-to-consumer—B2C;
see, e.g., Diamond, 1999; Weinbach, 2000). Internet
retailing is a new development, already going
through boom and bust cycles; Janowski (1999) pre-
dicted that retailing on the Internet could represent
15% of jewelry business by 2005.
Online archives and databases continue to grow
(see, e.g., “The geosciences in review,” 1996), making
fundamental information available for the price of a
few mouse-clicks. A relevant example for the gemo-
logical community is Dr. George Rossman’s Mineral
Figure 2. Today, researchers can easily access an Spectroscopy Server (http://minerals.gps.caltech.edu;
abundance of information on the Internet, such
figure 2), which contains an abundance of easily
as the spectroscopy data on Dr. George
accessible spectroscopy data. Online gemology cours-
Rossman’s Mineral Spectroscopy Server at
http://minerals.gps.caltech.edu. es are also available on the Internet. Search engines
scan the World Wide Web for relevant information,
and “meta-search” engines search the search engines.
COMPUTERS AND WORLDWIDE The new user is cautioned, however, that nonsense
COMMUNICATION on the Internet can be expressed as authoritatively as
Perhaps the most significant change in the last decade knowledge is, and that popularity is not a guarantee
was the greater reliance on computers and computer of quality, so the credibility of the source must
networking. The widespread availability of vastly always be considered in assessing information.
increased computational power and connectivity has
revolutionized the way business is conducted, in the NEW TECHNOLOGIES IN GEM
gemological laboratories as much as in the rest of the CUTTING AND CUT EVALUATION
gem trade. For example, both the GIA Gem Trade Planning and Cutting Rough. Diamond cutting and
Laboratory and the AGTA Gemological Testing polishing (see, e.g., Caspi, 1997) involves many deci-
Center use sophisticated databases to track gem iden- sions, all meant to maximize the profit achievable
tification and grading data within the laboratory (K. from a particular piece of rough. Today, many of
Cino, pers. comm., 1998; K. Scarratt, pers. comm., these decisions are being made with the help of com-
2000). Within any business, computers can improve puterized equipment: These machines can determine
accounting and inventory practices (Golding, 1991), which cuts may be fashioned economically (“Sarin’s
for which commercial software is available (see, e.g., new mapping machine…”, 1999); or provide auto-
Greig, 1999). The increase in computer power also led matic centering, blocking, bruting (figure 3), polish-
to smaller and less-expensive sophisticated instru- ing, and girdle faceting (Hourmouzios, 1996; see also
ments; for instance, both Sarasota Instruments Koivula and Kammerling, 1991d; Lawrence, 1997a,
(Osprey, Florida) and Adamas Gemological Laboratory 1998). Laser cutting is another efficient way to fash-
(Brookline, Massachusetts) produced PC-based spec- ion rough (Hourmouzios, 1996; Caspi, 1997).
trophotometers (Kammerling et al., 1995c; Haske, A new theoretical model for the anisotropic behav-
1999). P. Read and M. Haske produced new versions ior of diamond during polishing (that diamond polish-
of gem identification software (Read, 1996). es more easily in one direction than another) is based
Computers also have redefined the expected speed on local conversion of diamond to graphite on the sur-
of communications. For example, although Gems & face during polishing (Van Bouwelen et al., 1997). A
Gemology remains a quarterly journal, information new machine, the Horizon 200, has been developed to
on its web site (www.gia.edu/gandg) changes almost measure the smoothness of a diamond’s surface;
weekly. As another instance, on GIA’s home page, a results suggest that the more slowly material is
forged letter in Thailand was recently disavowed removed in the last stages of diamond polishing, the

better the finish quality will be (Lawrence, 1997b).
Software for designing colored stone cuts is avail-
able (e.g., Gem Cad [http://www.gemcad.net]; see
also Atwell and Hunt, 1993). Automation has also
been applied to the fashioning of colored stones. The
CSIRO in Australia developed equipment for robotic
cutting of opals (Cody and Brown, 1992). In 1994,
Golay Buchel demonstrated machine-cut calibrated
synthetics and simulants (e.g., synthetic spinel
triplets that resemble emeralds) as small as 1 mm in
diameter (Koivula et al., 1994a). In 1995, Swarovski
debuted machine-cut calibrated colored stones, with Figure 3. Automatic bruting machines were one
a possible production of 300,000 items per day of the many innovations in planning and cut-
(Kammerling et al., 1995h). ting diamond rough in the 1990s. Photo by
On a related note, many gems respond differently James E. Shigley.
to different types of illumination, and the appear-
ance created by the halogen lamps now generally
used in retail jewelry displays is quite different from discussion here will focus on synthesis and treat-
that seen by the consumer in a more typical at-home ment technology rather than identification.
or workplace lighting environment. Therefore,
Eickhorst (1999) recommended that other types of Colored Stone Synthesis. As discussed in the
illumination, such as modern fluorescent lights, “Synthetics” article in this issue (Koivula et al.,
might be used to better purpose in selling gems. 2000), Russia and China were important centers of
gem synthesis during the decade (see, e.g., Schmetzer,
Evaluation of Diamond Cut. Although many people 1990; Bukin, 1992; Thomas et al., 1997; Johnson and
“know” that the best cut for a round brilliant dia- Koivula, 1998e; Tauson et al., 1998; Balitsky et al.,
mond was determined by Marcel Tolkowsky in 1998, 1999a,b; and synthetic diamond references
1919, research on proportions and cut began before cited below). At the VNIISIMS facility near Moscow
then and has continued to the present day (see, e.g., in 1994, about 500 researchers were investigating
references cited by Hemphill et al., 1998). All such synthetic gem materials, using equipment such as
models rely on assumptions about the source of illu- the furnaces shown in figure 4 (Koivula et al., 1994c).
mination (spectrum, location, size, and shape) and Anhydrous (without water) crystal growth tech-
the position of the diamond relative to the observer niques described include pulled-melt growth tech-
(e.g., Love, 1989, assumed that a diamond is more niques for synthetic forsterite (Nassau, 1994); top-
brilliant if it looks brilliant while tilted as well as seeded solution growth and pulling from a melt with
face-up). Some modern analyses rely on computers to a continuously varied composition (applied to fluo-
predict the optical performance of various cuts and rides, but adaptable to other synthesis challenges;
sets of proportions (see, e.g., Hemphill et al., 1998; Koivula et al., 1992c); flux growth of synthetic
Gilbertson, 1999; http://www.gemology.ru); but geo- alexandrite (Schmetzer et al., 1996) and synthetic
metric models continued to be produced, mainly in spinel (Bukin, 1992); and growth of gem-quality syn-
the Japanese literature (see, e.g., Kato, 1991). At this thetic moissanite by the Lely sublimation process
time, there is no consensus as to the “best” set of (Nassau et al., 1997). Czochralski-pulled synthetic
proportions for round brilliant cut diamonds. corundums made from naturally occurring starting
materials were represented incorrectly as “recrystal-
NEW TECHNOLOGIES IN lized” rubies or sapphires (Kammerling et al., 1995g).
SYNTHESIS AND TREATMENT Flux-grown synthetic emerald crystals grew larger if
Innovations in synthesis and treatment, and the phosphorus was added to the flux (Kayama and
application of existing technologies to new starting Kuwano, 1998), or if grown from oriented seeds in a
materials, led to a variety of new gem materials in rotating crucible (Barilo et al., 1999). A study of yttri-
the 1990s. Because there are articles in this issue um-aluminum oxide melts explained why large YAG
that address synthetics and treatments in depth crystals cannot be grown from a flux: The melt sepa-
(Koivula et al., 2000; McClure and Smith, 2000), the rates into two viscous fluids that do not recombine

tetrahedral, octahedral (Koivula and Kammerling,
1991b), or cubic symmetry; and split-sphere presses
(sometimes called BARS for the Russian initials: see,
e.g., Koivula et al., 1992d; Shigley et al., 1993b). Most
HPHT synthetic diamonds are grown in a nickel-iron
flux (see, e.g., Burns et al., 1999; Choudhary and
Bellare, 2000); high-quality synthetic diamonds, with
fewer defects than natural diamonds, can be grown
using a temperature gradient in the HPHT cell
(Pal’yanov et al., 1998). Efforts have been made to
grow diamonds from graphite-carbonate (Akaishi et
al., 1990), -hydroxide, -sulfate, -phosphate and -borate
fluxes (Kanda and Akaishi, 1991), as well as from a
Figure 4. Although not new technology, furnaces silicate (kimberlite) flux (Arima et al., 1993), but so
such as these in Chernogolovka, Russia, were far the resulting crystals have been very small.
used to grow large quantities of synthetic gems However, as many of the characteristic features of
in the 1990s. Photo by James E. Shigley. synthetic diamonds—e.g., magnetism, types of inclu-
sions, and luminescence spectra—are a result of the
fluxes used, the development of alternative fluxes
easily (Aasland and McMillian, 1994). Growth zones must be watched carefully.
in hydrothermal synthetics may be due (at least in
part) to sporadic temperature fluctuations during the Gem Treatments. Heat treatment of rubies and yel-
growth process (Thomas et al., 1999). low and blue sapphires was performed in high-tem-
perature furnaces (figure 6) with carefully con-
Diamond Synthesis. Throughout the 1990s, HPHT trolled atmospheres; methods used during this
diamond synthesis employed a variety of large press- decade were described in detail by Themelis (1992)
es (see, e.g., figure 5). These included a belt-type appa- and Emmett and Douthit (1993), with additional
ratus (a piston/cylinder press with a special, strength- details gleanable from Themelis (1995) and Johnson
ened central cylinder); multiple-anvil presses with et al. (1999a). Wang et al. (1992) used molten salt
baths, at somewhat lower temperatures (900°C
rather than 1200°–1800°C or so), to improve the
Figure 5. This BARS apparatus in Novosibirsk is color of blue sapphires. Diffusion treatment, which
typical of the split-sphere presses commonly used introduces chromophores at and near the surface of
to manufacture Russian synthetic diamonds, fashioned corundum, was described by Kane et al.
such as the 0.04–1.07 ct samples in the inset. (1990). As the decade progressed, the depth of possi-
Shown here is the sample chamber as viewed ble diffusion treatment increased, and in some
from directly above. Photo of press by James E. samples the need for repolishing was eliminated,
Shigley; examples in inset courtesy of Alex
minimizing the characteristic color concentrations
Grizenko, photo by Maha Tannous.
at facet junctions (Emmett, 1999).
The most contentious emerald treatment was
clarity enhancement (fissure filling); controversies
raged as to whether disclosure rules should be differ-
ent for emeralds that had been “oiled” than for those
so treated with artificial resins such as Opticon and
the new Gematrat and Permasafe treatments. Work
by Zecchini and Maitrallet (1998) and Hänni and col-
leagues (see, e.g., Hänni et al., 1996a,b; Chalain et al.,
1998) indicated that artificial resins and commonly
used “essential oils” had different infrared and
Raman spectra. However, using the same instrumen-
tation on a greater number of known and potential
fillers, Johnson et al. (1999c) showed that artificial

resins could not be distinguished from such oils with
100% certainty. Emerald treatment equipment (fig-
ure 7) became available in the early 1990s from sever-
al sources, including Israel (e.g., Koivula et al., 1993a;
Koivula et al., 1994b).
Instances of stones rendered radioactive by treat-
ment continue to be discovered. In the last decade,
americium was used to irradiate diamonds (Ashbaugh
and Moses, 1993; Reinitz and Johnson, 1994), some of
which will be radioactive for thousands of years.
Reactor-irradiated (and radioactive) ruby (Johnson and
Koivula, 1998d) and cat’s-eye chrysoberyl (to make
“chocolate-brown” body color; Johnson and Koivula,
1997d) were discovered in circulation; in some cases,
these could be quite hazardous.
Toward the end of the decade, new identification
challenges emerged on two fronts: (1) the distinction
of treated synthetics from synthetics, and (2) the use
of synthesis methods to treat natural gem materials.
Synthetics are treated for several reasons: to achieve
colors not otherwise available (e.g., red treated-color
synthetic diamonds: Moses et al., 1993), to disguise
the synthetic nature of the starting material (e.g.,
quench-crackled or diffusion-treated synthetic corun-
dum: Johnson and Koivula, 1997b, 1998b; Free et al.,
1999), or to “stabilize” low-quality starting material
(e.g., polymer-impregnated synthetic opal: Johnson
Figure 6. High-temperature furnaces such as this
and Koivula, 1998c). Some laboratories, such as the
one were used with carefully controlled gas mix-
GIA Gem Trade Laboratory, now disclose certain
tures to perform heat treatment of rubies and
treated synthetics on identification reports (e.g., treat- yellow and blue sapphires (see inset for stones
ed-color synthetic diamonds, diffusion-treated syn- before [top] and after treatment; average size 4.5
thetic corundum, and polymer-impregnated synthet- mm). Furnace photo courtesy of Linn High
ic opal: Shane McClure, pers. comm., 2000). Therm GmbH; inset photos © GIA and Tino
In the past, synthesis methods applied to treat- Hammid (top) and © John L. Emmett (bottom).
ment have entailed creating overgrowths on exist-
ing gems (such as CVD overgrowths on diamonds
and Lechleitner synthetic emerald overgrowths on ing the degree of strain (see, e.g., Smith et al., 2000,
beryl), and such techniques continue to be used. pp. 194–195). Synthetic diamonds have been
However, even techniques thought to be used sim- “annealed” (70–80 kbar pressure and 2000°–2200°C
ply for treatment can create new growth; for for 4–5 hours) to produce yellow and greenish yellow
instance, Mong Hsu rubies show new crystal hues (Shigley et al., 1993a). Fancy yellow synthetic
growth with heat treatment (Johnson and McClure, diamonds with type IaA aggregates can be produced
2000). High-temperature techniques that can be by treating typical (type Ib) synthetic yellow dia-
used for both synthesis and treatment blur the line monds at high pressure (Koivula et al., 1992d). HPHT
between treated gems and synthetics. processing of some brownish type IIa natural dia-
One of the most important recent developments monds can remove color to the point of rendering the
in diamond treatments is the use of high pressure stone colorless (D–F); early experiments with this
and high temperature for short amounts of time to method were done in Russia (Teslenko, 1993), and
either decolorize the diamond or give it a more recently General Electric has been processing dia-
attractive color. This treatment works by changing monds in this fashion for commercial distribution
the aggregation state of nitrogen in the diamonds, (for further information on these GE POL diamonds,
introducing or modifying defects, and possibly chang- see, e.g., Johnson et al., 1999b; Moses et al., 1999).

• An explanation of the “Plato effect” in synthetic
corundum (Johnson and Koivula, 1999), which is
seen by looking edge-on at the irregular edges of
mosaic crystallites
• Use of microscopic techniques from optical min-
eralogy by gemologists to identify small particles,
such as minute scrapings from a gem (Hodgkin-
son, 1994)
• Obtaining the optic figure of a transparent inclu-
sion in a transparent gemstone, using a “cono-
scope” (focusing lens on a microscope) in contact
Figure 7. In the early 1990s, emerald treatment with the host gem (Koivula, 1993)
equipment became available from several sources. • Use of short-wave UV radiation to distinguish stri-
The “Mini Oiler” shown here uses a hand-operated
ae in synthetic sapphires (Kammerling et al., 1994)
vacuum-pressure pump both to remove air and
moisture from fractures and to create pressure for • Use of pleochroism to tell diffusion treatment
fracture filling. Photo courtesy of Colgem-Zamrot. (pleochroism should exist) from coating (no
pleochroism) for anisotropic gems (Koivula and
Kammerling, 1991a)
Other brown type Ia diamonds turn greenish yellow • Use of a refractometer to measure dispersion, by
to brownish yellow (Henn and Milisenda, 1999; calibrating results against benitoite and fluorite
Reinitz et al., 2000—see figure 8). For a review of (Hanneman, 1992)
related technology, as revealed in recent patents for • Use of thermal conductivity to distinguish (most)
HPHT treatment, see Schmetzer (1999). synthetic emeralds from (most) natural emeralds—
synthetics tend to have lower values (Read, 1990a)
NEW TECHNOLOGIES IN
GEM IDENTIFICATION Gemological Instruments. Innovations also contin-
Gemological Techniques. “Classical” gemology is a ued in the development and improvement of
relatively mature field; consequently, technical instruments for basic gemology. The following are
gains in this area over the last decade have for the a few of the many advances in the decade. Reflec-
most part been small refinements and discoveries, tivity meters, including the Brewster-angle refrac-
not major innovations. Among these were: tometer, compensate for their lower precision than
• Refinement of weight estimation formulas for standard refractometers by measuring a wider range
mounted stones (Carmona, 1998a,b) of refractive indices (up to 3.3: Read, 1990b;
Kammerling et al., 1995a). Dr. W. Hanneman pro-
• A procedure to measure the specific gravity of
duced many small gemological instruments,
mounted goods (Mitchell, 1992)
including an inexpensive replacement for a quartz
• Alan Hodgkinson’s “visual optics,” including a wedge, which could be used with a microscope to
method to distinguish diamond from various sub- determine the optic sign of a gem (Koivula et al.,
stitutes by noting the pattern of dispersed flashes 1992b). Because darkfield illumination is generally
from a fashioned stone (Hodgkinson, 1989), as needed to see small inclusions well, a darkfield
well as tests with simple equipment to estimate loupe was developed by GIA GEM Instruments
or determine optic character, birefringence, dis- (Koivula and Kammerling, 1991c; figure 9).
persion, pleochroism, and refractive index Other new gemological equipment included two
(Hodgkinson, 1995) types of immersion cells to distinguish diffusion-
• Confirmation of appropriate tests to identify treated corundum, one illuminated (Koivula et al.,
black opaque gem materials (Johnson et al., 1992a; Linton et al., 1994) and one for use with a
1996), including examining the surface in polar- penlight (Read, 1993). A modified “phosphoro-
ized reflected light scope” for short-wave UV testing was described by
• Use of polarized reflected light to help identify Elen and Fritsch (1999, pp. 36–37). A strong magnet
opaque inclusions at the surface of non-opaque on a convenient mounting could be used to distin-
gems (Crowningshield and Johnson, 1994) guish (most) unmounted synthetic diamonds that

contain metallic inclusions from natural diamonds
(Kammerling et al., 1995d; Hanneman, 1996;
Hodgkinson, 1996). H. Linton and colleagues on the
Gemmological Association of Australia Instrument
Evaluation Committee reviewed many new gemo-
logical instruments in the Australian Gemmologist,
including: the Bailey light source, an inexpensive,
low-powered replacement for sodium D-line illumi-
nation for a refractometer (Linton et al., 1996); and
the Meiji Technico GF-252 combination refrac-
tometer/polariscope (Linton et al., 1997).
Growth Structure Analysis. Although morphological
crystallography—the study of a material by identify-
ing its crystal faces and their relationships—predates
the discovery of X-rays, during the 1990s a variation
of this approach was developed to gain information
about the internal structure of gem materials. Faces
(and corresponding growth zones) are most easily
identified by their shapes, but these shapes can
change with relative size; a better technique is to use
the angles between adjacent growth zones, which do
not vary. Kiefert and Schmetzer (1991a,b,c) used a
horizontal immersion microscope to measure these Figure 8. With presses such as this one, dia-
angles, and showed valuable applications (e.g., distin- monds are exposed to high pressure and high
guishing Nigerian and Colombian emeralds from temperature for short periods of time to give
synthetic emeralds). Perhaps the simplest example of them a more attractive color. These five greenish
this technique is the identification of synthetic dia- yellow HPHT-treated diamond crystals
monds on the basis of cubic growth zones (not pres- (1.90–4.45 ct) were originally brown. Instrument
ent in natural diamonds, which grow as octahedra; photo courtesy of Novatek; inset by E. Schrader.
Welbourn et al., 1996 [figure 10]). Growth features
also are useful to understand the growth histories of
some rubies (see, e.g., Peretti et al., 1995; Smith, ing devices are properly calibrated and can detect and
1996) and blue sapphires (Schwarz et al., 1996). show the correct colors (which depends on the color
Color Measurement. Color comparison requires color “gamut” of each piece of equipment).
standards, a choice of illumination (see, e.g., Yonick,
1999), a consistent (nondistracting) background, and “Black Boxes.” A “black box” in this context is a
trained color graders with proven excellent color per- relatively small piece of equipment that gives a
ception (Brown, 1993; King et al., 1994). During the choice of simple responses; it is not necessary to
1990s, machines were devised to measure color, espe- understand the technology to use such a device,
cially for D-to-Z diamonds (e.g., Gran and Austron although understanding prevents many interpreta-
colorimeters; Shor, 1999). In a new application of old tion errors (see, e.g., Liddicoat, 1996). The most com-
technology, existing measurement equipment, such mon “black boxes” are diamond testers, to distin-
as multichannel spectroscopy, was used to “grade” guish diamonds from (most) simulants. A new gen-
colored diamonds; however, these devices were of eration of these were introduced, from hardness pen-
limited effectiveness due to differences in viewing cils to UV-transparency meters, with the commer-
geometry (compared to visual grading), the effect of cial development of synthetic moissanite as a dia-
gemstone fluorescence, and some reproducibility mond simulant (see, e.g., Nassau et al., 1997;
concerns (Peretti, 1995). Color can be communicated Hammer and Stefan, 1999; Hanneman, 1999),
via computer by, for instance, collecting gemstone because synthetic moissanite reads as diamondon
image spectra (Wagner, 1999); however, all such most traditional diamond testers. The De Beers
methods are accurate only if the sending and receiv- DiamondSure distinguishes synthetic diamonds

tions of fashioned stones, mainly diamonds, and
provide “cut grades” according to predetermined
criteria (often a choice of proportion ranges for
“Ideal” cuts). According to its manufacturers, the
GemEx BrillianceScope Analyzer quantifies “disper-
sion,” “light return,” and “brightness” (Schoeckert
and Wagner, 1999), although no reviews of this
equipment were available by the decade’s end.
INNOVATIONS IN ADVANCED
ANALYTICAL TECHNIQUES
Figure 9. The darkfield loupe, shown here with
Of increasing importance in gemology is the need to
a flashlight and tweezers, was developed by
GIA GEM Instruments to help gemologists see
have recourse to techniques that require more
small inclusions. sophisticated (and more expensive) instrumenta-
tion. Commonly referred to as “advanced testing,”
these techniques were developed for—and used rou-
tinely in—other sciences, especially chemistry,
from most natural diamonds on the basis of the pres- physics, and geology (see, e.g., Hawthorne, 1993).
ence (in most natural diamonds) of the 415 nm opti- They usually require considerable training both to
cal absorption line (which is absent in synthetic dia- use the instruments and to interpret the results.
monds), as described by Welbourn et al. (1996; see Applications of some specific techniques to gemolo-
figure 11). Although this device was not commer- gy are described below.
cially available at the end of the decade, it was in use
in some major gemological laboratories. Improvements and New Vistas for Established
Another important set of “black boxes” consists Techniques. Although techniques such as infrared
of measuring devices. Like a Leveridge gauge, the and Raman spectroscopy were developed long before
Presidium Electronic Gemstone Gauge measures the 1990s, they became far more important to gemo-
the external dimensions of a gemstone (Linton and logical laboratories during this decade. Such tech-
Brown, 1990). The Presidium DiaMeter-System niques were also modified or adapted to answer new
Berger (again, see Linton and Brown, 1990), Sarin challenges presented by treatments and synthetics.
BrilliantEye (Lawrence, 1998), and OGI Megascope
(“New machine . . . ,” 1998) measure the propor- Ultraviolet-Visible (UV-Vis) Spectroscopy. This
was a mature technology, with a few new develop-
ments in the 1990s. Diamond spectra are generally
run at low temperatures to improve resolution, but
Figure 10. The yellow-fluorescing octagon in the
middle of the table of this 2.19 ct synthetic diamond
Lifante et al. (1990) noted that by taking mathemat-
represents growth on a cubic face. Cubic growth ical derivatives of room-temperature spectra—that
zones are not seen in natural diamonds. Photo cour- is, by examining the changes of slope in these spec-
tesy of De Beers DTC Research Centre. tra—better resolution could also be achieved.
Diffuse UV-Vis reflectance spectroscopy can be
used in combination with infrared techniques to
identify gems, and a database of these spectra has
been produced (Tretyakova et al., 1997, 1999).
Infrared Spectroscopy. During the 1990s, IR spec-

troscopy found some important new applications.
This is the best technique to determine whether
or not jadeite has been bleached and polymer-
impregnated (Fritsch et al., 1992; figure 12), and IR
analysis of jadeite has now become standard practice
in some gemological laboratories. Smith (1995)
showed that the IR spectra of heat-treated Mong Hsu

rubies were different from those of unheated rubies.
Emeralds fall into five different groups based on IR
spectra in the hydroxyl and water regions, although
water-rich samples require emerald powder to be
mixed into KBr pellets, which is somewhat destruc-
tive (Schmetzer and Kiefert, 1990). Most manufac-
tured glasses can be distinguished from obsidian and
other natural glasses based on their IR spectra
(Owens, 1999). Yan et al. (1995) described an infrared
microscope that works in much the same way as a
Raman microspectrometer: Visible-light optics are
used to focus on the region of interest, and an IR spec- Figure 11. Based on the absence or presence of the 415
trum is then collected. nm absorption line, De Beers’s DiamondSure refers
synthetic diamonds and some natural diamonds for
Diamonds are usually divided into four types (Ia,
further testing while “passing” most natural dia-
Ib, IIa, and IIb) based on the amounts of trace nitrogen
monds. The fiber-optic probe is mounted vertically (as
and boron present, and the aggregation state of the here) for testing loose stones, and can be removed for
nitrogen, as evident in their IR spectra (Fritsch and testing mounted stones. Photo by M. J. Crowder.
Scarratt, 1992; Weldon, 1999). Knowledge of diamond
type can help separate natural from synthetic dia-
monds (see, e.g., Shigley et al., 1995); also, different
diamond types react differently to HPHT processing. al., 1997; Johnson and Koivula, 1997c). Because
Although transmission geometry (i.e., the beam Raman spectra can be gathered on mounted gems,
is passed through the sample) is used in most gemo- this is a convenient technique for examining arti-
logical applications, IR spectroscopy is also useful in facts (see, e.g., Hänni et al., 1998). Toward the end
reflected beam mode. With the latter, the beam may of the decade, it promised to play a key role in the
be bounced off the sample’s surface or focused with- identification of HPHT treatment in diamonds.
in the sample (e.g., Johnson et al., 1999c). Although
this technique is sometimes called DRIFT (diffuse
reflected infrared Fourier transform) spectroscopy, Figure 12. IR spectroscopy has now become
for gemological purposes the beam generally is trans- standard practice in some gemological laborato-
mitted through the sample and then reflected off a ries for determining whether jadeite has been
mirror, rather than being reflected off the sample bleached and polymer-impregnated. The strong
surface. Reflectance IR spectroscopy has been used absorption in the 2900 cm-1 region of the mid-
to detect fillers in emerald (see, e.g., Zecchini and infrared spectrum is particularly useful for
Maitrallet, 1998; Chalain et al., 1998) and jadeite detecting treated jadeite.
(Quek and Tan, 1997), as well as to distinguish syn-
thetic from natural emeralds (Johnson and Koivula,
1996a). Tretyakova et al. (1997) noted that three
reflected-radiation techniques (reflected IR, reflected
UV-visible spectroscopy, and reflected Raman) have
their individual limitations, but can be used together
to derive more complete results.
Raman Spectroscopy. Perhaps the single most

important “new” instrument in gemological re-
search in the last decade was the laser Raman
microspectrometer (again, see figure 1). This sensi-
tive luminescence technology found widespread use
in the nondestructive identification of inclusions
(and fillers) in various gem materials, even under
the gem’s surface, as well as of the gem materials
themselves (see, e.g., Koivula et al., 1993b; Hänni et

see discussion of “Raman spectroscopy,” above), as
well as time-delayed emission of light (phosphores-
cence). A prototype “microspectrofluorimeter” was
developed to collect emission spectra from small
spots on samples (Dubois-Fournier et al., 1989); it is
also possible to see photoluminescence by placing a
sample between two filters that together block out
all light (the “crossed-filter” technique: Hoover and
Theisen, 1993). The De Beers DiamondView
(Welbourn et al., 1996) images samples using their
fluorescence to radiation below 230 nm in wave-
Figure 13. The De Beers DiamondView images a
length (i.e., at higher energy than short-wave UV).
diamond’s fluorescence to radiation below 230 At these energies, all diamonds fluoresce, and syn-
nm in wavelength. The blue fluorescence of the thetic diamonds show different patterns of growth
natural diamond shown on the monitor is typi- than natural diamonds (figure 13).
cal of most natural diamonds. Photo courtesy of Many studies in the ‘90s used cathodolumines-
De Beers DTC Research Centre. cence, collecting images and spectra from samples
that glow on exposure to an electron beam (see, e.g.,
Ponahlo, 1989; Johnson and Koivula, 1998a).
Sunagawa et al. (1998) used cathodoluminescence
This technique provides a “fingerprint” of the mate- images to confirm that two faceted diamonds came
rial tested: Raman spectral peaks of crystalline sub- from the same piece of rough. Pulsed cathodolumi-
stances are sharp and occur at fixed energies; less- nescence has yielded new spectral features in corun-
organized materials such as opal, resins, and oils dum and spinel (Solomonov et al., 1994).
have broad but often distinctive spectral features.
Today, most major gemological laboratories have a Electron Microprobe Analysis and Scanning
Raman microprobe (microspectrophotometer). Electron Microscopy. Again, these technologies
Spectral libraries were needed to apply Raman should be considered mature (even in gemology), and
analysis easily to gemology; one of the first in this were routinely used for chemical analysis and imag-
field was produced by Pinet et al. (Schubnel, ing of gem materials during the decade (see, e.g.,
1992), while others are available from manufac- Raber, 1996). Two types of detection systems are
turers (e.g., Renishaw) and on the Internet (e.g., employed for chemical analysis: (1) energy-dispersive
http://minerals.gps.caltech.edu/files/raman). Given spectroscopy, which is quicker; and (2) wavelength-
a reliable spectral library, a Raman spectrum can dispersive spectroscopy, which is much more accu-
provide within minutes an identification that other- rate (Nikischer, 1999). “Windowless” detectors and
wise might require several hours for both chemical layered crystal detectors (both of which became
analysis and X-ray diffraction. more common in the 1990s) have made it possible
Some gem materials luminesce to the laser exci- to measure the light elements boron, carbon, oxy-
tation, and this photoluminescence can swamp the gen, nitrogen, and fluorine (see, e.g., Hänni et al.,
Raman signal (Kammerling et al., 1995f), or itself be 1994; Johnson and McClure, 2000). SEM detectors
captured and evaluated. Luminescence spectra have became so efficient that it was possible to show the
been collected at room temperature (Chalain et al., opal structure in Kyocera impregnated synthetic
1999) and low temperatures (Fisher and Spits, 2000; opals without first carbon- or gold-coating the sam-
Smith et al., 2000; again, see figure 1) from dia- ples (Kammerling et al., 1995b).
monds suspected of HPHT treatment, in the hope
of developing robust identification criteria. At the X-ray Fluorescence Spectroscopy and X-ray
turn of the millennium, this is an active area of sig- Diffraction. XRF was applied routinely to many iden-
nificant research. tification problems in this decade. This technique is
used to get an approximate bulk chemistry of various
Luminescence Spectrometry and Imaging. This materials, including colored stones, diamonds (e.g., to
topic includes luminescence to UV radiation (fluo- detect fracture filling), and pearls (to distinguish fresh-
rescence) and to visible light (photoluminescence; water from saltwater pearls and to detect some treat-

ments). There have been a few new applications in 1996), providing a practical micro-equivalent to wet
this decade. For instance, since the penetration depth chemistry as well as isotope chemistry. However,
of the X-ray beam can be less than the sample thick- the (micro) destructive nature of these techniques, as
ness, XRF has been used to demonstrate diffusion well as their limited availability and expense, will
treatment in a star sapphire (Johnson and Koivula, likely restrict their gemological applications in the
1996b). Energy-dispersive (EDXRF) systems with ele- near future. In addition, as the spot size (and result-
ment-mapping capability now permit researchers to ing crater) gets smaller, reproducibility may suffer.
observe the distribution and concentration of chemi- There have been several isotopic studies of emer-
cal components within a sample (e.g., the Kevex alds, especially by Giuliani and co-workers (see, e.g.,
Omicron: Sam Muhlmeister, pers. comm., 2000). Cheilletz et al., 1994; Giuliani et al., 1997, 1998,
X-ray diffraction is another “mature” field, with 2000). The oxygen isotopes of Colombian, Afghan,
few relevant innovations to applied gemology (versus, Brazilian, Zambian, Tanzanian, and Nigerian emer-
e.g., characterization of new gem species) in the last alds may be related to their source rocks and tem-
decade. One notable development is the availability of peratures of formation (Johnson and Koivula, 1997a;
diffraction reference spectra on CD-ROM, with com- Giuliani et al., 1998), which may provide clues to
puter search capability (from the International Center the locality of origin.
for Diffraction Data, Newtown Square, PA). Conventional ICP-MS has been used to distin-
guish elephant from mammoth ivory, based on stron-
Metals Testing. In one way, metals are easier to test tium-to-calcium ratios (Sato et al., 1991). Together
than gems, as the use of destructive testing is usually with Fourier transform infrared (FTIR) spectroscopy
less of a concern. Four metal-testing techniques— and optical techniques, Pulz et al. (1998) used ICP-MS
density, chemical reactivity, capacitative decay, and to distinguish Campos Verdes (Goiás, Brazil) emeralds
chemistry by EDXRF—were reviewed by Mercer from those from Colombia, Swat (Pakistan), Itabira
(1992) and found to be insufficiently accurate to meet (Minas Gerais, Brazil), and Franqueira (Spain).
U.S. legal standards. However, five years later, nonde-
structive “X-ray assay” was considered reliable X-ray Imaging Techniques. X-ray topography—cre-
enough to substitute for fire assays for testing metals ating images from diffracted X-rays—was described
(Reilley, 1997). LA-ICP-MS (laser ablation–inductive- by Sunagawa et al. (1998), who used it (with
ly coupled plasma–mass spectrometry; see below) is cathodoluminescence) to determine that two fash-
more precise, allowing gold samples to be tracked ioned diamonds had been cut from the same piece
from specific mines by their trace-element contents of rough. Synchrotron Laue patterns of rough Argyle
(“‘Fingerprinting’…,” 1995; see also Guerra et al., diamonds have shown that they are more likely
1999). Particle accelerator–based techniques such as than diamonds from other sources to contain slight-
PIXE (see, e.g., Demortier, 1989) are even more pre- ly misoriented crystallites; because of this mosai-
cise, but access to such machines is limited, and they cism, Argyle diamonds have a high wear resistance
have been used mainly on archeological artifacts (e.g., for industrial uses, but are harder to polish as gems
Calligaro et al., 1998; Demortier et al., 1999). (Clackson and Moore, 1992). Coatings, as well as
mosaic crystals, can be imaged using X-ray diffrac-
Promising Newcomers: Academic Techniques Being tion tomography (Liangguang et al., 1999).
Adapted to Gemology. Isotopic Studies and ICP-MS.
These tests are innately destructive, on one scale or Other Physical and Chemical Techniques. Various
another: Conventional isotope studies require that other instrumental methods have been applied to
the elements being studied be ionized as a liquid or the analysis of gem materials through cooperative
gas, while microbeam techniques use a laser or ion programs at universities and other institutions,
beam to blast ionized particles from small (i.e., tens which make otherwise prohibitively costly, experi-
of microns in diameter) spots in the sample (see, e.g., mental, and/or restricted equipment available to
Günther and Kane, 1999). The resulting trace-ele- researchers. Using computer-aided tomography
ment and isotopic data can yield extensive informa- (CAT scanning), a pearl was shown to be attached to
tion about gems, such as clues to formation ages and the shell in which it had grown (Wentzell, 1995).
parent material. Ion probes and LA-ICP-MS can Scanning tunneling microscopy (STM) is one of a
measure light elements such as hydrogen, lithium, family of related micro-surface techniques that have
and beryllium in gems (“The geosciences in review,” many applications in computer-chip testing but are

e.g., Hutton and Troup, 1994b) has been used to
investigate the valence state and bonding properties
of certain transition elements in gems, including:
manganese in pink tourmaline (Petrov, 1990), vana-
dium in emeralds and green beryls (Hutton and
Troup, 1994a), chromium in natural and synthetic
alexandrites (Rager et al., 1998), and nickel in
annealed synthetic diamonds (Mashkovtsev et al.,
1999). Laser tomography has been used to image
small defects in heat-treated sapphires (Shida, 1990)
and synthetic rubies (Koivula et al., 1993b). At this
time, these techniques are more academic than
practical, but each of them could make useful
Figure 14. Proton-induced X-ray emission (PIXE) gemological determinations.
analysis has been used to nondestructively mea-
sure the trace-element concentrations in gems and Statistical Analysis. The estimation of errors is
metals. The Van de Graaff accelerator shown here important in the assessment of the validity of any
is one method used to generate the proton beam experimental study, regardless of the technique
for this technique; photo courtesy of Tay Thye Sun. used. Recently, however, “demographic” studies
Several PIXE studies have been performed on have been introduced, which use (often simplified)
rubies (see inset of Burmese stone; courtesy of statistical techniques to study the properties of data
Amba Gem Corp., photo © Tino Hammid). populations, rather than individual samples or obser-
vations. For example, the diamond fluorescence
research of Moses et al. (1997) was mainly a statisti-
only beginning to be applied to the study of gems. cal study of human perception of diamond color and
STM revealed that diamond polishing proceeds by transparency as a function of intensity of blue fluo-
chipping in the hardest directions, and by plastic rescence. Although individual responses were quite
deformation and subsequent graphitization in other variable, and sometimes even contradictory, overall
directions (Van Enckevort et al., 1993; Van trends in appearance aspects could be discerned.
Bouwelen and Van Enckevort, 1999). PIXE analysis This study was unusual for gemology in that it con-
(figure 14), an ion-beam technique, has been used for sidered general population trends, instead of individ-
the nondestructive measurement of trace-element ual responses and observations of individual items.
concentrations in gems and metals in Egyptian jew-
elry (Koivula et al., 1993b; Querré et al., 1996), as SUMMARY: INNOVATIVE TRENDS IN
well as in rubies from Myanmar and Thailand (see, THE 1990s AND SOME PREDICTIONS
e.g., Kammerling et al., 1995e; Sanchez et al., 1997), In their 1980s review, Fritsch and Rossman (1990)
and diamond inclusions (Ryan and Griffin, 1993). X- suggested the following as significant remaining
ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS), an analytical challenges for the gem trade: determining natural
technique for surfaces, can determine elemental versus treated colors in natural gems (especially
compositions and oxidation states, and gives similar green diamonds, blue topaz, and red tourmaline),
results to FTIR in testing for surface waxing or poly- instrumentational determination of heat treatment
mer impregnation in jadeite (Tan et al., 1995). (especially corundum) and dyes (e.g., “lavender”
Nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR), a nonde- jade), and the reproducible measurement of a gem’s
structive technique that probes the local environ- color. Progress has been made on some of these
ment of specific elements such as hydrogen and flu- issues in the last decade—notably on determining
orine, can separate some natural and synthetic the origin of color of green diamonds, perhaps the
emeralds, and may be able to detect heat treatment most economically important of these issues—but
in aquamarines (again, see Koivula et al., 1993b); it no definitive methods or solutions have yet been
also shows promise for being able to separate syn- published, and newer crises have relegated the rest
thetic from natural pink-to-orange sapphires (Troup of these issues to a much lower priority.
et al., 1992). Electron paramagnetic resonance (EPR; This last decade was one in which technology
also called electron spin resonance, or ESR—see, brought changes to nearly every aspect of gemology

and gem manufacturing. To this author, the follow- • More treatments and synthetics require advanced
ing trends best summarize the current need for, and testing. For example, a piece of jadeite may show
spirit of, innovation: no obvious signs of polymer impregnation when
viewed with a microscope, but this treatment
• The Internet is for everybody. Widespread avail- may be readily apparent when the sample is
ability of information (of all levels of quality) examined with FTIR.
means that sophisticated consumers may know • Statistical studies and computer databases may
more—or think they know more—about gems lead to “profiling” of gem materials by expert
than their retailers do. systems. We have now reached the point where
• Computers calculate proportions and cut designs. computers are better able than individuals to keep
To the degree that a gemstone’s optical perfor- and compare relevant observations; in the future,
mance can be modeled accurately, cuts can be these systems should be able to spot goods repre-
planned and optimized without wasteful trials. senting new mines, synthetics, and treatments.
Verification is still required, however. • New and old techniques from other sciences con-
• Robots fashion gems. Used at first for calibrated tinue to be adapted to solve gemological problems.
goods, robotic cutting creates relatively uniform Mineralogy, chemistry, and physics have been fruit-
results. ful sources of advanced techniques with gemologi-
• Lighting concerns are increasingly important in cal applications, but other sciences (such as biology)
the retail store and the laboratory. The optimal may provide more techniques in the future.
lighting environments for viewing gems for pur-
It is difficult to know which of the many tech-
chase as well as gemological evaluation will like-
nologies reviewed in this article will make the
ly be a major research focus over the next decade.
greatest impact in the future. Most of the technical
• The use of high temperatures and synthesis meth- innovations that affect the trade today have their
ods for treatment has begun to blur the line roots in the technologies of previous decades. The
between treated gems and synthetics. The classic most significant development has been in the rate at
1990s examples were the (very) high temperature which changes reach us. We have less time to react
heat treatment of Mong Hsu rubies, which grows than we did in the past: Crises come on top of crises,
new material, and the use of high pressure/high challenges on every scale hit at once. Continuous
temperature both to produce synthetic diamonds education is therefore a key to success.
and to decolorize or otherwise improve the color Although it is true that gem identification is
of natural diamonds. becoming increasingly difficult (a trend that will cer-
• However, treated synthetics are now considered a tainly persist), often requiring sophisticated laborato-
category in their own right. The GIA Gem Trade ry instrumentation and techniques, it is also true
Laboratory, for example, currently identifies diffu- that the competent gemologist can still ascertain a
sion-treated synthetic corundum and polymer- tremendous amount of information using classical
impregnated synthetic opal. gem-testing methods that are routinely available. By
• “Black boxes” provide specific solutions to certain staying on top of the gemological literature, and
gemological problems. In some cases, as with syn- applying this newly gained knowledge to classical
thetic moissanite testers (used to distinguish dia- gem-testing methods, competent gemologists can
mond from a doubly refractive substitute), these accurately identify many gem materials and, as
devices may substitute for a lack of basic gemolog- importantly, determine when they need to submit a
ical skills, or the time needed to practice them. gem to an independent, recognized laboratory.
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JEWELRY OF THE 1990S
By Elise B. Misiorowski
This article provides an overview of the many

changes that took place in how jewelry was
designed, manufactured, and marketed during
the last decade. Driven by a highly competi-
tive market that favored the unique, designers
F or the jewelry world, the decade of the ‘90s was an
eclectic one, filled with strong contrasts and bal-
anced opposites. Jewelry design expanded in every
direction, with the wide variety of motifs ranging from
ancient or ethnic (figure 1) to ultramodern. There was a
created innovative cuts for diamonds and col- Renaissance in cutting styles for both diamonds and colored
ored stones. The use of gem materials in the gems, and pearls reached new heights of popularity.
‘90s was marked by a greater demand for
The economic ups and downs in the ‘90s had a pro-
fancy-color diamonds, colored stones in dra-
matic combinations, and large and multicol-
found effect on the jewelry world. Japan, the strongest mar-
ored cultured pearls. In precious metals, the ket for jewelry as the decade opened, went into an eco-
emphasis shifted toward platinum and other nomic recession in the early ‘90s, setting off a domino
white metals. Designer jewelry took on a vari- effect on the economies of Korea, Thailand, and the rest of
ety of distinctive setting styles, textures, and Southeast Asia. Although there was a slump in consumer
motifs. As designers sought to distinguish spending in those areas, it was offset by the new buying
themselves through name recognition, the power of China and a stronger jewelry market in the
branding of diamonds and finished jewelry United States and Europe. Surveys indicated that the typi-
became a major force. Jewelry worn by enter- cal jewelry buyers of the ‘90s in the U.S. were young mar-
tainers and promoted in the mass media ried women with full-time employment and no children,
touched off instant trends, which the new
older women whose futures are secure, and teenagers
marketplace of television shopping networks
and the Internet was able to accommodate
(Precious & Fashion Jewelry Markets, 1997), while a study
directly. by the World Gold Council indicated that women are the
primary jewelry buyers in Europe as well (“Market
place…,” 1997). Fine jewelry became less formal, as it
became an important part of the working woman’s
wardrobe. More women wore pearls or diamonds with
with blue jeans and tennis dresses, integrating fine jewelry
into every aspect of their lives.
ABOUT THE AUTHOR At the same time, the discovery and mining of new gem
Formerly research librarian in GIA’s Richard T. deposits, as discussed in the “Localities” article elsewhere
Liddicoat Library and Information Center, Ms.
in this issue (Shigley et al., 2000), made many gems more
Misiorowski ([email protected]) is currently a jew-
elry historian who writes and lectures on antique, available. New cuts for both colored stones and diamonds
estate, and contemporary jewelry. were introduced, revitalizing jewelry design. In addition,
Acknowledgments: The author thanks the fol- jewelry competitions proliferated, further stimulating
lowing people for their invaluable assistance design and shifting the direction of jewelry styles, while
with information and photographic support:
Edward Boehm, Bethanne Bonanno, Cindy promotion of jewelry through the media—both print and
Edelstein, Elaine Ferrari-Santhon, Tino Hammid, film—stimulated consumer demand. With strong competi-
Debbie Hiss-Odell, Stuart Overlin, Ruth tion in the marketplace for jewelry and gems, jewelers and
Patchick, Hedda Schupak, Michael Scott, and
Lee Siegelson. gem dealers began promoting their particular “brand,” and
Gems & Gemology, Vol. 36, No. 4, pp. 398–417
branding became a strong and increasingly important trend
© 2000 Gemological Institute of America in the ‘90s. The potential power of the Internet as a market-
ing tool for jewelry also became evident, and auction hous-
398 Jewelry of the 1990s GEMS & GEMOLOGY Winter 2000

Figure 1. Designers in the
‘90s drew inspiration
from many sources and
interpreted it in a con-
temporary manner. This
group of jewelry designed
by Carolyn Tyler com-
bines faceted citrines
and black pearls set in
granulated 22K gold in
Renaissance-style cruci-
form motifs, the pendant
suspended from a pearl
and gem bead torsade
necklace. Courtesy of
Stones of Fire, Bali.
es played a greater role in the marketing of contem- diamonds fell into four specific categories: well-
porary as well as estate jewelry. fashioned standard cuts, such as the Lazare
All of these developments—and more—con- Diamond; new varieties of fancy cuts, such as the
tributed to a decade that saw both subtle advances Quadrillion and the Criss Cut; treated diamonds,
and dramatic innovations in the use of gem materi- such as those that were Yehuda fracture-filled; and
als, as well as in the design and marketing of jewel- diamonds from specific sources (often with distinc-
ry. As space is limited, this overview will focus on tive colors), such as Argyle pink and “champagne”
capturing the essence of trends in fine gemstone diamonds. Several companies also developed lines
jewelry (excluding watches) as seen in the U.S. mar- of jewelry designed around their branded diamonds,
ket rather than attempt to address every nuance of further increasing their market exposure (Feder-
change in the international jewelry world. man, 1997).
Similarly, as it is impossible to credit every impor- Not only was there a strong market for standard-
tant jewelry designer of the decade here, the empha- and fancy-cut diamonds, but interest also developed
sis will be on those who made significant advances in antique cuts such as the briolette, rondelle, old
in jewelry design or gem cutting, or whose work European, and rose. Even early table and portrait
exemplified specific trends during this period. cuts, which date from the 16th and 17th centuries,
made a showing, as did diamond beads, which are
DIAMONDS without historic precedent but have an old-fash-
Trends. There were several new twists in the dia- ioned look (Federman, 2000). Briolettes gained pop-
mond market. Advertising and promotion of dia- ularity as pendants and earring drops, rondelles
monds created a more enlightened and interested were used as spacers in important pearl and gem
consumer so that, in areas where the economy was bead necklaces, and diamond beads were offered in
strong—Japan in the early ‘90s and the U.S. later in dazzling single strands or mixed with other gem
the decade—there was a new demand for quality. beads in necklaces and bracelets (figure 2). Rose, old
The ‘90s buyer was interested in diamonds that European, table, and portrait cuts were incorporated
were not only of high color and clarity, but were cut into antique-style jewelry as well as into some
to good proportions as well. As a result, a number of ultramodern styles. Even the natural beauty of
dealers began to promote as a name brand standard- rough diamonds was appreciated, as octahedral,
cut diamonds that guaranteed quality. Lazare dodecahedral, and cube-shaped diamond rough was
Kaplan International set the trend with the Lazare set in jewelry during this highly unusual decade.
Diamond, which was cut to “Tolkowsky Ideal” Without listing every diamond cut brand, it is
proportions (“Designer diamonds...,” 1997). Other important to mention some of the new shapes and
companies swiftly followed suit, and brand- facet arrangements developed during the 1990s, as
name diamonds became a hot new trend. “Branded” many of these provided the impetus for innovative
Jewelry of the 1990s GEMS & GEMOLOGY Winter 2000 399

jewelry design. Developed in the 1980s, square bril-
liant cuts for diamonds, known as Princess cuts,
and rectangular brilliants grew in popularity during
the ‘90s. Much of this popularity was due to the fact
that rectilinear brilliant cuts made it possible—for
the first time—to invisibly set diamonds. In the late
1930s, when invisible settings were first introduced,
the technique was used only with rubies, sapphires,
and emeralds. At that time, rectilinear diamonds
were step cut and the metal grid used to hold the
gems from beneath was easily visible through them.
Square brilliant diamonds, however, break up the
light so that it is impossible to see the metal that
holds the stones. Invisibly set diamonds became a
strong stylistic feature of ‘90s jewelry by such com-
panies as Ambar Diamonds, who patented their
square brilliant cut as the Quadrillion (“Square cut
Figure 2. Various “old” diamond cuts became
brilliance,” 1994; (figure 3)). The fact that square
newly fashionable during the 1990s; these
included the old European and briolette cuts
and rectangular brilliant cuts also concentrate color
seen in the elongated drop earrings (inset). in diamonds may have contributed to the populari-
Exquisitely understated when worn as a single ty of these cuts as interest in fancy-color diamonds
strand, diamond beads also add importance as increased.
spacers in a fine pearl necklace. Courtesy of In addition, the four-lobed Lily cut (by Eternity
Michael Goldstein, New York. Diamond Corp.) and the five-pointed Star cut (by
Fancoldi) are two unusual shapes developed during
this period, while the Context and Spirit Sun cuts,
designed by Bernd Munsteiner, were radical depar-
Figure 3. In the face-up position, it is impossible tures from standard cuts. The Context cut is pol-
to see the gold grid that holds the diamonds ished as a perfect octahedron to emulate one of dia-
from beneath in this pendant, which has been mond’s natural crystal habits. The Spirit Sun con-
invisibly set with Quadrillion diamonds that sists of a series of triangular facets radiating from
have been customized to fit the heart-shaped center culets on both crown and pavilion to imitate
outline. Courtesy of Ambar Inc., Los Angeles. the sun’s rays (figure 4; Federman, 1997).
Melee and calibré-cut diamonds continued to be
popular throughout the ‘90s in pavé and channel
settings. This may have been driven by the fact that
cutting operations in Israel stepped up their produc-
tion of precision-cut, calibré goods, while India and
Thailand produced large quantities of small, inex-
pensive diamonds (“Thailand,” 1991; Even-Zohar,
1997). In counterpoint to this, demand for larger dia-
monds increased as the decade progressed. The
stock market boom in the U.S. during the late ‘90s,
along with the success of many Internet companies,
brought sudden wealth to a surprising number of
business entrepreneurs. As a way to demonstrate
their new affluence, these entrepreneurs began to
acquire large, fine-quality diamonds of 5 ct and
above (Shor, 1998).
Fancy-Color Diamonds. Traditionally considered

rare and exceptional, fancy-color diamonds became

Figure 4. Bernd Munsteiner’s “Spirit Sun,” set here
in a swirl ring by Michael Good, was one of the
radical new cuts for diamond developed in the
‘90s. Courtesy of Michael Good, Rockport, Maine.
more prominent in the 1990s. This was primarily

due to the greater availability of fancy brown, yel-
low, and pink diamonds from Australia’s prolific
Argyle mine and the promotional program
launched to sell them. The marketing blitz for
these stones inspired greater interest in all fancy-
Figure 5. Black diamonds became fashionable in
color diamonds, which were frequently featured in the late ‘90s, especially pavé set with colorless
designer jewelry. Because Argyle’s colored dia- diamonds in strongly contrasting “black and
monds are typically small, they are primarily suit- white” jewelry such as this lyric leaf brooch in
ed for pavé work, which stimulated a trend for col- platinum by designer Michelle Ong for Carnet,
ored diamond pavé jewelry. Even black diamonds, Hong Kong. Note also the use of briolette dia-
previously considered primarily for industrial use, monds. Photo © Tino Hammid.
were cut and pavé set with colorless diamonds and
other gems to dramatic effect (Federman, 1999a).
Fawaz Gruosi of de Grisogono was one of the earli- Figure 6. Still a rare and pricey commodity,
est to use black diamonds in jewelry. He came out fancy-color diamonds were frequently set as the
with a striking line in 1997 that incorporated pavé focal point in rings. This ring, designed by Beat
black and colorless diamonds in areas of strong Schönhaus of Geneva, is set with a 1.55 ct pink
contrast. The trend was soon adopted by a few marquise diamond accented by yellow diamond
other designers, including Michelle Ong, who melee and colorless baguettes in a platinum and
interpreted it in her own style (figure 5). 18K gold mounting. Courtesy of Fancoldi; photo
© Tino Hammid.
There was also increased demand for larger fancy-
color diamonds. Although yellow, brown, and pink
were again the colors most frequently seen in sizes
over a carat (figure 6), diamonds of blue, red, violet,
orange, and green hues, in various tones and satura-
tions, found ready buyers among connoisseurs and
collectors (Bogel and Nurick, 1997; Heebner, 2000).
In response to this demand for colored diamonds and
their greater availability, GIA fine-tuned its color
grading system for fancy-color diamonds in the mid-
1990s (King et al., 1994). This period also saw the
greater use of irradiated diamonds, which brought
colored diamonds to a wider clientele.

cerns heightened about treatment in emeralds and
rubies (see the “Localities” and “Treatments” arti-
cles elsewhere in this issue), other colored gems
gained prominence. Strong favorites were tanzanite
and tsavorite, rhodolite, and Mandarin garnets from
Africa, while fancy-color sapphires from Sri Lanka,
Africa, and (later in the decade) Madagascar grew in
popularity. Deep blue, “electric” blue, and “neon”-
green tourmalines from Brazil’s Paraíba mines were
instant winners, while more red and bright pink
Figure 7. Rich combinations of vividly colored spinels from Myanmar appeared on the market.
gems were one of the biggest trends during the ‘90s, Opals of every sort from Australia continued to be
as seen in this 18K gold necklace set with tourma-
steady sellers.
line, tanzanite, and purple garnet. The use of gran-
Colored gems were featured as the focal point in
ulation and woven wire in high-karat gold was
another prevalent trend. Courtesy of Kent Raible. jewelry surrounded by diamonds, or they appeared
with other gems of saturated hues. Typical were
rich and unusual combinations such as red spinel
with orange spessartine garnet, purple amethyst
with deep red rhodolite, green tsavorite with violet-
COLORED GEMSTONES blue tanzanite, “golden” yellow sapphire with blue
Trends. Rubies and emeralds had the strongest mar- sapphire, Imperial green jade with ruby, blue sap-
ket share early in the decade but suffered credibility phire with hot pink spinel, green tourmaline with
setbacks toward the end, when highly charged treat- rhodolite garnet, orange citrine with brown or green
ment controversies were aired on television and bla- zircon, and black onyx with iridescent mother-of-
zoned in the press (see, e.g., Bergman, 1998). As con- pearl or any of the above gems (figure 7).
In contrast to these vivid combos, lighter-toned,
less intensely colored gems were also in vogue.
Understated, but hardly aloof, the pastel hues of
aquamarine, green beryl, rose quartz, “golden” as
Figure 8. The use of various gems as inlay was well as pink and lavender sapphires, light green and
very popular during the ‘90s. Opal inlay is used pink tourmalines, morganite, kunzite, iolite, and
here in a particularly attractive combination with translucent blue chalcedony gained a fresh presence
tanzanites and channel-set diamonds. Courtesy in jewelry of the ‘90s (Kremkow, 1999).
of Kabana, Albuquerque, New Mexico. Fascination with phenomenal gems also intensi-
fied. At the high end of the market, there were
ready buyers for star ruby and sapphire, cat’s-eye
chrysoberyl, alexandrite, and cat’s-eye alexandrite,
while gem cognoscenti and collectors snapped up
color-change sapphire and garnet. Moonstone, adu-
larescent transparent labradorite (also known as
rainbow moonstone), and virtually every variety of
opal appeared in a wide range of jewelry as cabo-
chons, beads and—for opal especially—as carvings
and inlay (Dang, 1998; DePasque, 1999—figure 8).
Ornamental opaque and translucent gem materi-
als such as lapis lazuli, black chalcedony, chryso-
prase, turquoise, sugilite, malachite, and azurite-
malachite were all brought into play as accent
stones, in beads, or as inlay. Jade, a traditional
favorite throughout Asia, gained new appreciation
in the West. Imperial green jadeite commanded
astonishing prices at auction: At the November 3,

1999, Christie’s sale in Hong Kong, for example, a
cabochon ring sold for US$2,405,000, while a bangle
sold for US$2,576,000. Both set new world records for
these types of Imperial jadeite jewelry (“Jadeite jew-
ellery,” 1999). Lavender jade and translucent white
jade also increased dramatically in demand and value
(Christie’s, 1999), whereas nephrite jade in green,
yellow, orange, rust, and black was commonly used
in jewelry during the 1990s.
Even gem varieties previously thought of strict-
ly as collectors’ gems appeared in jewelry during
the 1990s. These include blue-green apatite (mis-
named “Paraíba” apatite in the trade because of its
color similarity to the green tourmalines from
Paraíba, Brazil), “golden” brown sphene, bright red
rhodochrosite, and royal blue haüyne (see, e.g.,
Knox and Lees, 1997; Kiefert and Hänni, 2000).
Although generally considered too soft or friable for
most jewelry uses, these gems have strong color
and show to great advantage in earrings, necklaces,
or brooches, where they are not as susceptible to
damage during wear.
Cuts and Cutting. There was much experimentation Figure 9. Fantasy cuts grew in popularity during the
with gem cutting in the ‘90s, and designers—hungry ‘90s. Michael Dyber won first place in the 1994
for ways to stand out in the highly competitive mar- AGTA Spectrum awards with this 262.70 ct
ket—immediately incorporated new and unusual Bolivian ametrine on which his carved Dyber Optic
cuts into eye-catching jewelry. Fantasy cuts, intro- Dishes show to great advantage. The ametrine carv-
duced by Bernd Munsteiner in the 1980s (“The ing has been set as a pendant by goldsmith Paul
father of fantasy,” 1991), evolved in wonderful ways Gross. Courtesy of Michael M. Dyber, Rumney,
in the hands of many additional artists. Michael New Hampshire; photo by Robert Weldon.
Dyber added concave circular facets, called Dyber
Optic Dishes, to flat facets in fantasy-cut transparent
gemstones (figure 9). These concave facets reflect
throughout the stone, like bubbles or planets orbit-
ing in a galaxy (Weldon, 1994). Another innovation GemCut echoes the ancient Chinese “Pi,” symbol
was Bart Curren’s Fantasy Interlocks, matching pairs of eternity.
of fantasy-cut stones in contrasting gem materials By rewarding innovation and excellence in the
that fit together like pieces of a puzzle. cutting of colored gems, the Cutting Edge competi-
Fantasy cuts became more expansive in the tion (sponsored by the American Gem Trade
hands of such lapidary artists as Glenn Lehrer and Association [AGTA]) inspired gem cutters to devise
Steve Walters, who created wide, undulating carv- new concepts. Outstanding among the many superb
ings that rippled and coiled like waves or smoke (fig- designer cuts are the concave facet cuts developed
ure 10). Fashioned predominantly from black onyx, by Richard Homer, for which a special machine, the
lapis, chrysoprase, and other chalcedonies, these OMF Faceter, was developed (Homer, 1990). The
carvings were a breakthrough style of the ‘90s. integration of concave facets into a standard bril-
Artists created another compelling effect by retain- liant cut gives his finished gems a fluid, lacy appear-
ing some of the gem’s natural polycrystalline (drusy) ance (Dick, 1990a; Taylor, 2000). Other innovative
surface (figure 11). Glenn Lehrer also developed cuts that became more popular in the ‘90s included
round disc shapes with a hole cut in the center, simi- cushion or saddle shapes with step-cut facets cover-
lar to a piece of Lifesavers candy. Applied to both ing their domed crowns in a checkerboard pattern,
transparent and translucent gems, his Torus Ring or in a single row similar to louver-blinds. Known

and Bart Curren, incorporated matte-finished facets
to add an unusual visual texture to cut gems
(Anderson, 1991; Johnson and Koivula, 1998, 1999).
Cabochon cuts continued to shine in the ‘90s, as
virtually every popular gem material, both transpar-
ent and opaque, appeared in a host of different
forms, including the standard round or oval cabo-
chon, pyramidal “sugarloaf,” and many fancy
shapes with buffed crowns and faceted pavilions.
Even more radical departures from the standard
cabochon became popular, such as flattened
“tongues” and elongated bullet shapes, which were
cut, for the most part, from chalcedony, garnet,
beryl, tourmaline, and quartz.
Figure 10. The sinuous curves of this fantasy-cut Gemstone beads made a big comeback during
black onyx look like rippling water or coiling the ‘90s in single- and multiple-strand necklaces
smoke. Carved by Steve Walters, this approxi- and bracelets. In addition to the standard gem mate-
mately 5 cm long piece is set as a brooch designed rials found in bead form, a number of additional
by C. Y. Sheng. Photo by Maha Tannous. gems were fashioned into beads as well. These
included tanzanite, fluorite, spinel, and transparent
labradorite. Beads appeared in many different
shapes, such as smooth and faceted spheres, ovals,
respectively as the “checker” and the “opposed bar” and lentil shapes, as well as polished cubes, cylin-
cuts (Vargas, 1975), they appeared primarily in rings ders, hearts, stars, and tumble-polished free-form
or as graduated suites in necklaces. Drop-shaped pieces. In some cases, unpolished elongated rough
briolette cuts also became highly fashionable for crystals of aquamarine, green beryl, emerald, tour-
both transparent and translucent colored stones, maline, or topaz were sliced in chunks and drilled
particularly in earrings and necklaces. Some lapi- down their central axes as beads. Strung with gold
daries, including Arthur Anderson, Michael Dyber, bead spacers in close-fitting necklaces, these made a
Figure 11. Natural poly-

crystalline surfaces, known
as druses, added appeal to
fantasy carvings such as
this one by Glenn Lehrer.
The finished brooch,
accented by a 12 mm South
Sea cultured pearl and dia-
monds, resembles the
spreading wings of an angel
or a butterfly. Courtesy of
Glenn Lehrer.

Figure 12. At once ancient
and modern in appearance,
this magnificent necklace
designed by Elizabeth
Gage uses aquamarine
crystals that have been
sliced into chunks, drilled
down their central axes,
and strung as beads with
granulated gold spacers.
The eye-catching aquama-
rine and golden beryl ring
is typical of the size and
importance of rings in the
‘90s. Courtesy of Elizabeth
Gage, London.
dramatic statement, at once primitive and sophisti- and are often accompanied by bands of particularly
cated (figure 12). Single-strand, elastic-strung gem- strong orient. Imaginative jewelers, such as
stone bead “Buddha” bracelets, also known as Christopher Walling, took blemished cultured
power beads, were a brief fashion in the late ‘90s. pearls of good color and placed small bezel-set
Worn singly or in multiples, these bracelets were rubies, sapphires, or diamonds in the blemishes to
marketed for their esoteric healing properties (“Feng enhance the pearl’s appearance and improve its
shwing,” 2000). marketability.
Many novel uses of pearls were developed and
ORGANIC GEM MATERIALS gained acceptance in the 1990s. One particularly
Pearls. Pearls were extremely important in the unusual example is the faceted cultured pearl, which
1990s. When the Akoya cultured pearl industry suf- has dozens of symmetrical facets cut onto its surface
fered severe setbacks (Akamatsu, 1999), other pearl (figure 14). Multicolored strands of cultured pearls
growers filled the void, keeping interest high and became fashionable for necklaces and bracelets.
buying trends strong. Fine round Tahitian black and Pairs of mabe pearls, set back-to-back in bezels, were
South Sea “cream” and “golden” cultured pearls in strung as necklaces. Cultured abalone mabe pearls,
12–19 mm sizes became very fashionable in high- introduced by New Zealand pearl farmers toward
end jewelry, usually as single-strand necklaces but the end of the decade, made an appearance in rings,
often as suites, with a matching ring and earrings pendants, and earrings. Keshi pearls, the sponta-
(figure 13). Drop shapes, in a range of colors, were neous by-products of the culturing process, became
ideally suited for pendants and earrings, and very popular in necklaces and bracelets (separated by
baroque shapes found immediate acceptance in dis- short lengths of chain), as the center gem in rings,
tinctive brooches, mismatched earrings, and a wide and set singly or in clusters for earrings.
variety of pendants. Previously rejected by the trade The quality of Chinese freshwater cultured
as blemished, grooved “circle” cultured pearls also pearls improved dramatically during this decade,
found a ready market in the ‘90s (Weldon, 1999). and by the late ‘90s they were appearing in a wide
The concentric rings provide an interesting texture variety of shapes and luscious pastel colors. The

most notable were nearly spherical with high luster
(figure 15), which equaled or surpassed Akoya cul-
tured pearls in beauty (Federman, 1999b).
The U.S. freshwater pearl industry also gained
attention in the ‘90s by introducing new shapes for
cultured pearls. These included the flat disc, heart,
rectangle, and pear, in addition to the standard oval,
button, and baroque. Subsequently, China began
producing coin-shaped freshwater cultured pearls
(“Lucoral launches coin pearls,” 1998).
Other Organic Gems. In the 1980s, the use of ivory

and tortoise shell was curtailed as elephants and
hawksbill turtles were put on the endangered
species list and given governmental protection.
Fossilized Mammoth ivory, from animals already
extinct, was used sparingly in place of elephant
ivory. Coral, on the other hand, was overfished dur-
Figure 15. By the end of the decade, China was

producing large, nearly spherical freshwater cul-
tured pearls of high luster. Some of the finest
examples appeared in a range of delicious pastel
hues that became fashionable in multicolored
Figure 13. Tahitian black and South Sea cul-
strands such as the 10.0–12.6 mm Chinese
tured pearls in the 12–19 mm range became very
freshwater cultured pearls shown here. Courtesy
popular during the ‘90s in single-strand chokers
of King’s Ransom, Sausalito, California; photo ©
or in matching suites of jewelry. They were often
enhanced by diamonds as shown here. Courtesy
of J. Grahl Design; photo by Sylvia Bissonette.
Figure 14. Faceting was applied to pearls for the

first time during the ‘90s. Dozens of facets add a
unique dimension to the luster and orient of the
black cultured pearls (left 14 mm, right 13 mm)
in these two sculpted gold rings designed and fab-
ricated by Katey Brunini of Solana Beach, Cali-
fornia. Photo by Maha Tannous.

ularly in bridal jewelry and fine gemstone jewelry in
the upper price ranges (“The platinum report,”
1998; see figure 17 and the cover of this issue).
Some jewelers, such as Michael Bondanza, devel-
oped lines of less-formal platinum jewelry to suit
the more casual lifestyle of the ‘90s.
Gold. Gold dominated the market, however, and

the shift toward the use of higher-karat fineness
continued. Whereas 14K gold continued to be pop-
ular in jewelry for the American mass market, 18K
and 22K yellow gold became the norm for higher-
Figure 16. Coral, out of vogue for most of the 1990s,
end jewelry and in artist jewelry that used such
began to stage a modest comeback in jewelry
toward the end of the decade. Pavé-set old-cut dia- techniques as granulation and weaving (figure 18;
monds give definition to the assembled branches of
polished red coral in this unusual brooch. Courtesy
of designer Lina Fanourakis, Athens, Greece.
Figure 17. There was greater use of platinum for
jewelry during the 1990s, particularly in high-
end pieces such as this impressive pavé dia-
mond brooch by Ella Gafter. Courtesy of
ing the 1980s, and the resulting glut of material on Ellagem, New York; photo by Harold & Erica
the market put many dealers out of business as Van Pelt, © GIA.
prices dropped (Grigg, 1993). Because overfishing
also depleted many known sources for coral, envi-
ronmental concerns put a further deterrent on trade
as it became politically incorrect to use fine coral in
jewelry. Only in the latter part of the 1990s did
coral begin to make a modest comeback (figure 16).
Relatively ignored in prior decades, amber sud-
denly became popular following the huge success of
the 1993 Steven Spielberg film, Jurassic Park, from
the novel by Michael Crichton. The story was based
on the premise that dinosaurs could be cloned using
DNA from blood found in mosquitoes that had
been trapped in amber. Demand for amber soared,
and material from the Baltic Sea as well as the
Dominican Republic and Brazil was fashioned into
beads of every size and shape, or set in simple silver
jewelry (“New popularity for amber…,” 1994).
PRECIOUS METAL TRENDS

Platinum. The most significant change in the use of
precious metals during the 1990s was a shift in mar-
keting emphasis from yellow gold to white met-
als—platinum, white gold, and silver. In the early
‘90s, platinum became the metal of choice for
Japan, at that time the strongest world market for
jewelry. In the U.S., the shift toward platinum in
jewelery began gradually, as it appeared first mixed
with yellow gold. By the end of the decade, howev-
er, platinum used alone was more prevalent, partic-

see also figures 1 and 7). Twenty-four karat gold
also was used more frequently, both for accents in
white metal jewelry, and on its own in necklaces,
bracelets, and earrings.
Different gold hues were used to pavé set gems of
like color in a new type of monochrome jewel that
appeared during the ‘90s. This was manifest first as
yellow diamonds set in yellow gold, pink diamonds
set in rose gold, and colorless diamonds set in white
gold instead of platinum. However, the fashion soon
extended to include colored gems as well. Jewelers
such as Ralph Esmerian, Graff, and J.A.R. (Joel
Arthur Rosenthal) spearheaded the style in the early
‘90s, but others adopted the trend and expanded on it
as the decade advanced (Proddow and Fasel, 1996).
Silver and Other Metals. Silver jewelry was especially

popular with the teen and young professional market.
Bold and powerful pieces were set predominantly
Figure 18. Higher-karat gold became more preva-
with amethyst, citrine, garnet, aquamarine, moon-
lent in the ‘90s, especially among artist jewelers
who incorporated the techniques of granulation or
stone, tourmaline, and different varieties of chal-
weaving. This “crown” pendant by Barbara Berk cedony. Often, touches of yellow gold were used to
was hand woven of 18K and 22K gold using a give the jewelry a more sophisticated look. Designer
method derived from “Soumak,” an ancient rug- David Yurman’s line of silver jewelry augmented by
weaving technique; it is set with a 14.07 ct pink touches of gold captured the market for young profes-
tourmaline briolette, and Akoya and freshwater sionals who were looking for strong, dramatic jewel-
cultured pearls. Courtesy of Barbara Berk Designs, ry that they could comfortably wear anywhere with
Foster City, California; photo by Dana Davis. anything (figure 19; Okun, 1998). His efforts to brand
his distinctive “cable” look were so successful that
he became a household name during this decade.
Figure 19. Silver jewelry gained a higher profile Silver also was used to set diamonds, rubies, and sap-
among young professionals. Designer David phires, a practice that had been out of fashion since
Yurman’s distinctive Cable Collection the introduction of platinum for jewelry in the late
answered the need for jewelry that was casual 19th century. In a style initiated by J.A.R., diamonds
yet dressy. These two penannular bracelets from and fine colored stones were pavé set in blackened
his “Blue Ice” collection combine sterling silver silver to give it an antique appearance.
with 18K gold, pavé diamonds, and blue chal-
Other metals also were used in jewelry during
cedony “tongues” as terminals. Courtesy of
David Yurman Designs, New York.
the 1990s. Titanium, which enjoyed a flurry of
interest as a refractory metal in jewelry of the mid-
‘80s, began to be used to pavé set diamonds and col-
ored stones. Because titanium is durable and strong,
but lighter in weight than platinum, gold, or silver,
it can be used to fabricate large pieces that are still
comfortable to wear (Thompson, 1998). The hus-
band-and-wife team Emmanuel and Sophie
Guillaume (E.S.G.), use titanium in large brooches
that are exquisitely pavé set with colored gems and
diamonds (figure 20). They also occasionally use
iron in jewelry, along with gold and platinum, as
they feel that “iron provides the right amount of
rigidity and stability for certain parts of large
pieces” (E. Guillaume, pers. comm., 2000).

Figure 20. Titanium is a perfect metal for mounting gems in large pieces of jewelry.
Designed by Sophie Guillaume and fabricated by Emmanuel Guillaume, of E.S.G.,
this butterfly brooch is completely covered with demantoid garnets and diamonds
pavé set in titanium. The quality of workmanship is evident in the fact that the
piece is as beautiful from the back (inset) as it is from the front. From the collection
of Michael M. Scott; photo by Harold & Erica Van Pelt.
SETTING STYLES Figure 21. Using his patented technique, metal-

In addition to pavé work, other ways of mounting lurgist/jeweler Steven Kretchmer has tension set
gemstones—bezel settings, tension settings, flush diamonds in platinum for his Jazz bracelet and
mountings, and invisible settings—were prevalent Omega ring. The bracelet also incorporates
matte-finished 18K gold links and is accented by
in the 1990s. In high-end jewelry, the pronged set-
24K crystallized gold and flush-mounted dia-
ting that was typical gave way to a new preference
monds, while the ring has two spots of purple
for bezel-set diamonds and colored stones. Tension gold and flush-mounted rubies on its shank.
settings, introduced by Niessing in the 1980s, Courtesy of Steven Kretchmer, Palenville, New
became more widespread as they were adopted by a York; photo by Harold & Erica Van Pelt, © GIA.
number of other companies. Steven Kretchmer of
the U.S. holds a patent on his technique, which
secures the gem under 12,000 pounds of pressure
per square inch (Thompson, 1996). Only diamonds,
rubies, and sapphires that have been individually
selected to be free of certain inclusions can with-
stand this type of setting. There was also a fashion
for very small melee diamonds set flush with the
surrounding metal as accents in jewelry. These
flush-mounted diamonds were placed in loose
arrangements on the shanks of rings, on the edges
of cuff bracelets, or on individual links of chain
necklaces and bracelets, so that the pieces appear to
have been dusted with sugar or stars (figure 21).
The Mystère setting for diamonds, introduced
by Bunz of Germany, was also highly innovative.

The diamond is seated with its culet in a cone-
shaped cup and its table held by a point of metal
almost as if the stone were held between thumb
and forefinger. This allows the diamond to rotate
in the mounting while it is nevertheless safely
held in place (figure 22). Michael Good, whose
unusual technique of anticlastic raising was a
breakthrough style in the 1980s (Blauer, 1985),
began to add gems to the fluid loops of his jewelry.
In anticlastic raising, a flat sheet of 18K gold or
platinum is cut in various shapes and then ham-
mered so that the center is compressed and the
edges are stretched, causing the metal to spread
and coil into deceptively simple curvilinear jewels
(Good, 1985). During the ‘90s, Good began to set
baguette diamonds along the seams of his bracelets
and rings, and placed single gems—often a
Figure 22. The Mystère setting, developed by Context-cut or Spirit Sun diamond—in the center
George Bunz, was an innovative version of tension of rings or pendants, forging the metal so that it
setting for diamonds that appeared during the curled back and held the gem firmly in place (fig-
1990s. The stone is placed between a “fingerlet and ure 23; see again figure 4).
opposing thumb” so that it is securely held and yet
can be rotated in the mounting. Courtesy of Bunz, NEW TECHNOLOGY EXPANDS:
Dobel, Germany.
LASERS AND COMPUTERS
Lasers, introduced in the 1970s as a diamond-cut-
ting tool, were applied to jewelry manufacture by
Figure 23. In anticlastic raising, a technique such pioneers as Martin Stuart (Weldon, 1992). As
developed in the ‘80s by Michael Good, the the decade progressed, laser technology advanced
metal is hammered so that it curls in opposing and equipment became more affordable, so more
directions. In the ‘90s, Good began to set gems in jewelers used lasers for jewelry manufacture and
his distinctive anticlastic jewels, giving them
repair. The enormous advantage of the laser is that
added dimension. This ring, set with a Context-
a bench jeweler can make delicate repairs to jewel-
cut diamond, looks streamlined but is technical-
ly complex, a trait shared by many jewels in this ry set with heat-sensitive materials without hav-
eclectic decade. Courtesy of Michael Good ing to unmount all the gems. Because the laser’s
Designs, Rockport, Maine. ray is tiny and concentrated, it can make pinpoint
solder joints or welds without distributing much
heat, which minimizes the risk of damage (Todd
Bracken, pers. comm., 2000). This was a major
breakthrough for the repair of antique and estate
jewelry set with pearls, channel-set colored stones,
or pavé diamonds, which otherwise would be
extremely time consuming, if not impossible, to
accomplish.
The computer became an essential tool for
everyone in the ‘90s. At the same time that e-busi-
ness exploded on the Internet, computers became
indispensable in areas such as inventory control,
gem grading, appraisals, and—most notably—in the
design and manufacture of jewelry. CAD/CAM
(computer-aided design/computer-aided manufac-
ture) made it possible to design a piece of jewelry in
three dimensions on the computer screen and have

the image translated into wax that could be cast,
molded, and produced in multiples—a tremendous
time-saver for mass-manufacturing jewelry compa-
nies (Thornton, 1998).
JEWELRY STYLES
Styles were exceptionally varied in the last decade,
ranging from conservative traditional jewelry to
sleek, ultramodern designs to one-of-a-kind pieces
by contemporary artist-jewelers. Antique and estate
jewelry was also in strong demand. The exceptional
popularity of estate-style jewelry prompted many
jewelers to produce replicas to make the look avail-
able to every level of buyer. Designs from the early
20th century—platinum, diamond, and pearl pieces
inspired by the garland style, for example, or plique-
a-jour enameled pieces designed to imitate Art
Nouveau jewels—were especially prevalent.
Texture Talks. There was a strong interest in jewel-

ry with the look of fabric in the ‘90s. Metal was
woven, braided, or fashioned into interlocking mesh
and accented by diamonds, pearls, or colored gems.
Jewelry by Christian Tse, among others, exemplifies
this, in gem-studded mesh collars, chokers, and
bracelets (figure 24). Woven metal also achieved the Figure 24. The look of fabric was a strong trend in
jewelry during the ‘90s. Designer Christian Tse
fabric look in jewelry by such artists as Arline
became known for his jewels of woven platinum
Fisch, Barbara Berk, and Mary Lee Hu. Using wire or gold mesh set with diamonds or colored stones.
or narrow strips of 18K or 22K gold, these jewelers This bracelet of platinum mesh, enriched by a
produced tight patterns and curving volutes of pattern of bezel-set diamonds, has a cool elegance
woven metal (again, see figure 18). that exemplifies the cloth-like trend. Courtesy of
Metal was also given surface textures to mimic Christian Tse, Los Angeles.
the appearance of satin or woven ribbon. While
this technique has been a standard practice in
recent decades for such jewelry luminaries as
Buccellatti and Henry Dunay, a greater number of
jewelers picked up the trend and expanded on it in Pavé. Pavé work appeared everywhere in jewelry of
various ways. The surfaces of some high-karat the 1990s. Links in bracelets and chain necklaces—
gold bracelets and earrings by Lina Fanourakis, for and even the shanks and prongs of rings—were
example, appear identical to that of a finely ribbed pavéed with diamonds. Some designers also used
grosgrain ribbon. Other jewelers, such as Alex colored gems extensively in their pavé work (again,
Sepkus and Paul Lantuch, are known for their see figure 20). In a style unique to this decade, differ-
elaborate, hand-engraved surface textures. Some ent gems of similar color were used in combination
jewels by Sepkus have the look of braided or with each other. For example, rubies, red spinels,
woven ribbons of gold accented by small dia- and rubellites of the same size, cut, and color tone
monds and colored stones, while others have the might be used to completely cover the surface of a
rich complexity of an intricate tapestry. Lantuch’s jewel. Similarly, blue gems—such as tanzanites,
jewelry is reminiscent of Renaissance gold work, iolites, and sapphires—or green gems—such as tsa-
with superbly carved scrollwork and mannerist vorites, demantoids, tourmalines, and emeralds—
images from the 16th century. A loupe is needed would be used to fill fields in a design. In variations
to properly admire the exquisite detail on pieces on this theme, these gems might be set so they
by these artists. shaded from light to dark tones or from one hue to

Michael Zobel of Germany and British designer
Stephen Webster. Jewelry by Zobel features yellow
diamonds set in platinum or rose gold, all of which
is covered by a thin sheet of amber or mother-of-
pearl that allows the diamonds to glisten through
(figure 26). Webster’s method is to set carved rock
crystal saddles or cabochons on top of a flat slab of
tiger’s-eye, chrysoprase, lapis lazuli, jade, or opal to
give the finished composite jewel a soft, illusive
color effect (figure 27).
Jewelry Motifs. Motifs during the decade fell into

several groups. There were simple, blocky-style
hearts, stars, moons, crosses, cylinders, cubes, and
teardrops—minimal and solid with rounded or
beveled edges. These were either pavéed or scatter-
set with gems. Some were inlaid with onyx,
turquoise, mother-of-pearl, or coral. In representa-
tions of the natural world, there was particular
emphasis on endangered or exotic species, includ-
ing the elephant, rhinoceros, panda, giraffe, pan-
ther, tiger, alligator, whale, and seal. Although
hardly endangered, the lowly snail appeared fre-
quently in precious form, while jeweled butter-
flies, bees, turtles, fish, and frogs were as prolific
as ever. Companies such as Cartier, Graff, and
Bulgari made a variety of jewels in this vein.
Flora as well as fauna thrived in jewelry designs.
Figure 25. Multi-gem pavé jewelry was introduced Delicate flowers such as lilies, orchids, and camel-
in the ‘90s and became very fashionable. Different lias were especially popular in both stylized and
gems of like color and size were pavé set in one of actual representations (Flores-Vianna, 1998).
three ways: to completely cover a jewel, to fill dif- Natural figures in jewelry were predominantly
ferent areas with contrasting color, or to provide fashioned in metal set with pavé diamonds, but
gradations from one hue to another. These leaf ear- they also frequently incorporated baroque-shaped
rings, designed by Michelle Ong of multi-gem pavé cultured pearls or carved gems with colored gem or
in platinum and blackened silver, are perfect illus-
enameled accents.
trations of this style. The gems used are fancy
brown and yellow diamonds, blue and pink sap-
Crosses and crowns were featured in a number
phires, rubies, emeralds, and amethyst, accented by of popular styles, notably by such designers as
near-colorless diamonds. Courtesy of Michelle Ong Cynthia Bach and Erica Courtney among many
for Carnet, Hong Kong; photo © Tino Hammid. others. Ribbon and bow motifs extended the fabric
look popular in the ‘90s, while the appearance of
jeweled baby shoes and pacifiers was one indication
another. Pioneered by J.A.R. at the start of the of the huge baby boom among young professionals.
decade, this style was adopted by a number of Necklace styles ranged from close-fitting chokers
designers, including Marilyn Cooperman, Delle to chains 16 to 24 inches (40 to 61 cm) in length. Big
Valle, James de Givenchy, E.S.G., Martin Katz, and gold-link necklaces or flexible gem-set collars—
Michelle Ong (figure 25). Occasionally, the gems which fit close around the base of the neck—were
would be set with the pavilion up and the crown “must-have” items at the start of the decade. They
down for a distinctive look. were eclipsed somewhat in the late ‘90s by mini-
malist pendants and lavalieres that accentuated a
Trompe l’Oiel. New to the ‘90s was the “trompe long, lean look. Gem-set chains and gem-bead neck-
l’oiel” effect of overlaid gems seen in the work of laces became more popular as the decade pro-

gressed, while pearls of every type were omni-
present in every style. The fashionable “Y-neck-
lace” that captured the market in 1996 was passé by
1997, replaced by the lariat—a long, open-ended
chain fastened with a gem-set slide-clasp or tied
loosely around the neck to show gem-set termina-
tions (Morreale, 1997).
Set with diamonds or colored gems, line brace-
lets, also known as “tennis” bracelets, continued to
be popular in the ‘90s. An endless variety of flexible
link bracelets of all widths were in vogue, particu-
larly with diamonds pavéed on alternate links. Big
cuff bracelets were also popular, both rigid and in
flexible mesh. C-shaped, penannular bangles, with
gem-set terminals worn to show at the top of the
wrist, were also a ‘90s trend; they were seen particu-
larly in jewelry designs by Steven Lagos and David
Yurman (again, see figure 19).
In general, rings were large and designed to
“stand out in a crowd” (see again figure 12). The
antique look of pierced platinum with hand-
engraved details was strongly favored for engage-
ment rings, while a channel-set or invisibly set
shank surrounding a large center stone was a more
dazzling modern style, and ultramodern tension-
set or Mystère-set diamonds were at the vanguard.
Colored gem rings tended to be big, bold, and rich-
ly set with gems in strong color combinations.
J.F.A. (Jean-François Albert) came out with his
Signature Fit shank for large gem-set rings that can
be adjusted to fit different finger sizes. Domed
rings set with individual square cabochons or indi-
vidual pearls in a gold grid—for a quilted appear-
ance—extended the fabric look to rings. Large cen-
ter gems were set in chunky metal rings and worn
on the index finger for a power look. Some of the
most avant-garde rings of the ‘90s were carved
from a gem material such as quartz or chalcedony
and then set with a different gemstone (Koivula
and Kammerling, 1991). Although this has historic
precedent in rings from the Mughal period in India
and from the 1920s in Western Europe, the ‘90s
rings have a raw power that is at once barbaric and
futuristic. Figure 26. This pendant, by Michael Zobel,
Earrings shifted in fashion from large, close-fit- demonstrates the “trompe l’oeil” layered gems
that appeared in jewelry during the 1990s.
ting clips as the decade opened—to long pendants
Centered around a large gray Tahitian cultured
by the time it closed (figure 28). Diamond stud ear-
pearl and terminating in a faceted 0.43 ct black
rings were ubiquitous, growing larger in carat size as diamond, the brooch incorporates a rose gold and
the decade wore on. Single baroque-shaped black or platinum disc set with flush-mounted diamonds
“cream”-colored cultured pearls were ideal for drops overlaid by a thin mother-of-pearl sheet that
at the end of a simple shepherd’s-hook ear wire. allows the diamonds to shine through softly.
Large, single, round cultured pearls of good color Courtesy of Michael Zobel, Konstanz, Germany.

and luster, set with a single bezel-set diamond of a regional, including the Swiss Prix Golay Buchel and
half-carat or more, also were fashionable. Earrings the North American Spectrum awards hosted by
were often “unmatched”: fabricated so that the AGTA. The heightened exposure that these compe-
design was the same for both but the gems were titions gave to jewelry from each of these regions
opposite. For example, one earring might contain a inspired additional contests in the ‘90s, including
black pearl top with white pearl drop, while the the above-mentioned AGTA Cutting Edge awards
other has a white pearl top with black pearl drop. for innovation and excellence in gem cutting, the
Both men and women wore earrings during the ‘90s, Platinum Guild International’s Platinum Passion
with many sporting more than one earring in each awards to inspire designs in platinum, the World
ear, although this was generally a radical fashion Gold Council’s Gold Virtuosi awards to honor
statement that had abated somewhat as the decade designs in gold, and the Women’s Jewelry Associ-
came to a close. ation Diva award to promote jewelry designed by
women. Photo spreads featuring the winning pieces
Impact of Competitions. Jewelry design competi- are given much play in the trade press, and the
tions played an important role in the promotion of pieces themselves are put on exhibit—often at a
diamonds, pearls, and colored stones during this number of different venues. This exposure has
decade. The Diamonds International awards hosted helped advance the use of colored gems in fine jew-
by De Beers, and the Pearl competitions hosted by elry and the proliferation of pearls, as well as
the Cultured Pearl Association, are venerable expanded the popularity of diamonds and platinum.
among international competitions. Others are
Auction Trends. Traditionally, auction houses
were the venue for the sale of ancient, antique, and
previously owned estate jewelry to a narrow group
Figure 27. In another version of the “trompe of antique- and estate-jewelry dealers and collec-
l’oiel” effect, Stephen Webster sets faceted or tors. During the 1990s, however, there was a gradu-
carved quartz cabochons over thin slices of al shift in both the type of buyer at an auction and
chrysoprase and lapis lazuli to give an illusive the type of jewelry sold there. Sotheby’s sale of the
color effect, as illustrated in these rings of 18K Duchess of Windsor’s jewelry in 1987 brought jew-
gold enhanced by diamonds. Courtesy of Stephen elry auctions into the limelight and heightened
Webster, London.
public awareness of auctions as a source of fine
jewelry. Other highly publicized estate auctions
fanned the flames, and soon wealthy buyers from
the public sector began to outbid estate jewelers for
these pieces (Dick, 1990b). This new trend was a
double-edged sword: While it focused public atten-
tion on antique and estate jewelry, thereby escalat-
ing prices and demand, most estate-jewelry dealers
were unable to pay the higher prices at auction and
still make a profit in resale. As a result, there were
more buyers from the private sector but fewer
estate-jewelry dealers bought pieces at auction.
Meanwhile, manufacturers of contemporary jew-
elry, seeing a ready market that they could exploit,
began to discreetly place newly fabricated jewelry in
the auction sales. For expensive, high-end pieces by
new designers, auction houses provided access to a
much wider clientele of wealthy buyers. They also
brought new designers immediate international
exposure, a visibility that would otherwise be
difficult and expensive to achieve in the intensely
competitive ‘90s market. As a result, a number of
contemporary designers, including Della Valle,

Michelle Ong, and Lynn Nakamura, are beginning
to build international followings through the auc-
tion market. Symbiotically, auction houses are ben-
efiting by showcasing a select group of contempo-
rary jewelry artists and designers (Christie’s, 2000;
Sotheby’s, 2000).
MARKETING AND THE MEDIA

Marketing was of paramount importance for
designers in this highly competitive decade. The
best way for them to become known was to adver-
tise their designs so that the consumer would
immediately connect their name with a particular
style. Branding became a trend at every level of the
industry: Argyle “champagne” diamonds, the
Lazare Diamond, Cartier and Tiffany & Co. jewel-
ry, and individual designers such as Henry Dunay
and David Yurman. As if the competition wasn’t
fierce enough, fashion couturiers such as Chanel,
Versace, Fendi, Gucci, and Escada also came out
with lines of fine jewelry. While this latter develop-
ment put greater pressure on jewelers to compete
for market share, it also tied jewelry into the cloth-
ing fashion scene, building a greater awareness of
contemporary styles for jewelry among the wealthy
followers of couture fashion.
With the growing importance of movies and
television, and the proliferation of print media, jew-
elry trends became instantly accessible to everyone. Figure 28. Long earrings became fashionable
again in the late 1990s. This dramatic pair, fab-
This immediacy of information has had a homoge-
ricated of textured 18K gold and platinum, is
nizing effect in many ways, making certain looks augmented by bezel-set diamonds, inlaid black
and styles generic worldwide. The power of nephrite jade, and keshi cultured pearls.
Hollywood had to be recognized, as jewelry worn by Courtesy of Richard Kimball Designs, Denver,
actresses on television and in movies immediately Colorado; photo © Tino Hammid and GIA.
set trends for the greater public. The “Y” necklace,
popularized by various TV series such as Friends, is
a case in point, as is the pearl floater necklace by
Wendy Brigode that actress Rene Russo wore in the
films Tin Cup and Ransom (Morreale, 1997). Pearls for their clients for such a special event, as Cynthia
spaced two to three inches apart on fine silk cord or Bach did for Cate Blanchett on Academy Awards
monofilament became a huge success for Brigode night in 1999.
and such companies as Honora. Television shopping networks and the Internet
The Academy of Motion Picture Arts and have also brought a wide selection of jewelry directly
Sciences Annual Awards ceremony has become a to the masses. Buying jewelry and gemstones has
huge opportunity for jewelers, as the movie stars never been easier. With a simple telephone call or
who attend get extraordinary media coverage the click of a mouse, items shown in photographic
through live television on the night of the event and detail can be purchased instantly. Home Shopping
subsequently in print by such publications as Network and QVC were two of the first television
InStyle, Movieline, and People. Harry Winston, Fred marketing networks where jewelry could be pur-
Leighton, David Orgell, and Martin Katz are some of chased with a phone call. They combined their jew-
the prominent jewelers who have loaned jewelry for elry displays with information about the gem mate-
stars to wear on Oscar night. Others design pieces rials used, which raised public awareness of the wide

variety of colored gems. Although most of what was CONCLUSION
initially offered was on the low end of the value Defining jewelry trends of the 1990s could be com-
scale, the jewelry world could hardly ignore the pared to defining the continually shifting shapes in
tremendous marketing potential of these venues. a kaleidoscope. This was a decade packed with
In the late 1990s, jewelers at every level scram- change. New, often unusual cuts for diamonds and
bled to put a Web site on the Internet and make a colored gems proliferated, expanding the possibili-
bid for the online consumer (Haley, 1996). By late ties for jewelry design, which took off in every
2000, however, two of the most prominent sites had direction. Designers used new juxtapositions of col-
folded, and several more were reputed to have only ored gems set in a wide range of metals, from plat-
a few months’ financial viability left (D. Hiss-Odell, inum to 24K gold to titanium. Gold and white met-
pers. comm., 2000). The Internet is a new frontier als vied for pride of place in the marketplace, while
for the jewelry world, with inherent opportunities diamonds and colored gems in pavé, flush, invisible,
and risks. Aware of the potential, however, many and tension settings gave ‘90s jewelry a variety of
jewelry companies are willing to gamble on a dot- distinctive looks. As the sources for cultured pearls
com Internet business in the hopes of striking it expanded, so did their impact on the market. And
rich. At this point, the Web sites vary widely in the marketplace itself expanded to include televi-
what they offer and how they make their services sion and the Internet, which have had a profound
available to the public. Much like the false-fronts on influence, while jewelry branding became the best
the boomtown shacks of America’s Wild West a way to get consumer attention.
century ago, some Web sites are nothing more than Looking ahead, this is an intensely exciting time
an advertisement with a phone and a fax number. for the jewelry industry, with many burgeoning
Others, by comparison, are sophisticated promo- opportunities and creativity at every level. Doubtless,
tional and informational venues with multiple lay- the tremendous advances in the ‘90s will have a
ers that can be explored with deft application of a decided impact on jewelry design, manufacture, mar-
computer mouse. keting, and wear in the decade to come.
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GeoVision/Robert Weldon
Ruby mining at Mogok, Myanmar Afghan tourmaline, 5.52-10.63 ct
SOUTHEAST ASIA SOUTH ASIA (India continued)
Cambodia Afghanistan 54 Kangayam, Karur: Alx, Aq, Chb,

1 Pailin: Ru, Sa, Spi, Zr 1 Del Parian: Qz Fsp, Ga, Io, RQ, Ru, Sa, Sph
2 Virochey: Qz, Sa 2 Dhray-Pech, Gur Salak, Mualevi, 55 Palni: Alx, Ru
Robert E. Kane
3 Chamnop: Sa Paprowk, Tsotsum: Aq, Mo, Tm 56 Guntur: Ru
4 Chamnom: Sa 3 Kantiwa, Korghal, Mawi, Nilaw– 57 Ranigurha: Alx, Chb
Kolum, Vora Desh: Aq, Mo, Spd, Tm 58 Garhchiroli: Di
Laos 4 Darre Nur: Aq 59 Jungel Valley: Di
1 Ban Huai Sai: Ru, Sa 5 Panjshir Valley: Em 60 Madikeri: Ru
6 Kokcha Valley: LL 61 Nalgonda: Ru
Myanmar (Burma) Myitkyina 62 Kakinada: Sa
7 Jegdalek–Gandamak: Ru, Sa, Spi
1 Mogok: Ap, Aq, Fsp, Chb, Ga, 8 Kuh-i-Lal: Spi
(boundaries in dispute) 63 Nawapada: Ga, Io, Sa
Io, LL, Prd, Qz, Ru, Sa, Scp, 64 Sidhi: Ru
Spd, Sph, Spi, Tm, Tp, Zr India 65 Himachal Pradesh: Qz, Tm
2 Mong Mit: Di, Ga, Ru, Sa 1 Khaman: Alx, Chb, Ga, Ru, Sa 66 Jabalpur: Qz
3 Mong Hsu: Ru, Sa, Tm 2 Krishna River: Alx, Di, Ga 67 Patna: Fsp
4 Putao: Di, Ga 3 Vishakhapatnam: Alx, Chb, Ga, Ru 68 Kodarma: Fsp
69 Travancore: Alx, Fsp, Ga, Sa
Robert Weldon
5 Taninthari/Tavoy Rivers: Di 4 Raipur: Di, Ru
6 Hkamti: Ja 5 Deogarh, Sambalpur: Alx, Aq,
7 Thazi: Aq Nepal
Di, Ga, Ru, Tm, Tp
8 Lai Hka: Ga, Ru, Spi 1 Kakani, Langtang: Aq, Tm
6 Kanyakumari–Tirunelveli: Alx, Chb
9 Namhsan: Ru 2 Ganesh Himal, Lamjung, Marsyangdi
7 Madurai: Alx, Chb, Fsp, Ga, Io, Ru
Ruby (0.95 ct) from Valley, Naje: Aq, Ru, Sa, Tm
10 Langhko, Mong Pan: Ru, Spi, Tm MYANMAR 8 Dindigul-Anna: Alx, Aq, Chb
3 Ikuh Khola: Aq
11 Yawnghwe: Ru, Spi (BURMA) Mong Hsu, Myanmar 9 Trivandrum: Chb, Sa, Tp
12 Thabeitkyin: Ru, Sa 4 Sankhuwasabha, Taplejung,
10 Balangir, Subarnapur: Alx, Aq,
13 Madaya: Ru, Tm Topke Gola: Aq, Tm
Chb, Di, Em, Ga, Qz, Tp
14 Hlaingbwe Valley: Qz, Ru, Sa 5 Khaptad: Aq
11 Panch Mahal: Aq
15 Hpakan, Kansi, Lonkin: Di, Ja, 6 Surketh: Tm
12 Kargil: Aq, Sa
MSS, Sa, Ru 7 Jajarkot: Tm
13 Boudh, Phulabani: Aq, Chb, Io
16 Mansi: Ru, Sa, Spi 14 Ajmer: Aq, Ga
17 Belin Thandaung: Ru KEY/ABBREVIATIONS 15 Tonk: Aq, Ga
Pakistan
1 Chitral: Aq, Tm
18 Mong Hkak: Sa 16 Udaipur: Aq, Em, Ga 2 Gilgit: Aq, Tm, Tp
19 Singu: Sa 17 Salem: Ap, Aq, Em, Fsp, Ga, RQ, Ru 3 Baltistan, Skardu: Aq, Tp, Zo
20 Tanaing: Di 18 Nellore: Chb, Sa 4 Swat River Valley: Em, Ga
21 Toungoo: Di 19 Deobhog: Alx, Aq, Chb, Ga, 5 Mohmand: Em
22 Pyawbwe: Ga He, Qz, RQ, Tm 6 Katlang: Tp
23 Mong Kang: Ga Alx Alexandrite (Chrysoberyl) 20 Anantapur: Di, Ru, Sa 7 Jalkot Valley: Prd
24 Namhkan: Ga 21 Sinapali: Chb 8 Hunza Valley: Ru, Spi
Ap Apatite
25 Mawhun: Ja 22 Kurnool: Di 9 Neelum Valley: Ga, Tm
26 Laisai: Ja Aq Aquamarine (Beryl)
23 Mahbubnagar: Di 10 Nangimali: Ru
27 Bawlake, Hsataw: Ga, Tm Chb Chrysoberyl 24 Bagdihi: Ru, Tm
28 Makmai, Mong Hsak: Ga, Qz, Di Diamond 25 Panna: Di Mumbai Sri Lanka
Sa, Tm Em Emerald (Beryl) 26 Indravati River: Di 1 Kalawana, Kiriella, Kuruwita, Nivitigala,
Fsp Feldspar 27 Bhawanipatna: Di Pelmadulla, Ratnapura, Walawe: Alx, Ap,
Thailand Ga Garnet 28 Chittaurgarh: Di, Ga Aq, Chb, Fsp, Io, Qz, Ru, Sa, Scp, Spi,
1 Klung-Khao Saming, Tha Mai He Heliodor (Beryl) 29 Mirzapur: Di Tm, Tp, Zr
(Chanthaburi–Trat): Ru, Sa Io Iolite (Cordierite) 30 Srikakulam, Rayagada: Chb, Em 2 Balangoda: Ap, Aq, Chb, Fsp, Ga, Qz,
2 Bo Phloi (Kanchanaburi): Sa Ja Jadeite 31 Ambikapur: Aq Sa, Scp, Spi, Tm, Tp, Zr
3 Wichian-Buri: Sa LL Lapis Lazuli 32 Kolar: Sa 3 Rakwana: Alx, Ap, Aq, Chb, Ga,
4 Denchai–Wang Chin: Sa Mo Morganite (Beryl) 33 Mysore: Ap, Aq, Ga, RQ, Ru, Sa, Tm Qz, Ru, Sa, Spi, Tm, Zr
5 Nam Yun–Kantharalak: Sa MSS Maw-Sit-Sit 34 Hassan: Aq, Ga, Ru, Sa 4 Akuressa, Morawaka: Alx, Ap, Aq,
6 Si Satchanalai: Sa Ne Nephrite 35 Tumkur: Io, Ru, Sa Chb, Ga, Sa, Sph, Spi, Tm, Zr
SOUTHEAST ASIA Op Opal 36 Ernakulam: Ga 5 Okkampitiya: Aq, Ga, Ru, Sa, Spi, Tm
Vietnam 37 Angul: Ga 6 Kochchipatana, Monaragala: Aq, Sa, Tm
1 Thuong Xuan: Aq Prd Peridot (Olivine)
38 Raigarh: Aq 7 Matale: Ap, Sa, Tp
2 Luc Yen: Ga, Ru, Sa, Spi Qz Amethyst/Citrine/Ametrine
39 Bhilwara: Ga 8 Elahera, Kaluganga Valley,
3 Bu Khang, Xuan Le: Ru, Sa Rhc Rhodochrosite 40 Jaipur: Ga
RQ Rose Quartz Kongahawela, Laggola: Aq, Chb,
4 Phan Thiet: Sa 41 Jodhpur: Ga Ga, Io, Sa, Sph, Spi, Tm, Tp, Zr
5 Xa Gia Kiem: Sa Ru Ruby (Corundum) 42 Araku Valley: Alx, Chb, Ga Jaffna
9 Avissawella, Kegalla: Aq, Ap, Chb,
6 Di Linh: Prd, Sa Sa Sapphire (Corundum) 43 Warangal: Qz, Ru Ga, Io, Qz, Sa, Spi, Tm, Zr
7 Gai Lai: Prd Scp Scapolite 44 Chittoor: Ru 10 Alutgama: Chb, Sa, Spi, Zr
Spd Spodumene 45 Bellary: Ru 11 Ambalantota, Ridiyagama: Chb,
Sph Sphene 46 Chikmagalur: Ru Ga, Sa, Scp, Spi, Tm
Spi Spinel This chart accompanies the article published in the Winter 2000 issue of Gems & Gemology (Vol. 36, No. 4) titled 47 Chitradurga: Ru 12 Galle: Chb, Sph
Burmese jadeite rings, each
Su Sugilite 48 Mandya: Ru 13 Kuruwitenna: Aq, Chb, Ga, Sa, Spi
approx. 17.0 x 5.7 x 4.1 mm “Gem Localities of the 1990s,” by J. E. Shigley, D. M. Dirlam, B. M. Laurs, E. W. Boehm, G. Bosshart, and W. F. Larson.
49 Raichur: Ru
Tm Tourmaline 14 Polonnaruwa, Kalahagala: Ga, Sa
These regional maps show the approximate locations of gem localities that were significant or showed future potential 50 Shimoga: Ru
Tp Topaz 15 Hatton, Maskeliya, Talawakele: Ga,
Zo Zoisite/Tanzanite in the 1990s. Some regions (e.g., Russia and North America) are not shown due to space limitations. In general, the 51 Bastar: Aq, Di, Ga, Ru Io, Ru, Sa, Spi, Tp, Zr
Zr Zircon locality names listed here refer to the district where each gem deposit occurs. For some localities (i.e., in Sri Lanka 52 Betul: Qz, Ga 16 Passara: Ga, Sa, Spi, Tm, Tp, Zr
and elsewhere), the mine/deposit/occurrence name is shown. The numbers for the gem localities 53 Kalahandi: Alx, Ap, Aq, Chb, 17 Amarawewa, Kataragama, Kochchikatana:
Shades of the Earth / Shane McClure

Ga, Io, Ru, Sa Ga, Sa, Spd, Sph, Spi
correspond to those shown on tables 1 and 2 in the accompanying article. Artwork by Karen Myers.
18 Haputale, Koslanda: Aq, Chb, Fsp,
© Tino Hammid and Christie’s Hong Kong
Peridot from Pakistan Kandy Ga, Sa, Spi, Tm, Tp, Zr

19 Embilipitiya: Aq, Chb, Ga, Io, Prd,
Qz, Ru, Sa, Scp, Spi, Tm, Zr
20 Athiliwewa: Ga
Badulla 21 Kurunegala: Ap, Io, Qz, Tm, Tp
22 Nuwara Eliya: Qz, Sa, Zr
SOUTHERN AFRICA Namibia
Ratnapura 23 Nalanda: Ap
1 Uis: Qz
24 Ambalangoda, Mitiyagoda: Fsp
Angola 2 Usakos: Aq, Tp
25 Eheliyagoda: Alx, Ap, Qz, Ru, Sa, Spi, Tm
1 Chicapa/Luachimo Rivers: Di 3 Oranjemund: Di
26 Galaha: Qz
2 Maxinje: Di 4 Orange River: Di
27 Rattota: Qz, Tp
3 Andrada: Di 5 Damara Mtns.: Ga
28 Kekirawa: Qz
6 Hartmann Mtns.: Ga
SOUTH AMERICA 4 Banano: Di
7 Swakopmund: RQ
29 Nawalapitiya: Aq, Sa, Spi, Tp
30 Lunugamwehera, Paskema: Aq, Ga
Argentina Botswana 8 Usakos: Ga, Tm
31 Deniyaya: Ap, Chb, Scp
1 Capillitas: Rhc 1 Orapa: Di 9 Platveld: Qz
32 Kolonne: Prd
2 Jwaneng: Di
Rwanda 33 Bibile, Lunugala: Sa
Bolivia 3 Tsodilo Hills: Di
34 Horana: Aq, Chb, Ga, Sa, Scp, Spi, Tm, Tp
JOEB Enterprises & Pala International /

1 Rincón del Tigre: Qz 4 Ghanzi: Di 1 Cyangugu: Sa
Brazil Democratic Rep. of the Congo (Zaire) South Africa

1 Itamarati: He, Tm 1 Kwango River: Di 1 Postmasburg: Di
© Harold & Erica Van Pelt

2 Jacobina: Ap, Qz 2 Tshikapa: Di 2 Kimberley: Di
3 Antônio Dias, Hematita, 3 Mbuji-Mayi: Di 3 Namaqualand: Di
Oriente emerald mine in the 4 Koffiefontein: Di
Itabira, Nova Era, Santa Maria
Chivor District, Colombia Kenya
William Rohtert
de Itabira: Alx, Aq, Em, Fsp 5 Pretoria: Di

4 Capão Grande: Op 1 Machakos: Qz 6 Messina: Di
5 Campo Formoso, Carnaíba– 2 Embu: Ap, Aq 7 Hotazel: Su
Socotó: Alx, Em 3 Baragoi: Aq 8 Theunissen: Di
6 Tocantins River: Di 4 Taita Taveta: Ga
7 Porto Velho: Qz 5 Lodwar: Ga, Sa Tanzania Sri Lankan padparadscha
6 Thika: Ru, Sa 1 Lake Manyara: Alx, Chb, Em, Ru
8 Conselheiro Pena–Divino das sapphire, 1.70 ct
Laranjeiras–Galiléia–Sapucaia do 7 Taita Hills: Ru 2 Tunduru: Alx, Chb, Ga, Ru, Sa,
Norte: Ap, Aq, Ga, Mo, RQ, Spd, Tm 8 Kitui: Ru Spi, Tm, Tp, Zr
9 Campo Belo: Qz 9 Maralal: Sa 3 Lelatema: Ga, Qz, Ru, Tm
10 Carnaúba dos Dantas, Frei Martinho, 10 Mtitio Andei: Sa 4 Dodoma: Qz, Scp
Nova Palmeira, Parelhas, Pedra 11 Murua Rith Hills, Pelekech Mtns.: Sa 5 Mpwapwa: Ga, Qz, Ru, Tm
12 Kwale: Tm 6 Kilosa: Qz, Ru Pink diamonds from the Argyle mine
Argyle Diamonds
Lavrada, Salgadinho, Santa Cruz:
13 Voi: Tm 7 Handeni: Ga, Qz, Ru, Sa, Spi, Tm
Ap, Aq, Ga, He, Io, Tm
11 Marabá: Qz 14 Magadi: Tm 8 Loliondo: Aq AUSTRALIA
12 Santa Maria: Qz 15 Narok: Tm 9 Longido: Aq, Ru, Tp
16 West Pokot: Ru, Sa 10 Sumbawanga: Aq, Em, Fsp 1 Lightning Ridge: Op
13 Macarani, Maiquinique: Aq 2 Poona: Em
14 Anagé, Vitória da Conquista: Aq, Em 17 Garba Tula: Sa 11 Singida: Aq, Sa
12 Shinyanga (Mwadui): Di 3 Harts Range: Fsp, Ga, Sph, Zr
15 Castelo, Mimoso do Sul, Muqui: Aq 18 Chandler’s Falls: Sa
13 Ngorongoro: Em, Ru 4 Eyre Peninsula: Ne
16 Baixo Guandu, Colatina, Itaguaçu, 19 Loldaika Hills: Sa
14 Kangala, Komolo: Ga 5 White Cliffs: Op
Pancas, Santa Teresa: Aq, Chb, He, Tp 20 Mangari: Ru
15 Merelani: Ga, Tm, Zo 6 Eromanga: Op
17 Uruaçu: Alx 21 Mgama-Mindi: Ga, Tm
16 Pare Mtns.: Ga 7 Quilpie: Op
18 Araçuaí, Indaiá, Jequitinhonha 8 Winton: Op
Valley, Pedra Azul, Salinas Valley, Madagascar 17 Same: Fsp, Ga, Op, Ru, Tm, Zr
18 Lindi: Ga 9 Barrington: Ru, Sa
Virgem da Lapa: Aq, Di, Mo, Sa, Tm 1 Ankazobe: Aq, Chb
19 Mahenge: Ga, Ru, Sa, Spi 10 New England Range: Sa, Tp, Zr
19 Coroaci, Malacacheta, Urupuca 2 Betafo: Aq, Fsp, Ga, Qz, Spd, Tm
20 Masasi: Alx, Ga 11 Oberon: Sa
River, São José da Safira: Alx, Ap, 3 Sahatany Valley, Antsirabe: Aq,
21 Umba Valley, Usambara Mtns., 12 Upper Bulgurri River: Di
Chb, Ga, Spd, Tm Ga, Io, Mo, Qz, RQ, Spd, Tm
Kalalani: Ga, Ru, Sa, Spi, Tm 13 Dowerin: Chb
20 Alcobaça, Itanhém: Aq 4 Ianapera: Em
22 Haneti Hills: Op 14 Bingara, Copeton: Di
21 Taperoá: Aq 5 Berere: Aq
Gemtech intl. / Robert Weldon
23 Babati: Ru, Tm 15 Ellendale: Di

22 Caraí, Itaipé, Marambaia, Mucuri 6 Tsarantanana: Aq, Qz 16 Aries: Di
Valley, Padre Paraíso, Pavão, Santa 7 Mananjary: Em 24 Lossogonoi Hill: Ru
25 Gairo: Ru 17 Argyle, Bow River: Di
Cruz Valley: Aq, Chb, He, Mo, Tm, Tp 8 Gogogogo: Ga, Ru 18 Merlin: Di
23 Cabeluda: Qz 9 Ejeda: Ru 26 Luande: Ru
27 Matombo: Ru, Sa, Spi, Tm 19 Emmaville, Torrington: Em
24 Itambé: Ap, Aq, Tm 10 Antanifotsy: Ru, Sa, Zr 20 Mount Surprise: Em, Tp
25 Alto Paraguai, Aripuanã: Di 11 Soavinandriana: Aq, Qz 28 Magogoni: Ga, Ru, Sa, Spi, Tm, Tp
29 Morogoro, Mwarazi: Ru 21 Pilbara: Em
26 Buenópolis, Diamantina: Di, Qz 12 Ambilobe: Qz, Sa 22 Yowah: Op
27 Jequitai: Di 13 Milanoa: Ap, Sa, Sph 30 Mvuha: Aq, Ga, Qz, Ru, Sa, Spi, Tm, Tp
31 Tiriti: Ga, Qz, Tm 23 Toompine: Op
28 Triângulo Mineiro (Coromandel): Di 14 Amboasary: Aq, Sa, Zr 24 Jundah: Op
29 Branco River: Di 15 Andranondambo, Antsiermene: Sa Tanzanite (10.13-12.15 ct) 32 Landanai: Tm
33 Chenene Mtns.: Tm 25 Mayneside, Opalton: Op
30 Brumado: Em, Tm 16 Ambositra: Aq, Chb, Fsp, Ga, Qz, RQ, Tm, Tp from Merelani, Tanzania
34 Daluni: Tm 26 Kynuna: Op
31 Tauá: Em 17 Ambondromifehy: Sa 27 Carbine Creek: Op
32 Icó, Solonópole: Aq, Em 18 Lac Itahy: Aq 35 Ngomeni: Tm
36 Kwamsisi: Tm 28 Coober Pedy, Mintabie: Op
33 Pirenópolis: Em 19 Andapa: Aq, Qz 29 Lambina: Op
34 Porangatu: Alx, Em 20 Vondrozo: Aq, Qz, Tm 37 Ndundu: Ru
38 Gelai: Prd 30 Lava Plains: Sa
35 Itaberaí: Em 21 Tolanaro: Aq, Ga, Ru 31 Anakie–Rubyvale: Sa, Zr
36 Tenente Ananias: Aq 22 Ambatondrazaka: Chb, Fsp, RQ, Tm 39 Ruangwa: Ga
40 Mbulu: Qz 32 Andamooka: Op
37 Pedro II: Op 23 Ilakaka–Sakaraha, Andranolava,
38 Ouro Prêto: Tp 41 Kondoa: Aq, Fsp
Ranohira: Alx, Chb, Ga, Sa, Spd,
42 Songea, Nyamtumbo: Aq, Ru, Sa, Spi
© Harold & Erica Van Pelt
39 Benlândia, Quixeramobim: Tm Spi, Tm, Tp, Zr

40 Brejinho: Qz 43 Liwale, Nguhumahinga River: Alx
24 Ambodibakoly: Alx
41 Araguaia, Pau d’Arco: Em, Qz 44 Kasulu: Op
25 Maevatanana: Ga
42 Valério: Ga 26 Bekily: Ga, Sa
Gem rough from Tunduru, Tanzania Zambia
27 Betroka: Ga, Sa, Spi, Zr 1 Kalomo: Qz
Chile 28 Ambovombe, Ambatofinadrahana:
1 Ovalle: LL 2 Lundazi: Aq, Ga, Qz, Tm
Ga, Qz, Tm 3 Luangwa Valley: Aq
29 Ihosy: Ga 4 Kafubu: Em
Colombia
Maha Tannous
Emerald (2.12 ct) from 30 Mahajanga: Ga 5 Lake Kariba: Op

1 Muzo: Em 31 Maralambo: Ga (Madagascar continued) Black opal, 21.61 ct
2 Mercaderes: Sa Coscuez, Muzo District, 6 Chipata, Lukusuzi: Aq, Tm
Colombia 32 Ampanihy: Ga 48 Daraina: Sph 7 Nyimba: Ga, Tm
3 Chivor: Em 33 Tsiroanomandidy: Qz, RQ 49 Toliara: Io 8 Serenje: Ga
34 Mahasolo: Qz 50 Beraketa: Op 9 Gwembe: Ga
Guyana
1 Cuyuni/Mazaruni Rivers: Di 35 Farafangana: Qz, Tm 51 Fianarantsoa: Aq, Qz, Tm, Zr 10 Mazabuka: Ga
2 Potaro River: Di 36 Vatomandry: Qz 11 Siavonga: Qz
Precious Gem Resources / Robert Weldon

37 Andilamena: Qz, RQ, Tp Malawi 12 Mumbwa: Qz
Peru 38 Moramanga: Qz, RQ 1 Mzimba: Aq, Ga 13 Kabwe: Aq, Tm
1 Acarí: Op 39 Mananara: Qz, Tm 2 Chimwadzulu Hill: Ru, Sa 14 Namwala: Aq
Rudy Weber / Andrew Cody

40 Boriziny: Aq, Qz
Mozambique
JOEB Enterprises &
Pala International /
© Tino Hammid
Uruguay 41 Kandreho: Fsp, Qz Zimbabwe

1 Artigas: Qz 42 Anjozorobe: Qz 1 Alto Ligonha: Aq, Em, Mo, Qz, RQ, Tm 1 Masvingo: Em
43 Itrongay: Ap, Fsp, Ga 2 Monapo: Aq 2 Mwami–Karoi: Aq, Tp
Venezuela 44 Faratsiho: Fsp, RQ, Tp 3 Mocuba: Aq 3 Limpopo River: Di
1 Cuyuní River: Di 45 Ambatolampy: Tp 4 Cuamba: Ga 4 Zvishavane: Em
Samir-Pierre Kanaan
2 Caroní/Paragua Rivers: Di 46 Andriamena: Tp 5 Nacala: Tm 5 Bikita: Em
3 Guaniamo River: Di 47 Mahabe: Fsp, Tp 6 Morroa: Em 6 Sandawana: Em
Para’ba tourmaline, 4.49 ct Sapphire mining at Mining opal at Lightning Ridge
Ambondromifehy in
northern Madagascar
© 2000 Gemological Institute of America

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WINTER 2000 VOLUME 36 NO. 4 pg.

336 Gemstone Enhancement and Detection in the 1990s

360 Synthetic Gem Materials and Simulants in the 1990s

380 Technological Developments in the 1990s: Their Impact on Gemology

398 Jewelry of the 1990s

ABOUT THE COVER

PRODUCTION Art Director Production Assistant WEB SITE

EDITORIAL Alan T. Collins Alan Jobbins Kurt Nassau

Editorial GEMS & GEMOLOGY Winter 2000 291

The past decade saw growth in gem explo-

292 Localities of the 1990s GEMS & GEMOLOGY Winter 2000

Localities of the 1990s GEMS & GEMOLOGY Winter 2000 293

294 Localities of the 1990s GEMS & GEMOLOGY Winter 2000

Localities of the 1990s GEMS & GEMOLOGY Winter 2000 295

the alluvial gem fields of Sri Lanka and the peg-

296 Localities of the 1990s GEMS & GEMOLOGY Winter 2000

Figure 9. One of the most

Localities of the 1990s GEMS & GEMOLOGY Winter 2000 297

Figure A-1. Average wholesale per-carat prices

298 Localities of the 1990s GEMS & GEMOLOGY Winter 2000

Localities of the 1990s GEMS & GEMOLOGY Winter 2000 299

300 Localities of the 1990s GEMS & GEMOLOGY Winter 2000

Localities of the 1990s GEMS & GEMOLOGY Winter 2000 301

302 Localities of the 1990s GEMS & GEMOLOGY Winter 2000

Localities of the 1990s GEMS & GEMOLOGY Winter 2000 303

304 Localities of the 1990s GEMS & GEMOLOGY Winter 2000

OTHER GEM MATERIALS AND

Localities of the 1990s GEMS & GEMOLOGY Winter 2000 305

306 Localities of the 1990s GEMS & GEMOLOGY Winter 2000

Localities of the 1990s GEMS & GEMOLOGY Winter 2000 307

308 Localities of the 1990s GEMS & GEMOLOGY Winter 2000

Localities of the 1990s GEMS & GEMOLOGY Winter 2000 309

310 Localities of the 1990s GEMS & GEMOLOGY Winter 2000

Gem material/locality Reference Gem material/locality Reference

BERYL—Emerald Ceará—Solonópole: Coqui (32); Tauá: Boa Esper-

Localities of the 1990s GEMS & GEMOLOGY Winter 2000 311

Madhya Pradesh—Ambikapur: Newatola, Sapha (31); S. Fernandes (pers. comm., 1999)

312 Localities of the 1990s GEMS & GEMOLOGY Winter 2000

Stoneham, Topsham wella (9); Nuwara Eliya: Kuruwitenna (13); Polonna-

Localities of the 1990s GEMS & GEMOLOGY Winter 2000 313

314 Localities of the 1990s GEMS & GEMOLOGY Winter 2000

Central—Nuwara Eliya: Maskeliya (15)

Localities of the 1990s GEMS & GEMOLOGY Winter 2000 315

316 Localities of the 1990s GEMS & GEMOLOGY Winter 2000

Localities of the 1990s GEMS & GEMOLOGY Winter 2000 317

Bernhardt (1999) Tanga—Kalalani (21) Seifert and Hyrsl (1999)

318 Localities of the 1990s GEMS & GEMOLOGY Winter 2000

Perm: Saranovskoye Kolesar (1997) Sagaing—Hkamti: Nansibon, Natmaw (6)

Localities of the 1990s GEMS & GEMOLOGY Winter 2000 319

320 Localities of the 1990s GEMS & GEMOLOGY Winter 2000

Sri Lanka Dissanayake and Rupasinghe  South America

Localities of the 1990s GEMS & GEMOLOGY Winter 2000 321

322 Localities of the 1990s GEMS & GEMOLOGY Winter 2000

Tanga—Kwamsisi (36) Dirlam et al. (1992)

Localities of the 1990s GEMS & GEMOLOGY Winter 2000 323

Gem material/locality Reference Gem material/locality Reference

Apatite Toamasina—Ambatondrazaka (22)

324 Localities of the 1990s GEMS & GEMOLOGY Winter 2000

United States Urupuca River: Urupuca (19)

Sri Lanka Dissanayake and Rupasinghe South America