Lectures of

Digital Control System

Fourth Year
(2023-2024)
 Introduction of digital control systems:-
The continuous controllers are built using analog electronics such as
resistors, capacitors and operation amplifiers (OP /Amp).
The digital controllers are built using digital computers or microprocessors
with the necessary in put/output hardware to implement the controllers.
To illustrate the difference we take the liquid level control system.

In the digital controller system the block diagram will be as follows:

In the digital control system the signal from the float is converted to a digital
signal and feed to the computer. The digital computer with help of suitable
softwar and according to the set point perform the control action. The
control signal is converted from the digital form to analog form bettor it
supply to the final control element (Pneumatic value).

In general the block diagram of digital control system is as shwon in

following figure.

 Advantages of digital controllers over analog controllers:-

1-Easily reprogrammed (in an analog control circuit, changing
resistors / capacitors).
2-Easier to implement complicated algorithms.
3- Integration with remote systems and digital communications.
4 - cost is going down and speed is going up.
5 - Noise immunity.
The introduction of a digital computer in a control system requires the use
of D/ A and A /D converters. Practically any measurable quantity is analog in
nature, such as temperature, pressure, speed and time.
To illustrate the difference between and log and digital quantity, let us take
the case of a voltage that varies over a range from (0 V ) to (+15 v). The
analog quantity can take an infinite number of values on this interval. But in
the case of digital representation using a four bit binary code, only ( 16 )
values can be defined (0 , 1 ,3 , … , 15). The process of converting a signal in
analog form to digital form is called a quantizing process.

 Analog -To - Digital conversion (A/D) i-

One method of A /D conversion is by use of parallel differential comparators
that compare reference voltages with the analoge input voltage. When the
analog voltage exceeds the reference voltage for a given comparator, a
HIGH is generated and according to this HIGH the priority encoder
generates the binary output corresponding to this analog input. In the figure
a three-bit converter is shown, which uses seven comparator circuits.
(A three-bit simultaneous (A/D) converter)

 Digital-To-Analog Conversion (D/ A) :-

One method of D/A conversion uses a resistor network with op-Amp as
summer. In the figure four-bit D/A converter is shown.
The lower value resistor R corresponds to the highest binary weighted input
3
2 . Each of the other resistor are multiples of R , 2 R , 4 R and 8 R
corresponding to the binary weights 22 ,21 and 2∘ respectively.

 Discrete Time System:-

There are three ways to discribe control system.

Describe Transfor
by m Modern
Equations Method

Differenti State
- Continuous Time al Laplace Equatio
(CT).
Equations ns

Differenc State
-Discrete Time (DT), e Z Equatio
Equations ns

 Sampled - Data Systems i.

The use of digital computer to calculate a control action for the continuous,
dynamic system introduces the fundamental operation of sampling. Samples
are taken from the continuous physical signals such as position, velocity or
temperature and these samples are used in the computer to calculate the
control action to be applied.

 Analysis of the Sample and Hold:

To get samples of a physical signal in to digital form, we typically have a
sensor that produces a voltage proportional to the physical variable. The
analog-to-digital converter ( ADC ) transforms the voltage into a digital
computer. The A /D converter is typically preceded by a sampleand-hold
circuit (SHC). A simple electronic schematic is shown in figure where, S, is
an electronic device driven by simple logic from a clock.
with the switch S, in position 1, the amplifier output V out (t) tracks the input
voltage V in (t).

During tracking time the ADC is turned off and ignores Tout. When a sample
is to be taken at t=KT the switch S is set to position 2 and the capacitor c
holds the output of the op/Amp frozen from that time at V 0 u t(KT )=V in (kT ).
The ADC is now signaled to begin conversion of the constant input from the
(SHC).
H=¿ Hold, S in position 2
T =¿ Track, S in position 1

For the purpose of the analysis, we separate the sample and hold into two
mathematical operations: a sampling operation represented by impulse
modulation and hold operation represented as a linear filter.
considering the sampler output to be a train of weighted impulses, we can
¿
relate the continuous signal x (t) to the sampler output x (t ) by:
¿
x (t )=δ T (t )x (t)

where δ T (t ) represents a train of unit impulses: and T is sampling considered

as modulator.
with the input x (t) as modulating signal and train of unit impulses as carrier.

The unit impulse function is a pulse of unit area with width approaching to
zero:

δ (t)= {10 ,, t=0

t ≠0
and the shifted unit impulse is represented as:

δ (t−T )= {10 ,, t=T

t ≠T
Now we could represent the a train of unit impulses δ T (t ) as:

∞
δ T (t )= ∑ ❑ δ(t−kT )
k=−∞

where δ (t−kT ) is the unit impulse function occuring at t=kT .

thus: ẋ ¿ (t )=∑ ∞k=−∞ x(t)δ(t−kT )
or: x ¿ (t )=∑ ∞k=−∞ x(kT )δ (t−kT )
In most of applications the time functions considered zero for t <0 therefore:
∞
x (t )=∑ ❑ x (kT )δ (t−kT )
¿

k=0

¿
By taking the laplace transform of x (t ) we obtain:

¿ ∞ ∞
x ( S)=¿∫ ẋ ẋ (t)=∫ ❑ ∑ ❑ x (kT )δ (t−kT ) e
¿ ¿ ¿ −kTS ∞ ∞ ∞
dt
0 k=0 =∫ ❑ x (0)δ(t )e dt +∫ ❑ x (T )δ (t−T )e
−0 −TS
dt +∫ ❑ x
¿ 0 0 0

Now by defining e TS =Z , we could write:

( )
∞
1
x (z)=x ¿ (s)=x ¿ ln ⁡z =∑ ❑ x (kT ) Z−k
T k=0

thus:
∞
Zx(t)=Z (x)=x (z)=∑ ❑ x (kT ) z−k
¿

k=0

 Holding device:-
A holding device converts the sampled signal (discrete time) into a
continuous signal. The simplest holding device converts the sampled signal
into one which is constant between two consecutive sampling instants. Such
a device is a Zero-Order Holding device.
The transfer function G h (S) of a zero-order holding is:

−TS
1−e
G h (S)=
S

 Example:- Find the z -transform of the unit-step function.

Solu. u(t )= {01 ,, t <0
t⩾0

Z u(t) ¿

 Example:- Obtain the z -transform of the signal x (t) where:

x (t)= {0
e−at
for t <0
for t ⩾ 0
solus.
∞
x (z) ¿ Z e−at =∑ ❑ e−akT z−k
k=0
2 3
¿ ¿ 1+ e −aT
z + (e
−1 −aT
z−1 ) + ( e−aT z−1 ) +⋯
¿ ¿

 Example:- Obtain the z -transform of x (t)

where:

x (t)= {sin0⁡wt,t <0, t>0

z
sola. since Z [ e ]=
−at
−aτ
z −e
we obtain:

[ ] [ ]
jωt − jωt
e −e 1 z z
Z sin ⁡ωt ¿ Z = jωt
− − jωT
2j 2 j z−e z−e
z sin ⁡ωT
¿ ¿ 2
z −2 z cos ⁡ωT +1

 H.W:- Find the z -transform of x (t) where

 x (t)= {cos0⁡ωt, t<,0t>0
⋮
⋮
⋮
⋮
⋮

 Example:- Determine the z -transform of

k
x (kT )=2

Solus.
∞
Zx(kT ) ¿ ∑ ❑ 2k z −k =1+2 z −1 +22 z−2+ 23 z−3 +2 4 z −4 +⋯
k=0
1 z
¿ ¿ −1
=
1−2 z z−2

 Some properties of z -transform ir

(1) Linearity of z -transform.
If x (kT )=a x 1 (kT )+ b x2 (kT ) then:

Zx(kT )=aZ x 1 (kT )+ bZ x 2 (kT )

 Example:- Find the z -transform for the signal

k k
x (kT )=3∗2 −4∗3
k k 3Z 4Z
Zx(kT )=3 Z 2 −4 Z 3 = −
Z −2 Z−3

(2) Time shifting.

If the z -transform of x (kT ) is x (Z) then:

−n
Zx(kT −nT )=Z x (z)

 Example:- Find the z -transform of x (kT )

where: x (kT )=¿
Sola. The signal x (KT ) can be expressed as subtraction of two unit step
functions:

x (kT )=u( kT )−u (kT −nT )

Thus:

Zx(kT ) ¿ Zu(kT )−Zu(kT −nT )

z Z
¿ ¿ −z−n
z−1 z−1
¿ ¿
(3) Sealing in the z -domain.
If the z -transform of x (t) is x (z) then:

Z a x (kT )=Z x (kT )|z → z

kT

 Example:- Find the z -transform of x (t )=at cos ⁡ωt ⋅u (t )

solus, Zx(t)=Z a t cos ⁡ωt . u(t)
 |
2
z −z cos ⁡ωT
¿ Z cos ⁡ωt ⋅u(t)| z = 2 z
z→
a z −2 z cos ⁡ωT +1 z→
a

¿
a() ()
z 2 z
−
a
cos ⁡ωT

( az ) −2( az )cos ⁡ωT +1

2

 H. Win Find the Z -transform of x (kT ), where

{
1 ,T <k <2 T
0 , elsewere
x (kT )= ⋮
1−z −1
x (z)=
z−1

(4) Differentiation in z -domain.

If the z -transform of x (t) is x (z) then:

dx (z)
Ztx (t)=−zT
dz

 Example:- Find the z-transform of the signal

t
x (t)=t a ⋅u (t)

Solus.

d
Zx(t) ¿ Z [ t a ⋅u( t) ]=−ZT
t t
Z a ⋅ u(t)
dz
¿ ¿
 Example:- Find the Z-transform of the damped sin function
−at
x (t)=e sin ⁡ωt ⋅ u(t)

Solus.
X − akT
Z x( kT ) ¿Ze sin ω kT ⋅ u(kT )
1
¿ ¿
2j
[ Ze
( jω−a)kT
⋅u(kT )−Z e
−( jω+a)kT
⋅u(kT ) ]

[ ]
2 −( jω+ a)T 2 ( jω−a)T
1 z −z e −Z + Z e
¿ ¿ −( j ω+ a)T ( jω−a)T
2
2 j z −Z e −Z e + e( jω−a)T e−( jω+a)T
¿ ¿
 ( )
jωT − jωT
−aT e −e
ze
2j
¿
(e )+e
jωT − jωT
2 −aT +e −2 aT
z −2 z e
2
−aT aT
z e sin ⁡ωT z e sin ⁡ωT
¿ 2 −aT −2 aT
= 2 2 aT aT
z −2 z e cos ⁡ωT + e z e −2 z e cos ⁡ωT + 1

(5) Z e−at x (t)=X ( Z e aτ )

(6) Z a k f (t)=F ( a−1 z )
(7) Zf (t + nT )=Z n f ( z )−Z n f (0)−z n−1 f (T ) ⋯−Zf ((n−1) T ) where: n=0 , 1, 2 , …
(8) Z f (k + n)=z n F (z)−z n f (0)−z n−1 f (1)⋯−zf (n−1)
(9) Zf (k −n)=z−n F ( z )
dF( z)
(10) Zkf (k )=−z
dz

f (t), f (kT ) f (z) (Z-transform table)

2
z z −z cos ⁡bT
1 cos ⁡bt
z−1 2
z −2 z cos ⁡bT +1

Tz dF (z )
t ,kT tf (t) −Tz
¿¿ dz

−1 −1
z −1 z z z
a
k
a
k−1
z F (z )= =
z−a z−a 1−a z −1

−at −akT
z z.
e ,e −aT k
z−e ¿¿

z sin ⁡bT
sin ⁡bt 2
z −2 z cos ⁡bT +1

 The Inverse Z -transform:-

Given X (Z ) there are three basic methods for obtaining the discrete time
function X ( KT ).
(1) Partial Fraction:-

By this method we first factor the denominator polynomial of x (z) and find
x( z)
the poles of it. Then we expand into partial fractions so that each of the
z
terms is easly recognizable in the table of z transformations.
 10 z
 Example:- Find x (kT ) if x (z) is given by: x (z)= 2
z −3 z +2
10 z
solus. x (z)=
(z−1)( z−2)
x( z) 10 A B A (z−2)+ B( z−1)
= = + =
z (z−1)(z−2) z−1 z −2 (z−1)(z−2)

thus: 10=A (z−2)+B (z−1)

For z=1 ⇒10=A (1−2)+0

A=−10

For z=2 ⇒ 10=0+ B(2−1)

B=10

x( z) −10 10
then = +
z z −1 z−2
and by inspection
k k
x (kT )=−10∗1 +10∗2
(18)
¿ 10 ( 2 −1 )
k

(18)

 H.W :- Find x (kT ) if x (z) is given by:

¿

(2) Inversion by long division:-

By this method we obtain the inverse z -transform by expanding x (Z) into an

infinite power series. If X (Z ) is expanded into a convergent power series in
−1
ź , normaly
∞
x (z)=∑ ❑ x (kT ) z−k =x (0)+ x (T )z−1 + x (2 T )ź −2 + x (3 T ) z−3 +⋯
k=0

Then the values of x (kT ) can be determined by inspection.

 Example: - Find x (kT ) for k =0 , 1 ,2 , 3 , 4 when x (z) is given by:

10 z
x (z)=
(z−1)( z−2)
Solu. x (z) can be written:
 10 z
2 −1
10 z z 10 z
x (z)= 2 = 2 = −1 −2
z −3 z +2 z 3 z 2 1−3 z +2 z
2
− 2
+ 2
z z z

By long division:-
−1 −2 −3 −4
10 z +30 z +70 z +150 z
−1
10 ź
−1 −2 −3
∓ 10 z ±30 z ∓ 20 z
−2 −3
0+30 z −20 z
−2 −3 −4
∓ 30 z ± 90 z ∓ 60 z
−3 −4
0+70 z −60 z
−3 −4 −5
∓ 70 z ± 210 z +140 z
0+150 z−4−140 z−5

thus: x (z)=10 z −1+30 z−2 +70 z−3 +150 z−4 +⋯

by inspection: x (0)=0 , x (T )=10 , x (2 T )=30 , x (3 T )=70

x (4 T )=150

(3) Inversion by contour integration:-

By this method we use the inversion integral for the z -transform which is:

1 k−1
x (kT )= ∮ c x (z ) z dz
2 πj

where c is counter clock wise integration in region of convergence of x (z)

encircling the origin.
The inversion integral is equivalent to:

x (kT )=∑ [ residue of x ( z) z k−1 at the poles of x (z) ]

The residue for a first order pole at z=a is:

R=lim [ (z−a) x (z) z k−1 ]

z →a

and the residue for the repeated pole of order r is 20

(r−1)
lim d
1 z→a
R= ¿
(r−1)! d z(r−1)
  Example:- obtain x (KT ) by use of the inversion integral where X ( z) is
10 z
given by: X ( z)=
(z −1)(z−2)
Solus.

R1=lim (z−1)
z →1 [ 10 z
(z−1)(z−2)
z k−1
]
¿

R2 ¿ lim (z+ 2)
z →2 [ 10 z
(z−1)(z+ 2)
z k−1
]
¿ ¿

Thus: x (kT )=R1 + R2=−10+ 10 ¿

 Example:- Find the x (kT ) for the following function by using residue
method.
3
z
x (z)=
(z+ 1) ¿ ¿

Solus. For the first order pole (z +1) we have

R1 ¿ lim [( z−a)x ( z ) z k−1 ]= lim [(z +1) x (z )z k−1 ]

z →a z →−1
¿ ¿
For the repeated pole ¿ and r =2

R2 ¿

1
Thus: x (kT )=R1 + R2= ¿
4

 Pulse Transfer Function:-

The pulse transfer function velate the z -transform of the output at the
sampling instant to that of the sampled input. In figure below the impulse
sampler is followed by a linear continuous - time element whose transfer
¿
function is G(S), then the output Y (S) is: Y (S)=G(S) x (S)
It has proven that in taking starred Laplace transform of equation (1), we
¿
may factor out x ( s) so that
¿
Y ¿ (s )=[ G ( s ' ) x ¿ (s ) ] =G¿ ( s ' ) x ¿ ( s)
Y ( z )=G( z ) x (z)

For the system shown in figure below:

The laplace transform of the output y (t ) is:

y ( s ' ) =G ( s ' ) x ( s' )

¿ ¿
y ¿ ( s' ) =[ G ( s ' ) x ( s ' ) ] =[ G × ( s' ) ] =G x ¿ ( s ' )

or in term z -transform:

y (z )=Z [G(s) x (s)]=Z [G ×(s )]=G ×( z)≠ G(z )×(z )

So the input sampler is very crucial in determining the pulse transfer

function of a system

 Pulse Transfer Function of Cascade Element:

Y ( z)
It is important to note that the pulse transfer function of the systems
X (z )
shown in figures (a) and (b).

(a)
For the system shown in figure (a) the pulse transfer function

Y (z )
is: X (z ) ¿G 1 G 2 [
(z)=Z
1 1
s+ a s+b ] [ (
=Z
1 1
−
1
b−a s +a s +b = )]
Z ( e−aT −e−bT )
(b−a) ( z−e ) ( Z −e )
−aT −bT
¿
¿ ¿
For the system shown in figure (b) Cassuming that the two samplers are
synchronized and have the same sampling period), we obtained:

y (z) u(z ) y (z ) z z
¿ =G1 (z )G2 ( z )= −aT
x (z ) x (z) u(z ) z−e z−e−bT
¿ ¿

Thus: G 1 G 2(z )≠ G 1 (z )G 2 (z )
Therefore, we must be careful and observe whether or not there is a sampler
between cascaded elements.

 Example:- Obtain the pulse transfer function of the system shown in

figure below:

solu. From the block diagram, we obtain

( )( S( S+1 1) )=(1−e )[ S (S1+1) ]

−sT
C ( s) 1−e − sT
G(s)= ¿ =
M (s) S 2

By using the definition e ST =z we have:

G(z )=( 1−z ) Z

−1
[ 1
s (s'+ 1)
2
]
¿
with T =1 sec we have:

G(z )=( 1−z −1) z ¿ ¿

 Pulse Transfer Functions of Closed Loop Systems:-

The procedure for determining the pulse transfer function of closed -loop
system is:
1- Describe the input and the output of the system, note that the output of
the switch regarded as input and the inputs to switchs as an output.
2-Write equations for each output interms of its inputs.
3- From these equations determine the out put c (Z) by staring quantities if
necessary.
As an example consider the closed-loop system shown in figure

¿
From the block diagram the inputs of the system are: R(S) and E (S ), the
output of the system are:
C (S ) and E(S)
Thus: E(s)=R (s)−H (s)¿
¿
c (S)=G(S) E (S)
¿
Hence: E(s)=R (s)−H (s)G(s )E (s)
By staring we obtain:

E¿ (s )=R¿ (s )−G ¿ (s)E ¿ (s)

¿
¿ R (S)
or E (s )= ¿
1+ G H (s )
¿ ¿ ¿
Since: ( s)=G (s) E (s)
¿ ¿
¿ G (s )R (s )
We obtain: C (s)=
1+G ( H ¿ (s)
In terms of the z -transform C (Z ) is given by:
 G(Z) R(Z)
C (z)=
1+GH (Z)

and the pulse transfer function is:

C( z ) G(Z)
=
R( z ) 1+GH (Z)

Typical configurations of closed loop dicrete-time systems and the

corresponding outputs C (Z ) are listed below:
(1)

G(z ) R (z)
C (z)=
1+GH (z)

(2)

G(z ) R( z)
C (z)=
1+G(z )H (z )

(3)
 RG (z )
C (z)=
1+GH (z)

(4)

R ( G1 (z )G2 ( z )
C (z)=
1+G1 G2 H (z )

(5)

R(z )G 1(z )G 2( z )
c (z )=
1+G 1(z )G 2 H (z )

(6)
 R(z )G1 G2 (z)
C (z)=
1+G1 G2( z)H (z)

 H.W:- Derived the pulse transfer function for closed loop discrete-time
systems above.

 Example:- Find impulse transfer function

( R(z ))
c( z)
for the following

Sou.
E(s)=R ( s ) −C ( s ) H ( s)−(1)
' ¿ '

⇒ C ( s ) =E (s)G ( s )
¿ ' ¿ ¿ '

¿ ¿
E(s)=R ( s)−E (s)G (s )H ( s)
⇒ E ( s ) =R ( s ) −E E ( s ) G (s )H ( s )
¿ ' ¿ ' ¿ ' ¿ ¿ '

E ¿ (s)+ E¿ (s)∗(s) Ḣ ¿ ( s)=R ¿ (s)

¿ R¿ (s )
E E ( s)=
1+(¿)
R
R (s) ⃗
¿ ¿
¿ G (s)
C (s)=
1+ ⃗
¿ ¿ ¿
G ( s H (s )
R(z )G (z)
c (z)=
1+G(z )H ( z)
C (z) G( z )
=
R(z ) 1+ G(z) H (z)

 Example: Find the system response C (KT ) to a unit step input for the
system shown below.
solus.

1−e
−Ts
3,s
'
3 ( 1−e−Ts )
G(s)= ⋅ =
s¿ ( s ' + 1 )( s ' +2 ) (s +1)(s +2)
C ( s' )=G ( s' ) A ¿ ( s' )
C(z )=G(z ) A (z)

1
A(S)=G1 ( s ) E(S), when G(k , S)=
'
s +0.5

A(z ) ¿ Z (G ,(s )E (s ))=Z ( s +0.5

1 1
)s = 0.51 Z ( s(s+0.50.5) )
¿ ¿
1
¿ 3 ( 1−e )
−Ts
G(s)
(s +1)(s +2)
z ( e −e )
z−1 ( e −e ) z
−T −2 T −1 −2
G(z ) ¿ 3 ( 1−z )
−1
=3
( z−e−T ) ( z−e−2T ) z ( z −e−1 )( z −e−2 )
¿ ¿

3 (z−1) ( e−1−e−2) 2 z ( 1−e−0.5 )

c (z) ¿ ⋅
( z−e−1 ) ( z−e−2 ) (z−1) ( z −e−0.5 )
0.5489 z
¿ ¿
(z−0.3679)( z −0.1353)(z−0.6065)
c (z) −9.8904 5.0082 4.8822
¿ + +
z z−0.3679 z −0.1353 z−0.6065

−9.8904 z 5.0082 z 4.8822 z

c (z )= + +
z−0.3679 z−0.1353 z−0.6065
¿
 Example:- Determine the response of the system shown below to unit-
vamp function. v (t)=tu(t) , for k =0 , 1 ,2 , 3.
R(s)
Solus. The pulse transfer function of this closed loop system is:-

C ( z) G(z)
=
R ( z) 1+GH ( z)

( )
−βT
1−e 1 1
G(s)= =( 1−e−sT )
s s +4 s(β + 4)

G (z)=( 1−z ) Z
−1
( 1
s (ss + 4) )
by using residue method:

R 1=lim s
s →0
1
[
s(s+ 4) z−e
z
sT
=
1 z
4 z−e ]
0∗0.1
=
0.25 z
z−1

R2= lim (s +4)

s →−4 [ 1 z
s (s + 4) z −e sT
=
1
−4 z−e ]z
−4∗0.1
=
−0.25 z
z−0.67

Thus: G(z )=( 1−z

−1
[ z−1 z−0.67 ]
) 0.25 z − 0.25 z =(z−1) 0.25 − 0.25 [ z−1 z−0.67 ]
G(z )=(z −1)
[ 0.25(z−0.67)−0.25(z−1)
(z−1)(z−0.67)
=
0.08
z−0.67 ]
¿
The response of the system is:

G(z)
C (z)= R(z )
1+G(z )
¿
Thus C (KT ) is

c (0)=0
c (T )=0
c (2T )=0.008
c (3 T )=0.021
c (4 T )=0.036

 Steady -state Errors in

For the discrete system shown in figure below:

we have:

E ( S' )=R ( S ' ) −C ( S' )

−T S'
1−e
C ( S ) =E ( S)G ( S ) , where G ( S ) =
' ¿ ' '
G ( S' )
S
or
E( S)=R (S)−E¿ (S)G' ( S ' )
E¿ (S)=R¿ (S)−E ¿ ( S ¿ ) G¿ (S)
¿
¿ R (S) R( Z)
E (S)= ⇒ E ( Z)=
1+G ( S )
¿ '
1+G(Z)

The final value theorem for discrete signal states that:

lim e¿ (t)=lim ( 1−z −1 ) E(z )

t→∞ z →1
or
R (z)
e ¿ ( ∞)=lim ( 1−z −1 )
z →1 1+ G(z)

or

For unity feedback.

 Unit Step Input in

1 z
For unit step input r (t )=1 ⇒ R(S)= ⇒ R (z)= then the steady state error
S z−1
for unit step input will be:
 R (z)
e ¿ ( ∞)=lim ( 1−z −1 )
z →1 1+ G(z)
z 1
z−1 (z−1)
e (∞)=lim ( 1−z )
¿ −1
=lig z → 1 (z−1)
z →1 1+G(z) 1+G (z)
¿ 1 1
e (∞)= =
lim (1+G(z )) 1+l z → 1 G( z)
z →1

or

¿ 1
e (∞)=
1+k p

where kp is the static error constant

kp=li z → 1 G(z )

 Unit Ramp Input :-

1 TZ
For unit ramp input, r (t )=t ⇒ R (S )= 2
⇒ R(z )=
¿¿
S

then the steady state error:

¿
or

¿ 1 1
e (∞)= =
1 kv
lim ( z−1)G(z )
T z →1

1
when k v = lim ¿ z →1 ( z−1)G(z)¿
T

 Unit Parabolic Input :-

2
t 1
⇒ R ( s )= 3
'
For a unit parabolic input, r (t )=
2 s
2
T z ( z +1)
⇒ R (z)=
2¿¿

Then:

R(z ) ¿

¿
 1
where k a= 2
lim ¿ z →1 ¿ ¿
T
Ex.!: For the unit feedback system find the steady state error for unit step,
ramp and parabolic input.

Solus:..
The open -loop T.F is:-

The open - 100p T.F is:-

5 ( 1−e )
[ ]
−TS
1−e−T 5 1 1 1
=5 ( 1−e ) 2 − +
'
−T S
G( S)= '
⋅ ' ' = 2
S S ( S +1 ) S (S +1) S S S+1

Then then z transform is:

G(z )=5 ( 1−z−1 ) ¿

 For step input:

¿ 1
e (∞) ¿ , kp=lim G(z)
1+kp z→1
⇒ kp ¿

¿ 1 1
the e (∞)= = =0
1+ Kp 1+ ∞

 For. a unit ramp input:

kv ¿

t 1 1
the e (∞)= = =0.2
kv 5

 For a parabolic input:

¿

EX.:- For the discrete control system shown below, find the steady-state
error for unit step, ramp and parabolic input.
Solus:-

E ( s' ) =R ( s ' )−H ( s ' ) ( ( s' )

'

1−e−T s ( ' )
C ( s ) =E ( s ) G ( s ) , where G ( s ) =
' ¿ ' ' '
G1 s
S
⇒ E ( s' )=R ( S ' ) −H ( s ' ) E ¿ ( s ' ) G ( s' )

by staring:

by staring:
¿ ¿ ¿ ¿
E (S)=R (S)−E (S) H G (S)

R¿ ( S ' ) R( Z)
E ( s )=
¿ '
⇒ E(z )=
1+ H G ( S )
¿ '
1+ HG(Z)

by using the final value therm,

lim e¿ (t)=lim ( 1−z−1 ) E (z)

t →∞ z →1

R ( z)
or e (∞)=lim ¿ z →1 ( 1−z ) E( z)=lim ¿ z →1 ( 1−z−1 )
¿ −1
¿¿
1+ HG (z )

 For unit step input:-

¿ 1 l
e (∞)= , k p= HG (z)
1+k p z→1

 For unit ramp input:-

l
1 1 −1

e ¿ (∞)= , k v = lim ¿ ⁡(z−1)HG (z)¿

kv T z→1

 For unit parabolic input:-

¿
 [ ]
1 1 1
6 2 3 2 1
kp ¿ lim 2(z−1) − + = =
z →1 z −1 z−e −2
z−e
−3
6 3
¿ 1 3 1 1
e (∞) ¿ = = = =∞ ¿ k a ¿=lim ¿
1 4 kv 0 z→1
1+
3
kv ¿ lim ( z−1) HG (z)
z →1
¿ ¿
 Stability Analysis in the Z - plane:-
A linear dynamic system is stable if all poles of the T.F lie in the Left-Half S-
plane, to map the Left-Half s' -plane to the z -plane we use the relation: Z=e $ T

As s=6+ jw
then z=e ( j+ jω)T =e δT e jωT
thus ¿ z∨¿ e σT , ∠ z=ωT
in the Left-Half S-plane, 6< 0, therefor the magnitude of Z varies between (0)
and (1). The imaginary axis, or σ =0, corresponds to the unit circle in the z -
plane. The inside of the circle corresponds to the Left-Half. S-plane.

( s' -plane)
(Z-plane)

For the second order system the T.F is:

2
c (s ) wn
= 2 ' 2
R ⋅ (s' ) s +2 L wn s + wn

The poles of this system are:

S1=−L w n + j w n √ 1−L2 and S 2=−L w n− j w n √ 1−L2

The vertical lines in the S-plane means constant values of L Wnn, which gives
constant settling time

4 4
T s= ⇒ Lw =
Lw n
Ts
n

these lines characterized by the equation:

 −4
S=σ 1 + jw , where σ 1=−L wn=
Ts

This line mapped to the z -plane by

π1T jωT jωT
z=e e =r 1 e

The horizontal lines on the S-plane are lines of constant ( ω n √ 1−L2 ) which
π
means constant peak time T p= , these lines are characterized by the
ωn √ 1−L2
π
equation S' =∂+ j ω1, where ω 1=ω n √ 1−L =
2
Tp

By mapping these lines to z -plane we have

δT δT j ω1 T
z=e =e e

π
This equation represents radial lines at an angle of ω 1 T =
( T p /T )
  The Jury stability Test:-
Consider the characteristic equation of a sampled-data system.

1+G(z )=0

or Q(z )=a n z n +a n−1 z n−1+⋯+ a1 z + a0=0

we first construct the Jury's array as following:

b 0 b 1 b 2 … b n−1b n−1 b n−2 b n−3 … b 0

⋮ ⋮ ⋮

I0 I1 I2 I3

I 3 I 2 I 1 I 0 M 0 μ1 μ 2 M 2 M 1 M 0 where: b k =
|
an ak | | |
a0 a n−k a a
⇒b0 = 0 n =a 20−a 2n
an a0
 ck =
| b 0 bn−1−k
bn −1 bk |
dk =
| c0 c n−2−k
c n−2 ck |
The necessary and sufficient conditions for the polynomial Q(z ) to have no
roots outside or on the unit circle are:-

Condition-1 Q(1)>0
Condition-2 ¿
condition -3 |a0|<|an|
condition - 4 |b 0|>|b n−1|
condition-5 |C 0|>|c n−2|
⋮ ⋮ Condition-n |M 0|>| M 2|

 Example :-
For the system shown bellow, find the range of k for stability.

Solu. G(S)=K ( 1−e−T , St

S' )[ S
1
S (S+ 2)]← open loop transfer

⇒ Gr (z)=k ( 1−z ) Z̸
−1
( s (β+2)
1
2 )
by using partial fraction:

1 A B C AS ( S +2 ) + B(S+ 2)+C S
' 2
= + 2+ ' =
S ( S +2 ) S S ( S +2 )
'2 '
S' 2 ( S ' + 2 )
'2 ' ' 2 2 '
⇒ 1=A S +2 A S + B S +2 B+C S =S ( A+C )+ S (2 A+ B)+2 B
 1
⇒ 2 B=1⇒ B=
2
−1
2 A+ B=0 ⇒ A=
4
1
A+C=0 ⇒ C=
4
−1 1 1
1 4 2 4
∴ '2 = s + 2+ s
s (s+2) s s ( s + 2)
¿
The characteristic equation 1+G(Z) will be:

k (0.091 z+ 0.066)
1+ =0 2
( z 2−1.367 z+ 0.367 ) Q(z )=z +(0.091 k −1.367)z +(0.367+0.066 k )=0 ¿
¿
The Jury's array is:-

condition-1 Q(1)>0

Q(1)=¿ [1+(0.091 k−1.367)+(0.367+ 0.066 k )]>0

( 0.091 k +0.066)k >0 ⇒ k >0

condition-2 ¿

condition-3 |a0|<|a2|

¿ 0.367+ 0.066 k∨¿1 ⇒ k <9.59

For stability: 0< k <9.59

the range of k for stability is between 0 and 9.59
Hence the system is marginally stable when k =9.59

 Example:- Examine the stability of the following characteristic

equation:
4 3 2
p( z )=z −1.2 z +0.07 z + 0.3 z−0.08=0
Solus. a 0=−0.08 , a1 =0.3 , a2=0.07 , a3=−1.2 , a4 =1

b k=
|
| | ||
a0 a n−k
an ak
a a
⇒ b0 = 0 4 =
a 4 a0
−0.08
1
1
−0.08
=−0.994 |
| ||
b1 = |a 0 a 3 −0.08 −1.2
a4 a 1
=
1 0.3
=−0.024+ 1.2=1.176

| ||
b 2= |
a 0 a2 −0.08 0.07
a 4 a2
=
1 0.07
=−0.0056−0.07=−0.0756

| ||
b 3= |a0 a1 −0.08 0.3
a4 a3
=
1 −1.2
=0.096−0.3=−0.204

| | ck=
b0 b n−1.k −0.994 −0.204
bn−1 bk −0.204 −0.994 |
=0.9464

| || |
−0.994 −0.0756
b b
c 0= 0 3 = c1 b2 =∣=−1.167−0.0154=−1.1824
b3 b0
b3 b1

| ||
c 2= =|
b 0 b 1 −0.994 1.176 =0.0751+0.24=0.315
b 3 b 2 −0.204 −0.0756

The Jury stability table is:-

0 1 2 3 4
z z z z z

-0.08 0.3 0.07 -1.2 1

-
1 -1.2 0.07 0.3
0.08

-
-
-0.994 1.176 0.075
0.204
6

-
-
-0.204 0.075 1.176
0.994
6

-
0.946
1.182 0.315
4
4

condition -1: p(1)>0 ⇒ p(1)=1−1.2+ 0.07+0.3−0.08

 ¿ 0.09 > 0¿
¿
Condition - 2: ¿

condition -3: |a0|<|an|⇒∨−0.08∨¿∨1∨⇒0.08<1

condition -4: |b 0|>|b n−1|⇒ |b0|>|b3|⇒∨−0.994∨¿∨−0.204∨¿

⇒ 0.994 >0.204

condition-5: |c0|>|c n−2|⇒ |c 0|>|c 2|

⇒∨0.9464∨¿∨0.315∨⇒0.9464> 0.315

∴ All conditions for stability are satisfied, the given characteristic equation is
stable.

ROUTH-HURWITZE METHOD (R-H

METHOD)
This method can used to indicate the stability of any linear control system.

C (s ) N (s) N ( s)
M =T ⋅ F= = =
R (s) D(s) a0 s +a 1 s +a 2 s n−2 +⋯+a n s0
n n−1

The general form of auxiliary equation can be as shown below

n n−1 n−2 0
D( s)=a0 s + a1 s + a2 s + ⋯+ an s =01- From this auxiliary equation we can
estimate a table called (R-H) table like shone below

n
s a0 a2 a4 ⋅

s
n−1
a1 a3 a5 ⋅

a1 a2−a 0 a3 a1 a 4−a 0 a5
s
n−2
A= B= 0 ⋅
a1 a1

A a3−a 1 B
⋅ E= ⋅
A

⋅ ⋅

0
s ⋅
2- From first column of (R-H) table, we can check the stability of given
control system by:
If all elements of first column are in the same sign, that is mean the control
system is stable

Note the number system poles in +ve real axis will equal to number of sign
changes in the first column element in (R-H) table.

Example: Check the stability of the control system which its auxiliary
equation is equal to D( s)=s 2+ s−2=0

Solution:
2
s 1 -2 0

S 1 0 0

0 1(−2)−1(0)
s ¿ =−2
1

∵ There is changing in sign of first column of (R−H) table

∴ This control system is unstable.
Example: Check the stability of the control system which its auxiliary
equation is equal to D( s)=s 3+2 s+3

Solution:
3
s 1 2 0

2
s 0 3 0

0(2)−1(3)
s ¿ =∞
0

0
s

Special Cases
Case 1: if the first element of any raw in (R-H) table is equal to zero.
To solve the problem:
1 - We multiply the auxiliary equation by ( s+a ).
Where, a: is any number.
2- Make a new (R-H) table from a new polynomial, which we obtained it from
step 1 .

Case 2: if all element of any raw in (R-H) table equal to zero.

To solve the problem:
1- We take the row above the zeroes row
2- We make a polynomial A(s) from the zeroes row.
dA (s )
3- Take
ds
dA (s )
4- Replace the coefficient of instead of zeroes row
ds

D( s)=s +2 s+3=0 D́( s)=( s 3+ 2 s+3 ) (s+1)=s4 + 2 s2 +3 s+ s3 +2 s+3

3

4 3 2
D́( s)=s +s +2 s + 5 s+ 3We make new (R-H) table

4
s 1 2 3

3
s 1 5 0

1(2)−1(5) 1(3)−1(0)
s
2
¿ =−3 ¿ =3 0
1 1
 −3(5)−1(3)
S ¿ =6 0
−3

6(3)−(−3)0
S
0
¿ =3
6

∵ There is two change in first column signs.

∴ The system is unstable.

Example: Check the stability of the control system which its auxiliary
equation is equal to D( s)=s 3+3 s2 −4 s−12=0
Solution:

3
s 1 -4 0

2 -
s 3 0
12

3(−4)−1(−12) 0
S ¿ = =0 0 0
3 3

0
S

2 dA (s )
A(s)=3 s −12 =6 s
ds

3
s 1 -4 0

2 -
s 3 0
12

S 6 0 0

0 6(−12)−3(0)
S ¿ =−12
6

∵ There is change in first column signs.

∴ The system is unstable.

Example: The characteristic equations for certain feedback control system

are given below in each case; determine the range of values of K for the
system to be stable
1- D( s)=s ( s2 + s+1 ) (s +4 )+ K =0
2- D( s)=s 3+2 K s 2 +(K + 2)s +4=0

Solution:
1. D( s)=s ( s3 + s 2+ s+ 4 s2 + 4 s +4 ) + K =0
4 3 2
D( s)=s +5 s +5 s + 4 s+ K =0
4
s 1 5 K

3
s 5 4 0

2 5(5)−1( 4) 5(K )−1(0)

s ¿ =4.2 ¿ =K 0
5 5

4.2(4)−5( K )
S ¿ 0 0
4.2

0
s K

}
4.2(4)−5 K
> 0 ⇒ 5 K <16.8 ⇒ K <3.36
4.2 ⇒ 3.36> K > 0
K >0

2. D( s)=s 3+2 K s 2 +( K + 2) s +4=0

3
s 1 K +2 0

2
s 2K 4 0

2
K + 2 K −2
S =¿ 0 0
K
0
s 4

2 K >0 ⇒ K >0

{
2
K + 2 K −2 2 k >−2.73
> 0⇒ k +2 K−2>0 ⇒ ⇒ k >0.73
k k > 0.73

Example: For a unity feedback system having forward transfer function

 K
G(s)=
s (1+0.6 s)(1+0.4 s)

Determine the range of value of K , marginal value of K , and frequency of

sustained oscillation.

Solution:
The characteristic equation of the system is 1+G(s)H (s )=0

K
=0 ⇒ s(1+ 0.6 s)(1+ 0.4 s )+ K =0 ⇒ s ( 1+ s+0.24 s ) + K=0
2
1+
s (1+0.6 s)(1+0.4 s)
3 2
0.24 s + s + s+ K =0

3
s 0.24 1 0

2
s 1 K 0

S 1−0.24 K 0 0

0
s K

For a marginally stable system

1−0.24 K=0 ⇒ K =4.167

3 0.2
s 1 0
4

2 4.16
s 1 0
7

S 0 0 0

0
S

2
A( s)=s + 4.167=0

s =−4.167 s=± j2.04 put s= j ω ⇒ jω= j 2.04 ⇒ ω=2.04 rad /sec

2

Frequency of oscillation is 2.04 rad /sec

 r +1
The following transformation:- z= maps the interior of the unit circle in
r−1
the z -plane to the left-half r -plane. Thus the Routh stability criterion may be
applied to the polynomial in r in the same manner as continuous -time
systems.

 Example:- consider the discrete-time system shown infigure. The

10
open-loop transfer function of the system is:- G(s)=
s ( s2 +1 )
s

The z -transform of G(S) by using residue method, with roots of S=0 and
s=−1

s→0 [
R1=lim ( s −0 )
' 10 z
s ( s + 1 ) z −e
' ' ST
]=
10 z
z−1

R2= lim
s →−1 [( s' +1 )
10 z
s ( s +1 ) z−e
' ]
sT
=
−10 z
z −e
−T

10 z ( 1−e )
−T
10 z 10 z
G(z )=R1 + R2= − =
z−1 z−e ( z −1) ( z−e−T )
−T

The closed loop transfer function is:-

c (z ) G( z)
=
R ( z) 1+G(z)

The characteristic equation is :- 1+G(z )=0

10 z ( 1−e−T )
1+ =0
(z−1) ( z−e−T )
(z−1) ( z−e−T ) +10 z ( 1−e−T )=0

Noting that e−1=0.368 , we can simplify the equation to:- z 2+ 4.952 z+ 0.368=0

Now we will transform the characteristic equation to the polynomial in r by

using of the transformation
 r +1
z=
r−1

( ) ( )
2
r +1 r +1
⇒ + 4.952 +0.368=0
r−1 r−1
⇒ 6.32 r 2+ 1.264 r−3.584=0

Then the Rout array becomes:-

2 -
r 6.32
3.584

r 1.264 0

∘ -
r 3.584

There is one change of sign in the first column. Thus there is one root in the
right-half r plane, which implies that there is one root out side the unit circle
in the z -plane, therefor the system is unstable.

 H.W:- For the discrete system shown in figure find the range of k
which make the system stable.

Solus:- The transferfanction for the zero-order-hold is:-

(s) 1−e−s ( s' T

G z ⋅O ⋅ H = '
s

the open loop transfer function is:-

'

1−e− s T k 1
G ( s )= =k ( 1−e−s T ) ' 2 '
'
'
'
⋅ '
s s ( s +1 ) s ( s +1 )
⇒ G(z)=ZG ( s ' )=k ( 1−z−1 ) Z
( 1
s ( s +1 )
'2 ' )
The Routh's table will be:-
 2
r 0.01 k 3.8+0.01 k

r 0.2−0.02 k 0

0
r 3.8+0.01 k

∴ The range of k to make the system stable is

0< k <10

 State-Space analysis:-
state-space is the space which has (n) dimentional axis ( x 1-axis, x 2-
axis, ....., x n-axis).
The general mode of state-space:-

the combination of state equation and out put equation will called state-
space model
x : state vector.
Ẋ : Derivative of state vector.
A: System matrix.
u: Input vector.
B: Input matrix.
y : output vector.
C: output matrix.
D: Feed forward matrix.
(Block diagram of state-space model)

 Example:- Find the state-space model for the following circuit, if the
output is the voltage on the inductance.

]
Solus.

dI
L =V i−V R −V c
dt
dI V i IR V c
= − − −1
dt L L L
dV c
c =I
dt
d Vc I
= −(2)
dt C
V L =V i −V R −V c
V L=V i −IR−V C
ẍ=Ax + Bu
y=Cx+ Du

[ ]
−R −1

[]İ
V̇
=
L
1
L
0
[ ][ ]
I
+
Vc L i
1
v ← state
c
0

(3)

I & V c called state variables.

V L= [−R −1 ]
[]
I
vc
+ v i ⟵ output equation
The state equation and output equation will represent the state-space model
of the circuit.

 Converting of T.F into state -space model:-

1- IF the T.F has a constant term in its nomerator.
 Example:- convert the following T.F in to statespace model and then
design the block diagram for this state-space.

Solus.

( (s' ) 3
= '2 '
R ( s ) s + 2 s +5
'

( s' 2 +2 , s' +5 ) c=3 R

c ⇒Y , R ⇒U
∴ ( s + 2 s+5 ) y=3 u
2

we take the inverse laplace of this equation:-

ÿ +2 ẏ +5 y=3 u

Selecting of state variables:-

let y=x 1 , ẏ= ẋ 1=x 2

ÿ= ẋ 2=−2 ẏ −5 y+ 3u
ẋ 2=−2 x 2−5 x 1+3 u

ẋ 1=x 2−1
(1)
ẋ 2=−2 x 2−5 x1 +3 u
(2)
y=x 1
(3)

2. }
state-space equations in normal mode.
 state -space

[][
ẋ1
ẋ2
=
0
−5 −2 ][ ] [ ]
1 x1 0
x2
+ u ← state u equation
3
equations
in matrix
mode.
(3)
x
[]
y= [ 1 0 ] 1 + 0← output equation
x2
(3)

(Block diagram of the state-space For) the given example

2- IF the T.F has a polynomial in its numerator.

 Example:- convert the following T. F into state-space model, and then

design a block diagram for the state-space model.
s+5
R(s )→ ⟶ (( s )
' '
2
s +2 s+ 5

Solus: :-

1
R(s )→
'
2
→ s+ 5→( c , s)
s +2 , s+5

y 1
= 2
u s +2 s ' +5
( s' 2+ 2 s' +5 ) y=u
ÿ +2 ẏ+5 y =u
let:- y=x 1 , ẏ = ẋ1=x 2 , ÿ= ẋ 2=−2 s 2 +2˙ s ' +5 ] → y
ẋ 2= ÿ=−2 x2 −5 x 1 +u
⇒ ẋ 1=x 2−U
¿
 out put equation:-
 y
=s +5
x1
( s+5) x 1= y
ẋ 1+ 5 x 1= y
let: x 1= y , ẋ 1= ẏ=x 2
⇒ y=5 x 1+ x 2

[] x
y=[5 1] 1 +[0 ]u output eq u
x2
+ ẋ 2

(Block diagram of state-space model for) given example

 H.W i-
1- Find the state -space model for the following circuit, if the out put
is the current in the resistor (R).

2-convert the following T.F into state-space model, and then design the
block diagram for the state-space.
8
(a) T ⋅ F= 3 2
s +2 s + 5 s+7
ans.
 2
s +2 s+3
(b) T ⋅ F= 3 2
s +8 , s +7 s +5
ans:

 State Variables:-
state models of discrete systems are introduced by an example.
Suppose that a discrete system is discribed by the second-order
difference equation:-
 y (k)=0.368 u(k −1)+ 0.264 u(k −2)+ 1.368 y (k−1)−0.368 y (k−2) where u(k )
is the system input and y (k) is the system output. We see that the z -
transform of this equation yields the transfer function:-
−1 −2
y (z) 0.368 z +0.264 z 0.368 z+ 0.264
¿ = −1 −2
= 2
u (z) 1−1.368 z + 0.368 z z −1.368 z +0.368

A state-variable model of the system described by the first equation above

can be developed by assigning a state variable to the output of each unit
delay in the simulation diagram.

Note:-
 y (k)−1.368 y (k−1)+0.368 y ( k−2)=0.368 u(k−1)+0.264 u(k−2)
−1 −2 −1 −2
y (z)−1.368 y (z )z +0.368 y ( z)z =0.368 u(z )z +0.264 u (z) z
y (z) ( 1−1.368 z +0.368 z ) =u(z) ( 0.368 z +0.264 z )
−1 −2 −1 −2

−1 −2
y (z ) 0.368 z + 0.264 z 0.368 z +0.264
= −1 −2
= 2
u( z) 1−1.368 z + 0.368 z z −1.368 z+ 0.368

Thus the equation of the simulation diagram are:-

x 1 (k +1)=x 2 (k )
(1)

x 2 (k +1)=−0.368 x 1 (k )+1.368 x 2 (k )+ u(k )

y (k )=0.264 x 1 (k )+0.368 x 2 (k )

(a) control canonical form

(b) Flow graph

(simulation diagram)
These equations can be expressed in a vector-matrix form as :-

[ x1 (k +1)
][
=
0 1
][ ] [ ]
x 1 (k) 0
+ 4 (k)
x 2(k +1) −0.368 1.368 x 2 (k) 1

y (k)=[ 0.264 0.368 ]

[ ]
x1 (k )
x2 (k )

The general form of the state equations for a multivariable linear time-
invariant discrete system is:-

x (k +1)= Ax (k )+Bu(k )
y (k )=Cx(k )+ Du( k )

 Solution of state equations:-

Consider the discrete system with the transfer function:-

y (z) z
G(z )= = 2
u (z) z −3 z +2

To obtain a state model:-

y (z )=z ⇒ y (k )=x 1 (k +1)=x2 (k )

2
z =u(z )+3 z−2⇒ x 2( k +1)=u(k)+3 x 2 (k )−2 x 1 (k )
x 2 (k +1)=−2 x 1 (k )+3 x 2 (k)+u (k )

[ ] [ ][ ] [ ]
x1 (k +1)
x 2(k +1)
=
0 1 x 1 (k ) 0
−2
+ u(k )
3 x 2 (k ) 1

[ ]
[ ]
y (k )= 0 1
x1 (k )
x 2(k )
(simulation diagram)
now solve these equations by the sequential technique just given for the
case that x (0)=0 and u(k )=1, for all k . Since x (0)=0 , then y (0)=0. In the
state equations above, for K=0 ,1 , 2 , … :

¿ ¿ [
−2 3 1 1 ][ ] [ ] [ ]
k =0 ⇒ x (1) ¿ Ax(0)+ Bu(0)= Ax (1)+ Bu(1)¿= 0 1 0 + 0 (1)= 1 , y (2)=4 ¿
4

k =2 ⇒ x (3)=
0
−2 [ 1
3][ ] [ ] [ ]
1 0
+ (1)=
4 1
4
11
, y (3)=11

[
k =3 ⇒ x (4 )= 0
−2
1
3][ ] [ ] [ ]
4 + 0 (1)= 11 , y (4)=26
11 1 26

 PID controller:-
The proportional-integral-derivative (PID) controller is often referredto as a
"three-term" controller.

 Proportional:- the error is multiplied by a gain k p. A very high gain

may cause instability, and a very 10 w gain may cause the system to
drift away.
 Integral:- the integral of the error is taken and multiplied by a gain k i.
The gain can be adjusted to drive the error to zero in the required
time. A too high gain may cause oscillations and a too low gain may
result in a sluggish response.
 Derivative:- The derivative of the error is multiplied by gain k d. Again,
if the gain is too high the system may oscillate and if the gain is too
low the response may be sluggish.