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TESSELLATIONS
TESSELLATIONS
Mathematics, Art, and Recreation
Robert Fathauer
First edition published 2021
by CRC Press
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by Deanta Global Publishing Services, Chennai, India
2. Geometric Tessellations ......................17
Tiles ........................................................ 17
Angles..................................................... 18
Vertices and edge-to-edge
tessellations ............................................ 19
Regular polygons and regular
tessellations ............................................20
Regular-polygon vertices........................21
Prototiles.................................................23
Semi-regular tessellations.......................23
Other types of polygons ........................24
General triangle and quadrilateral
tessellations ............................................25
Dual tessellations and Laves
tessellations ............................................27
VI Contents
Other recreations using polyforms.......108 Activity 9.1. Prototiles for fractal
Heesch number .................................... 110 tilings .................................................... 171
Reptiles ..................................................111 Worksheet 9.1. Prototiles for fractal
Activity 6.1. Discovering and tilings .................................................... 172
classifying polyforms ............................ 112
Worksheet 6.1. Discovering and 10. Non-Euclidean Tessellations..............173
classifying polyforms ............................ 113 Hyperbolic tessellations ....................... 174
Spherical tessellations .......................... 178
7. Rosettes and Spirals..........................115
Activity 10.1. Non-Euclidean
Rhombus rosettes................................. 115 tessellations of regular polygons.......... 181
Other rosettes ...................................... 118 Worksheet 10.1. Non-Euclidean
Logarithmic spiral tessellations............. 122 tessellations of regular polygons.......... 182
Archimedean spiral tessellations .......... 128
Activity 7.1. Exploring spiral 11. Tips on Designing and Drawing
tessellations .......................................... 133 Escheresque Tessellations................ 183
Worksheet 7.1. Exploring spiral Drawing tessellations by hand.............. 184
tessellations .......................................... 134 Using general computer graphics
programs .............................................. 184
8. Matching Rules, Aperiodic Tiles,
Using a tessellations computer
and Substitution Tilings ....................135
program................................................ 185
Matching rules and tiling ...................... 136 Mixing techniques ................................ 185
Periodicity in tessellations .................... 137 Tip 1: The outline of the tile should
Penrose tiles ......................................... 138 suggest the motif ................................. 185
Other aperiodic sets and substitution Tip 2: The tiles should make
tilings .................................................... 142 orientational sense ............................... 186
Socolar–Taylor aperiodic monotile ....... 145 Tip 3: Choose motifs that go
Escheresque tessellations based on together................................................ 187
aperiodic tiles ....................................... 145 Tip 4: Different motifs should be
Activity 8.1. Penrose tiles and the commensurately scaled ........................ 189
golden number..................................... 147 Tip 5: Use source material to get the
Worksheet 8.1. Penrose tiles and the details right........................................... 190
golden number..................................... 148 Tip 6: Stylize the design ....................... 191
Tip 7: Choose a style that fts your
9. Fractal Tiles and Fractal Tilings.........149 taste and abilities ................................. 192
Tessellations of fractal tiles................... 150 Tip 8: Choose colors that suit your
Fractal tessellations .............................. 152 taste and bring out the tiles ................. 193
Two-fold f-tilings based on segments Activity 11.1. Finding motifs for a tile
of regular polygons .............................. 154 shape .................................................... 195
f-tilings based on kite-, dart-, and Worksheet 11.1. Finding motifs for a
v-shaped prototiles............................... 158 tile shape .............................................. 196
f-tilings based on polyforms ................ 163 Activity 11.2. Refning a tile shape
Miscellaneous f-tilings .......................... 168 using translation ................................... 197
Contents VII
Worksheet 11.2. Refning a tile shape Template 13.7. Tessellation with
using translation ................................... 198 two motifs and glide refection
Activity 11.3. Refning a tile shape symmetry..............................................227
using glide refection............................ 199 Template 13.8. Tessellation with
Worksheet 11.3. Refning a tile shape two different tiles and refection
using glide refection............................200 symmetry in one direction....................229
Activity 11.4. Locating and using Template 13.9. Tessellation with
source material for real-life motifs ........ 201 two different tiles and refection
Worksheet 11.4. Locating and using symmetry in two orthogonal
source material for real-life motifs ........202 directions..............................................230
Activity 13.1. Creating an
12. Special Techniques to Solve Design Escheresque tessellation with
Problems .......................................... 203 translational symmetry .........................233
Technique 1: Distorting the entire Activity 13.2. Creating an
tessellation............................................204 Escheresque tessellation with
Technique 2: Breaking symmetries.......205 rotational symmetry..............................234
Technique 3: Splitting a tile into Activity 13.3. Creating an
smaller tiles...........................................207 Escheresque tessellation with glide
Technique 4: Splitting and moving refection symmetry..............................235
vertices .................................................207
Activity 12.1. Reshaping a tile by
14. Escheresque Tessellations Based on
splitting and moving vertices ............... 210
Isosceles Right Triangle and Kite-
Worksheet 12.1. Reshaping a tile by
Shaped Tiles..................................... 237
splitting and
moving vertices .................................... 211 Template 14.1. Right-triangle
tessellation with two-fold rotational
13. Escheresque Tessellations Based
symmetry..............................................239
on Squares ........................................213
Template 14.2. Right-triangle
Creating a tessellation by hand ............ 214 tessellation with two- and four-fold
Template 13.1. Tessellation with rotational symmetry..............................240
translational symmetry only.................. 219 Template 14.3. Right-triangle
Template 13.2. Tessellation with two- tessellation with two- and four-fold
and four-fold rotational symmetry........220 rotational and refection
Template 13.3. Tessellation with glide symmetry.............................................. 241
refection symmetry..............................222 Template 14.4. Kite tessellation with
Template 13.4. Tessellation with a glide refection symmetry.....................243
simple refection and glide refection Template 14.5. Kite tessellation
symmetry..............................................223 with two motifs and glide refection
Template 13.5. Tessellation with symmetry..............................................244
glide refection symmetry in two Activity 14.1. Creating a
orthogonal directions...........................225 tessellation based on right-triangle
Template 13.6. Tessellation with two- tiles .......................................................246
fold rotational and glide refection Activity 14.2. Creating a tessellation
symmetry..............................................226 based on kite-shaped tiles ................... 247
VIII Contents
15. Escheresque Tessellations Based Template 17.2. Tessellation with six-
on Equilateral Triangle Tiles............. 249 fold rotational symmetry ......................280
Template 17.3. Tessellation based on
Template 15.1. Tessellation with six-
hexagons and hexagrams.....................282
fold rotational symmetry ......................252
Activity 17.1. Creating a tessellation
Template 15.2. Tessellation with
based on hexagonal tiles......................285
rotational and glide refection
Activity 17.2. Creating a hexagon-
symmetry..............................................254
based tessellation with two-, three-,
Template 15.3. Tessellation with two-
and six-fold rotational symmetry ..........286
fold rotational symmetry only...............256
Template 15.4. Tessellation with
18. Decorating Tiles to Create Knots
translational symmetry only..................257
and Other Designs ........................... 287
Activity 15.1. Creating an equilateral
triangle-based tessellation with The role of combinatorics..................... 287
rotational symmetry.............................. 259 Using tessellations to create knots
Activity 15.2. Creating an equilateral and links................................................289
triangle-based tessellation with glide Creating iterated and fractal knots
refection symmetry..............................260 and links with fractal tilings ..................291
Other types of decorative graphics .....296
16. Escheresque Tessellations Based Activity 18.1. Creating symmetrical
on 60°–120° Rhombus Tiles ...............261 designs by decorating tessellations .....299
Worksheet 18.1. Creating symmetrical
Template 16.1. Tessellation with
designs by decorating tessellations .....300
translational symmetry only..................264
Template 16.2. Tessellation with
19. Tessellation Metamorphoses and
refection symmetry..............................265
Dissections ....................................... 301
Template 16.3. Tessellation with
three-fold rotational symmetry............. 267 Geometric metamorphoses .................301
Template 16.4. Tessellation with Positive and negative space .................303
glide refection symmetry..................... 269 Techniques for transitioning between
Template 16.5. Rhombus tessellation Escheresque tessellation motifs ...........304
with rotational and glide refection Tessellation dissections ........................307
symmetry.............................................. 271 Activity 19.1. Learning to draw a
Template 16.6. Tessellation with tessellation metamorphosis.................. 310
kaleidoscopic symmetry ....................... 272
Activity 16.1. Creating a tessellation 20. Introduction to Polyhedra.................311
with bilaterally symmetry tiles .............. 274 Basic properties of polyhedra .............. 311
Activity 16.2. Creating a tessellation Polyhedra in art and architecture ......... 314
with kaleidoscopic symmetry ............... 275 Polyhedra in nature .............................. 317
Tiling three-dimensional space ............ 318
17. Escheresque Tessellations Based Slicing 3-honeycombs to reveal
on Hexagonal Tiles........................... 277 plane tessellations ................................ 319
Template 17.1. Tessellation with three- Activity 20.1. Identifying and
fold rotational symmetry ...................... 279 characterizing polyhedra in nature....... 321
Contents IX
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Worksheet 20.1. Identifying and Worksheet 22.2. Drawing the Platonic
characterizing polyhedra in nature.......322 solids ....................................................358
Activity 20.2. Identifying polyhedra
in art and architecture .......................... 324 23. Tessellating the Archimedean
Worksheet 20.2. Identifying Solids................................................ 359
polyhedra in art and architecture.........325 Background on the Archimedean
solids .................................................... 359
21. Adapting Plane Tessellations to
Tessellation templates for the
Polyhedra ......................................... 327
Archimedean solids ..............................392
Nets of polyhedra................................. 328 Activity 23.1. Surface area of
Restrictions on plane tessellations for Archimedean solids ..............................397
use on polyhedra.................................. 328 Worksheet 23.1. Surface area of
Distorting plane tessellations to ft Archimedean solids ..............................398
polyhedra .............................................329 Activity 23.2. Volume of a truncated
Designing and drawing tessellations cube......................................................399
for polyhedra using the templates .......332 Worksheet 23.2. Volume of a
Coloring of tessellations on truncated cube .....................................400
polyhedra .............................................333
Tips on building the models.................334 24. Tessellating Other Polyhedra........... 401
Activity 21.1. Representing solids Other popular polyhedra .....................401
using nets .............................................336 Tessellation templates .......................... 417
Worksheet 21.1. Representing solids Activity 24.1. Cross-sections of
using nets .............................................337 polyhedra .............................................422
Activity 21.2. Using transformations Worksheet 24.1. Cross-sections of
to apply a tessellation motif to a net....338 polyhedra .............................................423
Worksheet 21.2. Using
transformations to apply a 25. Tessellating Other Surfaces ............. 425
tessellation motif to a net .....................339
Other surfaces to tessellate..................425
22. Tessellating the Platonic Solids ........ 341 Tessellation templates for other
surfaces ................................................434
Background on the Platonic solids ....... 341 Activity 25.1. Surface area and
Tessellation templates for the volume of cylinders and cones .............435
Platonic solids .......................................353 Worksheet 25.1. Surface area and
Activity 22.1. Attributes of the volume of cylinders and cones .............436
Platonic solids and Euler’s formula .......355
Worksheet 22.1. Attributes of the References................................................ 437
Platonic solids and Euler’s formula .......356
Activity 22.2. Drawing the Platonic Glossary of Terms .....................................441
solids ....................................................357 Index ......................................................... 449
X Contents
About the Author
R obert Fathauer has had a life-long
interest in art but studied physics and
mathematics in college, going on to earn
Dr. Fathauer’s mathematical art has always
been coupled with recreational math explora-
tions. These include Escheresque tessellations,
a PhD from Cornell University in electri- fractal tilings, and iterated knots. After many
cal engineering. For several years he years of creating two-dimensional art, he has
was a researcher at the Jet Propulsion recently been building ceramic sculptures
Laboratory in Pasadena, California. Long a inspired by both mathematics and biological
fan of M.C. Escher, he began designing his forms. Another interest of his is photographing
own tessellations with lifelike motifs in the mathematics in natural and synthetic objects,
late 1980s. In 1993, he founded a business, particularly tessellations. In addition to creat-
Tessellations, to produce puzzles based on ing mathematical art, he’s strongly committed
his designs. Over time, Tessellations has to promoting it through group exhibitions at
grown to include mathematics manipula- both the Bridges Conference and the Joint
tives, polyhedral dice, and books. Mathematics Meetings.
Preface XIII
Chapter 1
Introduction to
Tessellations
A tessellation is a collection of shapes that
ft together without gaps or overlap to
cover the infnite mathematical plane. Another
in this book (after Dutch graphic artist M.C.
Escher), and the tiles in them as Escheresque
tiles. These sorts of designs are a relatively
word for tessellation is tiling, and the indi- recent phenomenon, dating back a little over
vidual shapes in a tessellation are referred to a century. Tilings in which the individual tiles
as tiles. In a more general sense, a tessella- are geometric shapes rather than recognizable
tion covers any surface, not necessarily fat or motifs will often be referred to as geometric
infnite in extent, without gaps or overlaps. tessellations in this book. Types and proper-
A tessellation is a type of pattern, which ties of geometric tessellations will be explored
can be defned as a two-dimensional design in the next chapter, and some particular types
that (generally) possesses some sort of sym- of geometric tessellations will be treated in
metry. Symmetries in one, two, and three greater depth in Chapters 6–10. Chapters
dimensions have been classifed mathemati- 11–17 are devoted to planar Escheresque tes-
cally, and these classifcations apply to all sellations. Chapters 18 and 19 deal with spe-
types of patterns, including tessellations. cialized topics, and Chapters 20–25 deal with
Symmetry and transformation in tessellations applying Escheresque tessellations to three-
are the topics of Chapter 3. dimensional surfaces. The terms “tiling” and
Tilings in which the individual tiles are “tessellation” will be used interchangeably in
recognizable, real-world motifs will often be this book.
referred to as Escheresque tessellations
Historical examples
of tessellations
The use of patterns by people is ubiquitous
and must surely predate recorded history in
virtually every society. There is a basic human
impulse to decorate, personalize, and beau-
tify our surroundings by applying patterns
to textiles, baskets, pavers, tiles, and even
our own bodies. As a result, tessellations are
found in virtually all cultures from very early
on. Tessellations have been and continue to
be used in tribal art from around the world for
decoration of baskets (Figure 1.1), blankets,
masks, and other objects.
The word “tessellation” comes from the
Greek word tessares, meaning four, and the
Latin tessellare, meaning to pave with tes-
serae. Tessera (plural form tesserae) are small
squares or cubes of stone or glass used
for creating mosaics. The Ancient Romans
often used tesserae to form larger geometric
fgures, as well as fgures such as animals or
people (Figure 1.2). In addition, they used
Introduction to Tessellations 3
talk about tessellations in the real world,
then, it should always be kept in mind that
we are talking about something that does
not strictly meet the defnition of a tessella-
tion given above. Another way of looking at
it is that a tessellation that we associate with
a physical object is a mathematical model
that describes and approximates something
in the real world. Many tessellations in nature
are highly irregular, as seen in the example of
Figure 1.7. A variety of other examples will
be presented in Chapter 4.
Tessellations have been widely used in
architecture, not only purely for decoration
but also by necessity from the nature of build-
Figure 1.6. Tessellations by Johannes Kepler incorpo-
ing materials like bricks (Figure 1.8). These
rating regular and star polygons (redrawn).
same types of uses continue today and are so
widespread that one is likely to fnd numerous
and tessellations. Albrecht Dürer (1471–1528), examples on a short walk around most mod-
a painter and printmaker, designed a tessel- ern cities. Tessellations are also widely used in
lation, incorporating pentagons and rhombi fber arts, as well as games and puzzles. These
[Jardine 2018]. Johannes Kepler (1571–1630), sorts of uses are explored in more detail in
most famous for discovering the laws of Chapter 5.
planetary motion, designed tessellations of
regular and star polygons (Figure 1.6) that are
included in his 1619 book Harmonices Mundi
[Grünbaum 1987].
Tessellations in the
world around us
A tessellation is a mathematical construction
in which the individual tiles meet along a line
of zero width. In any real-world tessellation,
there will be some fnite width to that line. In
addition, no real-world plane is perfectly fat.
Nor is any real shape perfectly geometric;
e.g., no brick is a perfect rectangular solid.
Finally, any real-world tessellation will obvi- Figure 1.7. A tessellation created by the cracking of a
ously have a fnite extent, while a mathemati- lava fow in Hawaii. Many of the individual tiles can be
cal tessellation extends to infnity. When we approximated as pentagons and hexagons.
Introduction to Tessellations 5
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designs for the remainder of his life, with his paper, make a circuit, and crawl back in on the
last numbered design being produced in other side.
1971. In Chapters 13–17, which contain tes- Escher’s tessellations have inspired many
sellation templates, there are several notes mathematicians and artists. Starting roughly
on designs of Escher’s that can be created around 1990, several artists put consider-
with the templates. able time and effort into designing their own
Escher incorporated many of his tessel- tessellations in which the tiles are real-world
lations into woodcuts and lithographs that motifs. Prior to that time, there were only
became well known. Some of the most popu- scattered attempts at such designs. These art-
lar of these involve the metamorphosis of a ists include Yoshiaki Araki [Araki 2020], Bruce
tessellation from geometric tiles to real-world Bilney [Bilney 2020], David Bailey, Seth Bareiss
motifs. Tessellation metamorphoses are the [Bareiss 2020], Andrew Crompton (example in
subject of Chapter 19. Other Escher prints Figure 1.11) [Crompton 2020], Hollister David
play on the two-dimensional nature of tessel- [David 2020], Robert Fathauer, Hans Kuiper
lations and prints vs. the three-dimensional [Kuiper 2020], Ken Landry [Landry 2020],
nature of our world. For example, in his 1943 Makoto Nakamura [Nakamura 2020], John
lithograph “Reptiles” (Figure 1.10), a tessel- Osborn [Osborn 2020], Peter Raedschelders
lation of reptiles drawn on a paper is shown [Raedschelders 2020], Marjorie Rice [Rice
laying on a table. At one edge, the reptiles 2020], and Patrick Snels. Patrick has created
become three-dimensional, crawl out of the a database containing the work of numerous
Figure 1.10. Escher’s lithograph “Reptiles” (1943), which incorporates his 25th periodic drawing. M.C. Escher’s
“Reptiles” © 2020 The M.C. Escher Company, The Netherlands. All rights reserved. www.mcescher.com.
Introduction to Tessellations 7
Figure 1.12. “Bats and Owls”, a fractal Escheresque tessellation screen print by Robert Fathauer from 1993.
Makoto Nakamura has combined multiple tori. Hyperbolic and spherical tessellations are
tessellations in single scenes that are color- explored in more depth in Chapter 9. Bruce
ful and full of movement. Douglas Dunham Bilney and Patrick Snels have created anima-
has used computer programming to create tions of kangaroos and reptiles jumping and
hyperbolic tessellations using Escher’s designs crawling that are tessellated in every frame.
that have different symmetries from those Makoto Nakamura and Alexander Guerten
Escher created. Dominique Ribault and others (Figure 1.13) have made three-dimensional
have created tessellations on spheres and fgures that tessellate space.
Tessellations
and recreational
mathematics
There have been many games and puzzles
based on geometric and Escheresque tessel-
lations. Jigsaw puzzles can also be thought of Figure 1.14. A tessellation of multiple copies of the
as tessellation puzzles, in which the tiles have same pentomino.
imagery printed on them. In addition, any grid
can be thought of as a tessellation, and grids
are ubiquitous in puzzles and games, from tic-
tac-toe to chess to sudoku.
Apart from traditional recreational activi-
ties, many people enjoy solving math prob-
lems and playing with mathematical objects
as a pastime. Figuring out how to create an
Escheresque tessellation using a particular
motif or geometric basis is mathematical rec-
reation as well as art.
Polyominoes, “invented” in the 1950s by
Solomon Golomb, have been a rich source
of mathematical recreation [Golomb 1994].
A polyomino is a shape made up of squares Figure 1.15. A tessellation of multiple copies of the
attached in an edge-to-edge fashion. There same polyhex.
Introduction to Tessellations 9
shapes based on other polygons have been In recent years, a sizable community has
invented as well. Polyhexes are shapes been developed of people who combine tes-
made up of regular hexagons, and polyia- sellation and origami, including Alessandro
monds are shapes made up of equilateral Beber (example in Figure 1.16), Eric Gjerde
triangles. Examples of pentomino and poly- [Gjerde 2009], Robert Lang, Ekaterina
hex tilings are shown in Figures 1.14 and Lukasheva, and Chris Palmer. This technique
1.15. These various sets of tiles are explored usually entails creating a dense grid of creases
in more depth in Chapter 6. in a piece of paper followed by folding to
Figure 1.16. An example of tessellation origami, entitled “R-3.4.6.4”, created by Alessandro Beber in 2012.
Copyright 2012 Alessandro Beber.
Manne alkoi kiskoa salpaa auki. Mutta se oli lujassa eikä ottanut
auetakseen.
Hän sieppasi maasta aimo kiven, ja kun hän oli sillä pari kertaa
kolhaissut salpaa kaikin voimin, irtaantui se, ja Manne aukaisi oven.
Saunasta syöksyi Iisa itkettyneenä ja vihaisena kuin sähisevä kissa.
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hurjasti kirkaisi: — Hän se on vienyt veneemmekin.
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veneemme, ettemme pääsisi heitä ilmiantamaan.
— Muista, ei hiiskaustakaan.
Sillä aikaa kuin Kaarina ja Iisa ottivat esille ruokaa eväskorista,
kuvaili Manne heidän seikkailujaan Iisalle, joka tuon tuostakin
puhkesi huudahduksiin sellaisiin kuin: Kauheata! Hirveätä! Se oli
oikein! Mitähän isä tästä sanoo!
— Huomenna!
Kun hän tähän tapaan oli hetken vaikeroinut, ehdotti Kaarina, että
he kiipeisivät Kaikukalliolle katsomaan, näkyisikö Mannea. Mutta
siihen ei Iisa millään ehdolla suostunut, ei hän myöskään sallinut
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— Entä venettä?
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*****
— Minä lähden ukin kanssa kotiin. Voi, voi, mitä nyt isä ja äiti
sanovat?
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tekee vääryyttä.
— Hyvä, sanoi hän, jatka vain edelleen, uhkaa, moiti isääsi, joka
otsansa hiessä puuhaa ja tekee työtä lastensa edestä eikä saa
palkaksi muuta kuin kiittämättömyyttä.
— Se on hyvä.