“A device that changes AC electrical power at one voltage level to another voltage level through the action of a magnetic field.”
Transformer can also be used for:
• Voltage sampling • Current sampling • Impedance transformation
But we’ll concentrate on power transformers.
2.1 Construction and types
A transformer consists of two or more windings wrapped around a common
ferromagnetic core.
Primary winding: connected to the source of AC power.
Secondary winding: connected to the loads.
Transformers can be constructed on two types of cores:
Core-form transformer – Primary and Shell-form transformer – Both
secondary windings are located at each windings are placed at the central leg of end of the transformer core. the transformer core.
Advantage of the shell type transformer:
• Less flux leakage problems (both windings are near to each other) • Simplifies winding insulation
In both types, the core is made up of thin laminations to minimize eddy current.
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Type of transformer Description
Step Up or Unit • Connected to the output of a generator. Transformer • Used to step up voltage for reduced-loss power transmission. Step Down or • Located at main distribution or secondary level Substation transmission substations. Transformer • Used to lower voltage levels for 1st level distribution purposes. Distribution • Located at small distribution substations. Transformer • It lowers the voltage levels for 2nd level distribution purposes.
There are also two special-purpose transformers, ie. Potential transformer and current transformer.
2.2 The Ideal Transformer
What is an ideal transformer?
A lossless device with an input and an output winding.
Since the transformer is ideal, the
assumptions are: • Coils have no resistance • No leakage flux • Iron is infinitely permeable and has no losses.
When an AC voltage is supplied to the primary side, an alternating flux in the core will link both windings.
By Faraday’s Law, the back EMFs generated in the windings are:
(2.1)
(2.2)
Therefore,
(2.3)
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However, since the ideal transformer is lossless:
Back EMFs = Terminal Voltages
𝑣𝑝 (𝑡) 𝑁𝑃 = =𝑎 (2.4) 𝑣𝑠 (𝑡) 𝑁𝑠
Where a = turns ratio of the transformer.
To find the current relationship, apply Ampere’s Law around the core. Assuming the core is infinitely permeable, H = 0, in the core:
(2.5a)
(2.5b)
In phasor form, the voltage and current relationships are:
Note that the turns ratio of the ideal transformer only affects the magnitudes of current and voltage. Phase angles are not affected.
Power in an Ideal Transformer
Input power at the primary: Output power at the secondary:
(2.6) (2.7)
Where 𝜃𝑝 is the angle between the primary voltage and primary current, and 𝜃𝑠 is the angle between the secondary voltage and secondary current.
But as mentioned, the phase angles are unaffected by the ideal transformer, hence:
𝜃𝑝 = 𝜃𝑠 = 𝜃 𝑃𝑜𝑢𝑡 = 𝑉𝑠 𝐼𝑠 cos 𝜃
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Vp And since, Vs = and I s = aI p , a 𝑉𝑝 Applying the turns-ratio equations gives 𝑉𝑠 = and 𝐼𝑠 = 𝑎𝐼𝑝 , so 𝑎
𝑉𝑝 𝑃𝑜𝑢𝑡 = (𝑎𝐼𝑝 ) cos 𝜃 𝑎
Hence, (2.8)
Output power of ideal transformer is equal to its input power.
The same idea can be applied for reactive power Q and apparent power S:
Thus, Output Power = Input Power
i.e. In the ideal transformer there are no power level changes.
Impedance Transformation through a Transformer
The impedance of a device or an element is defined as the ratio of the phasor voltage across it to the phasor current flowing through it:
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One of the interesting properties of a transformer is that, since it changes voltage ad
current levels, it changes the ratio between voltage and current, hence the impedance of an element. The impedance of the load is given by:
The apparent impedance of the primary circuit of the transformer is
Since the primary voltage and primary current can be expressed as
the apparent impedance of the primary is
With a transformer, it is possible to match the magnitude of a load impedance to a source
impedance simply by picking the proper turns ratio.
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Analysis of circuits containing ideal transformers:
The easiest way to analyze is by simplifying the transformer into an equivalent circuit. How?
1. Replace the ideal transformer and the load connected to it by it’s apparent impedance. Z 'L = a 2 Z L If there is more than one transformer in the circuit start from the end farthest from the source and replace each transformer by its apparent impedance one by one. This is called “referring the transformer”.
2. After substituting the transformers, the equivalent circuit can be solved for its voltages and currents. Do not forget to apply the transformer voltage and current relationships when calculating for the replaced transformers!
Example: Analysing circuits with ideal transformers
A 480V, 60Hz generator is connected to a transmission line with an impedance of
0.18+j0.24Ω. At the end of the transmission line there is a load of 4+j3Ω.
a. Calculate the voltage at the load and what are the transmission losses.
Solution
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b. Suppose a 1:10 step-up transformer is placed at the generator end of the
transmission line and a 10:1 step-down transformer is placed at the load end of the line. Calculate the voltage at the load and the transmission losses.
To analyze this power system with the transformers, it is necessary to convert it to
a common voltage level. This can be done in two steps: 1. Eliminate transformer 𝑇2 by referring the load over to the transmission line’s voltage level. 2. Eliminate transformer 𝑇1 by referring the transmission line’s elements and the equivalent load at the transmission line’s voltage over to the source side.
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Solution:
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2.3 Operation of Real Single Phase Transformers
In reality, an ideal transformer is non-existent due to the losses present. We will now look into the characteristics of a real transformer.
Transformer operation is based on Faraday’s Law:
Where 𝜆 is the flux linkage in the coil across which the voltage is being induced:
It is possible to define an average flux per turn in a coil:
(2.11)
Hence, Faraday’s Law may be rewritten as:
Characteristic 1: Leakage Flux
When a voltage vp(t) is applied directly to the primary of a real transformer, flux will be present and the average flux due to the primary is:
(2.12)
Based on this relationship, p − av v p (t )dt , this generated flux will travel to the secondary side and voltage is induced across the secondary terminal.
The remaining flux that links with the secondary is termed mutual flux m.
Primary:
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Secondary:
Hence, Faraday’s Law for the primary circuit can be expressed as:
The same can be written for the secondary voltage:
It is clear that a common term is present in the primary and secondary voltage expressions due to the mutual flux, i.e.:
and
Notice from these two relationships that
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Therefore,
(2.15)
This equation means that in real transformers: the transformer turns ratio is related to the induced voltage due to the mutual flux”.
Characteristic 2: Magnetising and Core-loss current
In a real transformer, a current is required to produce flux in the core. It is called:
Magnetising Current, im.
This occurs even when the secondary is open-circuited.
Dot convention and current ratio of a real transformer
According to the dot convention: “A current flowing into the dotted end of a winding produces a positive mmf and vice versa.”
Two currents flowing into the dotted ends of their respective windings produce magnetomotive forces that add. If one current flows into a dotted end of a winding and one flows out of a dotted end, then the magnetomotive forces will subtract from each other.
Now, when we connect a load to the real transformer, the primary current will produce a positive mmf:
Due to Lenz’s Law, the secondary current will flow out of the dotted end to produce a negative mmf:
(current flow will be in a direction as such to oppose the core flux direction)
Therefore, the net mmf in the transformer required to produce flux in the core is given by
Where R = reluctance of the transformer core.
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However R 0 provided the core is unsaturated, hence:
Therefore,
(2.17)
(2.18)
Hence, in order to convert a real transformer into an ideal transformer:
• The core must have no eddy current or hysteresis losses.
• The magnetization curve must be of a step function and the net mmf is zero. • There must be no leakage fluxes (flux is contained in the core). • The winding resistances must be zero.
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2.4 Equivalent circuit of a transformer
To accurately model the transformer, the following losses will have to be included:
Copper Losses – Resistive heating losses in primary and secondary windings.
(Proportional to the current square)
Eddy current losses – also resistive heating loss which occurs in the core. (Proportional to voltage applied)
Hysteresis losses – related to magnetization of core and is non-linear.
(non-linear function of voltage applied)
Leakage flux - fluxes that escape and do not link both windings. (𝜙𝐿𝑃 and 𝜙𝐿𝑆 produce self-inductance)
Magnetization Current im – proportional to voltage applied to core and lagging the
voltage by 90o. (flux produced in core)
Therefore, the complete transformer equivalent circuit:
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In order to facilitate analysis, simplify circuit by referring impedances in the
secondary to the primary or vice versa:
(a) The transformer model referred to its primary voltage level.
(b) The transformer model referred to its secondary voltage level.
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Approximate equivalent circuits
In practical situations, Rc and Xm are much larger than Rp and Xp.
Therefore, voltage drop across Rp and Xp are negligible. This means that we can move the excitation branch to the front and place Rp and Xp in series with Rs and Xp.
(a) Referred to the primary side;
(b) referred to the secondary side; (c) with no excitation branch referred to the primary side; (d) with no excitation branch referred to the secondary side.
In some cases, the excitation branch is entirely neglected since it has small excitation current.
