EME4363 Electrical Machines – Synchronous Machine

Chapter 5: Synchronous Machine

Generally, there are two windings on a AC machine:

• Field windings – windings that produce the main magnetic
field.
• Armature windings – windings where main voltage is
induced.

Field Windings Armature Windings

Induction Machines On the stator On the rotor
Synchronous On the rotor On the stator
Machines

5.1 Synchronous Generators

Synchronous generators – synchronous machines used to convert

mechanical power to AC electric power.

How does a synchronous generator work?

• A DC is applied to the rotor winding, which produces a rotor

magnetic field.
• The rotor is then turned by a prime mover (eg. Steam, water,
etc.) to produce a rotating magnetic field within the machine.
• This rotating magnetic field induces a three-phase set of
voltages within the stator windings of the generator.

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5.1.1 Synchronous Generator Construction

• The rotor of a synchronous is essentially a large electromagnet.

• It’s magnetic poles are either:

o Salient poles.
The shape of the rotor consists of poles that are
“protruding” or “sticking out” from the rotor surface.
This design is normally used for rotors with 4 or more
poles.

o Non-salient poles.
These are magnetic poles constructed flush with the
surface of the rotor, i.e. a smooth cylindrical rotor.
Normally used for 2 or 4 pole rotors.

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• Because the rotor is subjected to changing magnetic fields, it is

constructed of thin laminations to reduce eddy current losses.

• A DC current must be supplied to the field windings on the

rotor.

• Since the rotor is rotating, a special arrangement is required to

get the DC power to its field windings.

• There are two common approaches to supplying this DC

current:

1. From an external DC source by means by slip rings and

brushes.

o Slip rings – metal rings encircling the shaft of machine

but isolated from it.

o Brush – a block of graphite-like carbon compound that

conducts electricity freely but has very low friction such
that it doesn’t wear down the slip ring.

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o In a synchronous machine,
• One end of the dc rotor winding is tied to each of the
two slip rings, and
• A stationary brush rides on each slip ring.

o If positive end of a DC voltage source is connected to one

brush and the negative end is connected to the other, then
the DC voltage will be applied to the field winding at all
times regardless of the angular position of the speed of the
rotor.

o Problems with slip rings and brushes:

• Increased maintenance required – check brushes for
wear regularly.
• Brush voltage drop can cause significant power losses
on machines with larger field currents.

o Slip rings and brushes are used on all small synchronous

generators due to no other method of supplying DC field
current is cost effective.

2. From a special DC power source mounted directly on the

shaft of the synchronous generator.

o Used on larger generators.

o Brushless exciters are used to supply the DC field current

to the machine.

o A brushless exciters is a small AC generator with its field

circuit mounted on the stator and it’s armature circuit
mounted on the rotor shaft.

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o The three-phase output of the exciter generator is

rectified to direct current by a three-phase rectifier
circuit and fed to the main DC field circuit of the
generator.

o Hence, no slip rings and brushes are needed.

o Brushless exciter requires much less maintenance since

there is no mechanical contacts.

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5.1.2 The Speed of Rotation of a Synchronous Generator

Synchronous generators are synchronous because the electrical

frequency produced is locked in or synchronized with the
mechanical rate of rotation of the generator.

The rotor produces a magnetic field that points in the direction the
rotor is turned.

Hence, the rate of rotation of magnetic fields in the machine is

related to the stator electrical frequency by:

where fe = electrical frequency, in Hz

nm = mechanical speed of magnetic field, in r/min
(equals speed of rotor for synchronous machines)
P = number of poles

If the electric power is generated at 50 or 60 Hz, so the generator

must turn at a fixed speed depending on the number of poles on the
machine.

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5.1.3 The Internal Generated Voltage of a Synchronous

Generator

The magnitude of the voltage induced in a given stator phase was

found to be:

The generated voltage depends on the flux in the machine, the

frequency or speed of the rotation and the machine’s construction.

For simplicity, the equation is sometimes rewritten in a simpler

form as:

where K = constant representing machine construction.

The internal generated voltage is directly proportional to the flux

and to the speed.

And flux itself depends on the current flowing in the rotor field
circuit IF in the manner shown in the figure below.

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5.1.4 The Equivalent Circuit of a Synchronous Generator

The voltage 𝐸𝐴 is the internal generated voltage produced in the

one phase of a synchronous generator.

However, this voltage 𝐸𝐴 is not the voltage that appears at the

terminals of the generator.

The output voltage of a phase is 𝑉𝜙 . Also the voltage at the stator

winding terminals of the generator.

In fact, the only time the internal voltage 𝐸𝐴 is the same as the
output voltage 𝑉𝜙 is when there is no armature current flowing in
the machine.

Why 𝑉𝜙 is not equal to 𝐸𝐴 ?

There are a number of factors that cause the difference between 𝐸𝐴

and 𝑉𝜙 :
• Armature reaction – distortion of the air gap magnetic field
by the current flowing in the stator.
• Self-inductance of the armature coils.
• Resistance of the armature coils.
• Effect of salient pole rotor shapes.

The effect of the first three factors will be discussed to derive the
equivalent model of the generator.

Assume that all the machines in this chapter are assumed to have
non-salient or cylindrical motors in order to ignore the last factor
above.

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Armature Reaction
The output voltage of the phase is given by:
𝑉𝜙 = 𝐸𝐴 + 𝐸𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑡

where 𝐸𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑡 is the armature reaction voltage that can be expressed

as
𝐸𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑡 = −𝑗𝑋 𝐼𝐴

where 𝑋 is a constant representing the reactance or armature

reaction effect.

Therefore, the voltage on a phase:

𝑉𝜙 = 𝐸𝐴 − 𝑗𝑋 𝐼𝐴

Thus, armature reaction voltage can be modeled as an inductor in

series with the internal generated voltage as shown in the circuit
below.

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Self Inductance and Resistance of Armature Coils

In addition, the stator coils have a self-inductance and a resistance.

Let 𝐿𝐴 be the stator self-inductance and its corresponding reactance

is called 𝑋𝐴 .

Also, let 𝑅𝐴 be the stator resistance.

Then, the final equation describing the difference between 𝐸𝐴 and

𝑉𝜙 becomes:
𝑉𝜙 = 𝐸𝐴 − 𝑗𝑋 𝐼𝐴 − 𝑗𝑋𝐴 𝐼𝐴 − 𝑅𝐴 𝐼𝐴

Since both the armature reaction effects and the self inductance can
be combined and represented by the synchronous reactance of the
machine:
𝑋𝑆 = 𝑋 + 𝑋𝐴

Therefore, the final equation describing 𝑉𝜙 is

𝑉𝜙 = 𝐸𝐴 − 𝑗𝑋𝑆 𝐼𝐴 − 𝑅𝐴 𝐼𝐴

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Therefore, the full equivalent circuit of 3-phase synchronous

generator is shown below.

The DC power source supplying the rotor field circuit is modeled

by:
• The coil’s inductance 𝐿𝐹 and resistance 𝑅𝐹 in series.
• And adjustable resistor 𝑅𝑎𝑑𝑗 that controls the flow of field
current.

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Ideally, the terminal voltage for all three phases should be identical
since we assume that the loads connected are balanced.

This leads to the use of a per-phase equivalent circuit:

5.1.5 Power and Torque in Synchronous Generator

Power in Synchronous Generator

The synchronous generator converts mechanical power to three-
phase electrical power.

Hence, the source of mechanical (input) power is from the prime

mover, which can be:

• A diesel engine
• A steam turbine
• A water turbine
• Or any similar device.

Regardless of the type of prime mover and the power demand, the
rotor speed must remain constant to maintain a constant output
frequency.

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The power-flow diagram for a synchronous generator is shown

below:

Input power = mechanical shaft power, i.e.

𝑃𝑖𝑛 = 𝜏𝑎𝑝𝑝 𝜔𝑚

Converted power (from mechanical to electrical form):

where γ is the angle between 𝐸𝐴 and 𝐼𝐴 .

Real output power:

And the reactive output power:

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For most synchronous generator, 𝑋𝑆 ≫ 𝑅𝐴 , and hence, the

armature resistance 𝑅𝐴 can be ignored

If this is applied, then a very useful equation can be derived to

approximate the output power of the generator.

where 𝛿 is the angle between 𝑉𝜙 and 𝐸𝐴 , it is also known as the

torque angle of the machine.

Maximum power occurs when sin 𝛿 = 1 , hence

The maximum power indicated by the above equation is called the

static stability limit of the generator. Normally real generators
never come close to this limit.

Torque in Synchronous Generator

From Chapter 3, the induced torque in the generator can be
expressed as,

where 𝛿 is the angle between 𝐵𝑅 and 𝐵𝑛𝑒𝑡 .

In the generator, 𝐵𝑅 produces 𝐸𝐴 and 𝐵𝑛𝑒𝑡 produces 𝑉𝜙 .

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Therefore, an alternative expression for the induced torque in a

synchronous generator can be determined from:

Important notes: since we assume 𝑅𝐴 = 0 with 𝑋𝑆 ≫ 𝑅𝐴 when

deriving the power equation, we assumed that copper losses or
electrical losses is zero. Hence
𝑃𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑣 = 𝑃𝑜𝑢𝑡

Then, the alternative induced torque expression is given by:

𝑃𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑣
𝜏𝑖𝑛𝑑 =
𝜔𝑚

Example

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A 480V, 60Hz, Δ-connected, 4 pole synchronous generator has the

Open Circuit Characteristics shown above. This generator has a
synchronous reactance of 0.1Ω and an armature resistance of
0.015Ω. At full load, the machine supplies 1200A at 0.8PF
lagging. Under full load conditions, the friction and windage losses
are 40kW and the core losses are 30kW. Ignore any field circuit
losses.

a. What is the speed of rotation of this generator?

b. How much field current must be supplied to the generator to

make the terminal voltage 480V at no load.

c. If the generator is now connected to a load and the load draws

1200A at 0.8PF lagging, how much field current will be
required to keep the terminal voltage equal to 480V.

d. How much power is the generator now supplying? How much

power is supplied to the generator by the prime mover? What is
the machine’s overall efficiency?

e. If the generator’s load were suddenly disconnected from the

line, what would happen to its terminal voltage?

f. Finally, suppose that the generator is connected to a load

drawing 1200A at 0.8 leading, how much field current would
be required to keep VT at 480V?

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5.2 Synchronous Motors

Synchronous motors are synchronous machines used to convert

electrical power to mechanical power.

We will now explore the basic operation of synchronous motors

and relates their behaviour to that of synchronous generators.

5.2.1 Basic Principles of Motor Operation

How does it work?

• The rotor field current IF produces a steady-state magnetic

field 𝐵𝑅 (rotor magnetic field)

• A three-phase set of voltages applied to the stator produces a

three-phase current flow in the winding.

• These currents then produce a uniform rotating magnetic

field 𝐵𝑆 (stator magnetic field)

• Since there are two magnetic fields in the machine,

𝐵𝑅 tends to line up with 𝐵𝑆 .

Since 𝐵𝑆 is rotating, 𝐵𝑅 will constantly try to catch up.

The larger the angle between the two magnetic fields, the greater
the torque on the rotor of the machine.

Since a synchronous motor is the same physical machine as a

synchronous generator, all the basic speed, power and torque
equations above applies to the motor also.
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5.2.2 The Equivalent Circuit of a Synchronous Motor

Since direction of power flow is reversed, the direction of current

flow in the stator of the motor is expected to reverse also.

Hence, the equivalent circuit of the synchronous motor is exactly

the same as that of the generator except that the reference
direction of IA is reversed.

The full equivalent circuit is shown below:

The per-phase equivalent circuit is shown below:

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Due to the change in direction of IA, the voltage equation for the
armature circuit yields:

This is exactly the same equation for a generator except the sign on
the current term is reversed.

5.2.3 Steady State Synchronous Motor Operation

As with the synchronous generator, the behaviour of synchronous

motors varies with varying conditions of load and field current.

In the following discussion, the armature resistance RA will

generally be ignored for simplicity. However, it may be included in
some of the numerical calculations.

The synchronous motor torque-speed characteristic curve

Synchronous motors usually supply power to loads that require a
constant speed.

The motor speed of rotation is locked to the applied frequency, so

the motor speed is constant regardless of the load.

Hence, for a synchronous motor, its torque speed characteristic is

constant speed as the induced torque increases.

Recall the torque equation for synchronous machine:

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The maximum torque (pullout torque) is achieved when

sin  = 1 (i.e.,  = 90°), and it is given by:

If load exceeds the maximum torque, the resulting torque surges

first in one way then in another, causing the motor to vibrate
severely.

The torque equations also indicate that the larger the field current
(and hence 𝐸𝐴 ), the greater the maximum torque of the motor.

Therefore, there is a stability advantage of operating the motor

with large IF or large EA.

Figure: the torque-speed characteristic of a synchronous motor.

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The effect of load changes on a synchronous motor

If a load is attached to the synchronous motor’s shaft, the motor
will develop enough torque to keep both motor and load turning at
synchronous speed.

What happens when the load is changed?

Assume that the field current settings are unchanged.

As the load increases:

• The rotor will initially slow down.
• The torque angle  becomes larger causing an increase in
induced torque.
• This will eventually speed the rotor back up to
synchronous speed but with a larger torque angle .

Example
A 208-V, 45-kVA, 0.8-PF-leading, -connected, 60-Hz
synchronous machine has a synchronous reactance of 2.5  and a
negligible armature resistance. Its friction and windage losses are
1.5 kW and its core losses are 1.0 kW. Initially, the shaft is
supplying a 15-hp load, and the motor’s power factor is 0.80
leading.

(a) Find the values of IA, IL and EA.

(b) Assume that the shaft load is now increased to 30-hp, find
IA, IL, EA and 𝛿 after the load change. What is the new motor
power factor?

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5.2.4 Starting Synchronous Motors

In explaining the behaviour of a synchronous motor under steady

state conditions, the motor was always assumed to be initially
turning at synchronous speed.

How did the motors get to synchronous speed in the first place?

A synchronous motor cannot start by itself.

As a result, the motor will vibrate heavily and could overheat.

There are three basic approaches to safely start a synchronous

motor:
1) Reduced speed of stator magnetic field – the aim is to reduce
it slow enough as such that the rotor will accelerate and lock in
with the stator magnetic field during ½ a cycle.
2) Use an external prime mover to accelerate the synchronous
motor up to synchronous speed.
3) Use damper windings or amortisseur windings.

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5.2.5 Synchronous Motors Ratings

There are certain basic limits to the speed and power that may be
obtained from a synchronous machine.

These limits are expressed as ratings on the machine.

Since synchronous motors are the same physical machines as

synchronous generators, the basic machine ratings are the same.

The purpose of the ratings is to protect the generator from damage

due to improper operation.

Each machine has a number of ratings listed on a nameplate

attached to it.

The nameplate of a large synchronous motor is given below.

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Typical ratings on a synchronous machine are voltage, frequency,

speed, apparent power, power factor, field current, and other
information.

Frequency Ratings
The rated frequency of a synchronous machine depends on the
power system to which it is connect.

The commonly used power system frequencies are

• 50 Hz (in Europe, Asia, etc.)
• 60 Hz (in America)
• 400 Hz (in special-purpose and control application)

Once the operating frequency is known, there is only one possible

rotational speed for a given number of poles.

Voltage Ratings
The most obvious rating is the voltage at which a machine is
design to operate.

A motor’s voltage depends on the flux, the speed of rotation, and

the mechanical construction of the machine.

Another consideration in setting the maximum allowable voltage is

the breakdown value of the winding insulation.

Apparent Power, and Power-Fator Ratings

There are two factors that determine the power limits of electric
machines.
1. The mechanical torque on the shaft of the machine,
2. The heating of the machine’s windings.

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In a practical synchronous machine, the shaft is strong enough

mechanically to handle a much larger power than the machine
ratings.

These limits are set by heating in the machine’s windings.

There are two windings (armature and field) in a synchronous

machine, and they must be protected form overheating.

Since the output of a synchronous motor is mechanical power, the

power rating is usually given in horsepower rather than kilowatts.

In general, synchronous motors are more adaptable to low-speed,

high power application than induction motors.

Hence they are commonly used for low-speed, high-power loads.

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