GENERAL SCIENCE NOTE FOR GRADE-8

UNIT ONE
1. BASICS OF SCIENTIFIC INVESTIGATION
1.1. Scientific Measurements
Introduction
Making observation is common experience in science. Similarly, it is usual asking the basic questions
like;
 How big an object is?
 How tall are you?
 To answer these questions, measurements have to be made.
 Measurement is the process of obtaining the magnitude of a quantity relative to an agreed
standard.
Indigenous Methods of Measurements
An indigenous method of measurement refers to measurement methods that are practiced locally for a
long period of time and are passed from generations to generation. In this section, we will pay
attention to the measurement of length, mass, and time.
A. Length: is a measure of the distance between two points. In Ethiopia we use different indigenous
units of length measurement. The commonly used ones are:
1. Hand-span: The hand-span is the measure from the tip of your little finger to the tip of your
thumb when your hand is stretched out,
2. Digit:- is the width of an adult human male fingertip,
3. Cubit: A measure of distance from the tip of one’s elbow to the tip of the middle finger when
your arm is extended
4. Foot: A measure of distance from the back of the heel to the tip of the big toe
5. Pace: A linear distance measure of a person’s extended walk. A pace is a unit of length
consisting either of one normal walking step. The pace is the distance measured from the heel
of one foot to the heel of the same foot when it next touched the ground.
6. Arm span: also known as fathom is the distance from the middle fingertip of the left hand to
that of the right hand when you stretch your arms out as far as they can reach

Exercise 1.1
Page: 4
B. Mass: is the amount of matter present in a substance. There is an indigenous method of
measuring mass. The following are some examples of the indigenous unit of mass measurement
used in Ethiopia.
1. Weqet: is a mass measuring unit usually used to measure the mass of powder of gold in local
markets.
2. Quntal: is a bag used to measure the mass of grains. It is equal to a hundred kilogram.
3. Feresula: is used to measure the mass of pepper and coffee. It is equal to 17 kilogram.

Exercise 1.2:
Page-5

C. Time: is the measure of the duration for an interval. There is also an indigenous method of
measuring time. Our elders were used the shadow of a tree to measure time. As the position of
the Sun changes from morning to evening the length of the shadow of a tree varies. In the
morning and late in the afternoon, the length of the shadow is high. At noon when the Sun is
overhead no shadow will be seen. Using this fact they could tell the approximate time of the day
by just looking at the position of the shadow of a tree found at or near their home.
D. Volume: is the measure of the space occupied by an object. In the local markets of Addis Ababa
the following tools are used for different size volume measurements.
1. Jog: A plastic cup used for measuring the volume of liquids.
2. Tassa: A can used to measure cereals, pulses, liquids and solids.
3. Sini: A small ceramic cup often used for measuring coffee, pulses and spices.
4. Birchiko: A glass often for measuring pulses and liquids.
5. Kubaya: A mug, often used for measuring cereals, pulses and liquids.

Exercise 1.3:
Page-6
Physical Quantities and Scientific Methods of Measurement
 A physical quantity is a physical property of a material or system that can be quantified by
measurement
 Example: length, mass, time, temperature, area, volume, density, force etc.
 Physical quantities are classified into two types: fundamental and derived quantities
1. Fundamental Physical quantities and their units
 Fundamental quantities, also known as base quantities, are quantities which cannot be expressed
in terms of any other quantity. They are the bases for other quantities.
 There are seven fundamental (basic) physical quantities: length, mass, time, temperature, electric
current, luminous intensity and amount of a substance.
The International System of Units (SI, abbreviated from the French System international (SI-units)
is a system of measurement based on base units. An International System of units (SI) is currently
used all over the world.
Measurement is the comparison of an unknown quantity with some known quantity. This known
fixed quantity is called a unit. Thus, the result of a measurement is expressed in two parts. One part is
a number and the other part is the unit of the measurement. For example, if a student has a mass of 32
kg: the quantity being measured is mass, the value of the measurement is 32 and the unit of measure
is kilograms (kg). This tells us that any measurement consists of two parts. The first is the number
which indicates the magnitude of the quantity and the second indicates the unit (standard) of that
quantity. Units can be classified into two groups: fundamental units and derived units. The units
used to measure fundamental quantities are called fundamental units. It does not depend on any other
unit.
Table- 1.1: Fundamental quantities and their SI units
Quantity Unit Symbol of the unit
Mass Kilogram kg
Length Meter m
Time Second s
Temperature Kelvin K
Amount Mole mol
Current Ampere A
 Intensity Candela Cd
2. Derived Physical Quantities and their Units
 Derived quantities are Physical quantities which depend on one or more fundamental quantities
for their measurements.
 Examples: Speed, area, volume, density and force, etc.
 The units used to measure derived quantities are called derived units. It depends on fundamental
units for their measurement.
 SI derived units are described by mathematically combining (dividing, multiplying or powering)
the base units.
Table-1.2:- derived quantities and their units
No. Derived quantities Symbols Unit
1 Area A M*M =M2
2 Volume V M*M*M =M3
3 Speed V m/sec
4 Density ρ Kg/m3
Example 1.1: Show how the unit of (a) area and (b) speed is derived from the fundamental units.
Solution:
(a) The equation for the area of rectangular surface is;
 Area = length x width.
 Both length and width are length measurements. Hence they are measured in meter.
 Unit of area = unit of length x unit of width
 Unit of area = m x m = m2
(b) The equation for speed is
 Speed = distance/time
 Thus the unit of speed is the unit of distance (m) over the unit of time (s) = m/s

Exercise 1.4:
Page-9
Prefixes and Conversion of Base Units
Prefix is a short hand form of writing very large and very small numbers.
Table-1.3: A few of the prefixes used in the SI system of units
Prefix Abbreviation Meaning Example
Giga G 109 1 gigameter (Gm) = 109 meters
Mega M 106 1 megameter (Mm) = 106 meters
Kilo K 103 1 kilometer (km) = 103 meters
Deci d 10-1 1 decimeter (dm) = 10-1 meters
Centi c 10-2 1 centimeter (cm) = 10-2 meters
Milli m 10-3 1 millimeter (mm) = 10-3 meters
Micro µ 10-6 1 micrometer (μm) = 10-6 meters
Nano n 10-9 1 nanometer (nm) = 10-9 meters
Pico p 10-12 1 picometer (pm) = 10-12 meters
Femto f 10-15 1 femtometer (fm) = 10-15 meters
Conversion of base units
 Conversion is a multi-step process that involves multiplication or division by a numerical factor,
selection of the correct number of significant digits, and rounding.
 It is often necessary to convert between units of measurement. For example, a mass measured in
grams may be required to convert into kilogram.
 To convert from one unit to another within the SI, usually means moving a decimal point. If you
can remember what the prefixes mean, you can convert within the SI system relatively easily by
simply multiplying or dividing the number by the value of the prefix.
 Example-1.2:- Convert 6.5 kilogram (kg) to gram (g)
Solution: Since kilo (k) is a prefix
6.5 kg = 6.5 × (1000) g = 6500 g
 Example-1.3: Convert 200 meters to kilometers.
We know that 1 km = 1000m. Then we will ask if 1000m is 1km then what will be 200m in km?
Solution:
1 km = 1000 m
? = 200m 200 m =1 km ×200 m =200 km =0.2 km 1000 m 1000

Exercise 1.5

Page-10
Measuring Physical Quantities
 The measurement of a physical quantity is done by using measuring instruments.
Measuring the mass of objects
 Instruments which are used to measure mass are known as balances.
 The balance compares the mass of an object with a known mass.
 Different types of balances are: Top Pan Balance, Table Balance, Spring Balance, Plat Form
Balance, Electronic Balance, Etc.

Note: before taking measurement check that the balance is on a level surface, and
reads zero when no load is placed on it.

The SI unit of mass is kilogram (kg). For small mass we use gram (g).
 To measure the mass of objects less than 1 gram, we can use milligram.
 To measure the mass of big objects we use quintal and tone.
The relationship between different units of Length
1 kg = 1000 g.
1 g = 1000 mg
1 quintal = 100 kg
1 tone = 1000 kg
Example 1.4: How much is 1200 gram in kilogram?
Solution
1
1200g = 1200x kg =1.2 kg
1000

Exercise 1.6:
Page-12
Measuring Length
 Length is a measure of how long an object is.
 Depending on the size of the length of the object, there are different types of length measuring
instrument Such as Meter Ruler, Measuring Tape, Vernier caliper, etc.
 The SI unit of length is meter (m).
 To measure larger lengths, we use kilometers.
 To measure small lengths, we can use centimeters or millimeters.
The relationship between different units of Length
1km = 1000 m
1 m = 100 cm
1cm = 10mm
Note: when we are measuring length using this device does not forget to place the zero mark exactly
at one end of the thing you are measuring and read the scale at the other end.
Example 1.5: How many millimeters are there in a meter?
Solution: 1m = 100 cm = 100 x 10 mm = 1000 mm

Exercise 1.7:
Page-13

Measuring time
 Time is used to quantify the duration of events. Time is measured with a stop watch or clock.
 The SI unit of time is second (s). For longer intervals of time we use: day, month, year, decades,
century and millennium.
The relationship between different units of time
1 hour = 60 minutes
1 minute = 60 seconds
1 day = 24 hours
1 week = 7 days
1 year = 365 or 366 days
Example 1.6: Convert one hour into seconds.
 Solution: 1 hour = 60 minutes = 60 × 60 second = 3600 seconds.

Exercise 1.8:
Page-14

Measuring Temperature
 Thermometer is the device used to measure the temperature of an object or place.
 The SI unit of temperature is Kelvin. Degree Celsius (°C) and degree Fahrenheit (0F) are other
units of temperature.
 Thermometers could be analogue or digital
 In using thermometer, hold the thermometer at the top, do not hold the bulb of a thermometer and
do not let the bulb touch the glass.
Accuracy and Precision in Measurement
Accuracy refers to how close a measurement is to its accepted or known value.
Example 1.7: If in a laboratory you obtain a mass measurement of 8.2 kg for a given substance, but
the actual or known mass is 10 kg, is your measurement accurate?
Answer: This measurement is not accurate, because your measurement (8.2 kg) is not close to the
known value (10kg).
Precision refers to how close two or more measurements are to each other, regardless of whether
those measurements are accurate or not.
Example 1.8: In the above example 1.4, if you measure the mass of the given substance five times,
and get 3.2 kg, 3.1 kg, 3.25 kg, 3.3 kg and 3.2 kg. Is your measurement precise?
Answer: This measurement is precise, because the values are close to each other but not accurate
because it is far from the known value (10 kg). This shows that precision is independent of accuracy.
You can be very precise but inaccurate. You can also be accurate but not precise.

Exercise 1.9:
Page-15
Exercise 1.10:
Page-16
 1.2 Doing Scientific Investigation
Introduction to Scientific Investigation
Science is a process of learning about the world through observation, inquiry, formulating and testing
hypotheses, gathering and analyzing data, and reporting and evaluating findings. This process is
referred as the scientific investigation or scientific method.
All sciences, including the social sciences, employ variations of what is called the scientific method.
Scientific method is the process by which scientists approach their work.
The Steps of the Scientific Method
Based on the type of question being asked, the type of science being applied and the laws that apply
to that particular branch of science, you may need to modify the method and alter or remove one or
several of the steps.
1. Ask Questions
A scientific investigation typically begins with observations. Observations often lead to questions.
This question will include one of the key starters, which are, how, what, when, why, where, who or
which. The question you ask should also be measurable and answerable through experimentation
2. Perform Background Research
With your question formulated, conduct preliminary background research to prepare yourself for the
experiment. You can find information through online searches or in your local library, depending on
the question you are asking and the nature of the background data. You may also find previous
studies and experiments that can help with your process and conclusions.
3. Establish your Hypothesis
Based on the data that were gathered, the researcher formulated a hypothesis. A hypothesis is a
tentative explanation for a set of observations. Your hypothesis should also include your predictions
that you can measure through experimentation and research. A hypothesis must be based on scientific
knowledge, and it must be logical.
4. Test your Hypothesis
Next, test your hypothesis by conducting an experiment. Your experiment is a way to quantifiably
test your predictions and should be able to be repeated by another scientist. Assess your scientific
process and make sure that the conditions remain the same throughout all testing measures. If you
change any factors in your experiment, keep all others the same to maintain fairness. After you
complete the experiment, repeat it a few more times to make sure the results are accurate.
5. Analyze the Results and Draw a Conclusion
You can now take your experiment findings and analyze them to determine if they support your
hypothesis or not. Drawing a conclusion means determining whether what you believed would
happen actually happened. If it did not happen, you can create a new hypothesis and return to step
three, then conduct a new experiment to prove your new theory. If what you hypothesized happened
during the experimentation phase, the final step is putting together your findings and presenting them
to others.
6. Communicating Results
The last step in a scientific investigation is communicating what you have learned with others. This is
a very important step because it allows others to verify your methods and results. If other researchers
get the same results as yours, the hypothesis becomes stronger. However, if they get different results,
they may not support the hypothesis. When scientists share their results, they should describe their
methods and point out any possible problems with the investigation. Finally, communicating results
can be done in a variety of ways including scientific papers, blogs, news, articles, conferences, etc.
Example1.9: Simple experiment with candle that shows the necessary of air for burning. Consider
how the scientific method applies in this simple experiment with air necessary for burning under two
different conditions.
1. Ask Question: Is air necessary for burning?
2. Do back ground Research: From different literatures ‘‘air is necessary for burning.’’
3. Formulate Hypothesis: The null hypothesis is that there will be no air needs for burning. The
alternative hypothesis is that there will be air needs for burning.
4. Test Hypothesis by Experiment and Collect Data: Take a candle and fix it on a table. Light the
candle. The candle will continue to burn due to continuously available fresh air providing the
required oxygen for combustion. Now cover the burning candle by putting an inverted gas jar
over it. After a short time, the candle stops burning and gets extinguished.
5. Analyze the Results and Draw Conclusion:- When the burning candle is covered with gas jar,
then the candle takes away the oxygen necessary for burning from the air enclosed in the gas jar.
After some time, when all the oxygen of air inside the gas jar is used up, then the burning candle
gets extinguished. This proves that air is necessary for combustion or burning of substances.
6. Communicate Results: Report your findings in the form of a written report as an oral
presentation. Air is necessary for burning.

Review Exercise of unit

one

Page: 23-24
 UNIT TWO
2. COMPOSITION OF MATTER
2.1. Early Thinking about the Composition of Matter
The earliest recorded discussion of the basic structure of matter comes from ancient Greek
philosophers, the scientists of their day.
Some of them argued that matter is continuous i.e., it could be divided endlessly into smaller pieces.
Others believed that matter is discrete; i.e., it cannot be infinitely divided.
1. Democritus (460 - 370 B.C) expressed the belief that all matter consists of very small, indivisible
particles, which he named atomos (meaning uncut able or indivisible). He thought of atoms as
moving particles that differed in shape and size which could join together. According to
Democritus matter is discrete.
2. Aristotle (384 – 322 B.C) argued that matter is divided into smaller and smaller parts, the
division continuous forever without any limit. He did not believe in microscopic building
particles of matter. Therefore, according to Aristotle, matter is continuous and he believed that
matter consisted of the combinations of fire, earth, air, and water.
Table 2.1Comparison between the discrete and continuous theory of matter
Discreteness Theory Continuous Theory
 Proposed by Democritus  Proposed by Aristotle
 There is a limit to which matter is broken  Matter is infinitely divisible
 Believed in the existence of atoms  Rejected the idea of atoms

Exercise 2.1
Page-27

2.2. Inside of an Atom

2.2.1 Parts of an atom
An atom consists of a tiny dense nucleus surrounded by electrons. The nucleus contains positively
charged protons and neutral neutrons, so it is positively charged. The electrons are negatively
charged. Protons and neutrons have approximately the same mass and are about 1800 times more
massive than an electron. This means that most of the mass of an atom is in its nucleus. However,
most of the volume of an atom is occupied by its electrons.
 Figure 2.1 Diagrammatic representation of the atom
The subatomic particles
Atoms possess internal structure; that is, they are made up of even smaller particles, which are called
subatomic particles. A subatomic particle is a very small particle that is a building block for atoms.
An atom contains three fundamental sub atomic particles: proton, electron and neutron. An atom has
a definite number of protons, electrons and neutrons. The structure of the atom describes how these
particles are arranged to make an atom. The relative charge of a proton is +1. The electron is assigned
a charge of −1. The neutron is assigned zero charge. Since an atom has equal number of protons and
electrons, it is electrically neutral.
A proton has a mass of 1.673 × 10–24 g, and a neutron has a mass of 1.675 × 10 –24 g. Thus, a proton
and a neutron have almost the same mass. Since the mass of an electron is very small, 9.109 × 10 –28 g,
its mass is assumed to be negligible or approximately zero because it is ≈ 2000 times less heavily than
both the proton and neutron.
Table 2.2Nature and location of sub-atomic particles
Particle‘ Location Actual Mass Relative Actual Charge Relative
Name (g) Mass (amu) (C) Charge ( C)
Proton Nucleus 1.673x 10-24 1.00728≈ 1 +1.60218x 10-19 +1
Electron Outside nucleus 9.109x 10-28 0.00055 ≈ 0 -1.60218 x10-19 -1
(shell)
Neutron Nucleus 1.675x 10-24 1.00866 ≈ 1 0 0
 Atomic Number and Mass Number
All atoms can be identified by the number of protons and neutrons they contain. The atomic number
(Z) of an atom equals the number of protons in its nucleus. The atomic number is also the number of
electrons that surround the nucleus of a neutral atom.
Atomic number (Z) = Number of protons= number of electrons
Mass number (A) is the sum of the number of protons and the number of neutrons in the nucleus of
an atom. Except for the most common form of hydrogen, which has one proton and no neutrons, all
atomic nuclei contain both protons and neutrons.
Mass number (A) = Number of protons + Number of neutrons.
A= P+ + n0
Example: Find the mass number of an atom with 13 protons and 14 neutrons?
Solution: A= P+ + n0, A= 13+14= 27
The mass and atomic numbers of a given atom are often specified using the notation:
The mass and atomic numbers of a given atom are often specified using the notation
A
X
Mass Number Z

Example: 126C Atomic Number

mass number = 12, atomic number = 6, and C is the symbol of carbon.
Determination of the electrons, protons and neutrons
Proton is equal to the atomic number of atoms. Number of protons = atomic number (Z)
Electron: The atom is neutral therefore the number of electrons is equal to the number of protons.
Number of electrons = atomic number (Z) = number of protons. The number of neutrons in an atom is
equal to the difference between the mass number and the atomic number or proton number. Number
of neutrons = Mass number (A) - Number of protons

Exercise 2.2
Page-31

Exercise:
1. Find : a) Electron number b) Proton number c) Mass number d) Atomic number
23
e) Neutron number in an atom of the element 11 Na+ and 1531P-3

a. Molecules
Molecules of Elements
A molecule of an element consists of only one type of an atom.
Molecules of elements can be classified as monoatomic, diatomic and polyatomic.
1. Monoatomic molecules are molecules that contain one atom of the element. Examples: Nobel
gases (He, Ne, Ar, Kr, Xe, and Rn) are monoatomic molecules
2. Diatomic molecules are molecules that contain two atoms of the element. Examples: O 2, H2, F2,
Cl2, I2, Br2 and N2 are diatomic molecules.
3. Polyatomic molecules are molecules that contain three and more than three atoms of the element.
Examples: O3, P4, S8 are polyatomic molecules.
Molecules of compounds
A molecule of a compound always contains two or more atoms of different elements combined
chemically. Water (H2O), ammonia (NH3), carbon dioxide (CO2), etc. are some examples of
molecules of compounds.

Exercise 2.3
Page-32
UNIT THREE
Review Exercise
Page: 35-37

CLASSIFICATION OF COMPOUNDS
3.1. Introduction
Chemists began to categorize compounds into two types: organic and inorganic. Compounds obtained
from living organisms were called organic compounds, and compounds obtained from mineral
constituents of the earth were called inorganic compounds. During this early period, chemists
believed that a special “vital force” supplied by a living organism was necessary for the formation of
an organic compound. This concept was disproved in 1828 by the German chemist Friedrich Wohler.
Wohler prepared urea, an organic compound, from the reaction between solutions of inorganic
compounds ammonium chloride and silver cyanate.

NH4Cl (aq) + AgCNO (aq) NH4CNO (aq) + AgCl (s)

Ammonium chloride Silver cyanate Ammonium cyanate Silver chloride
O
NH4CNO (aq) Heat (NH2)2CO (s) Or
Urea H2N C NH2
All organic compounds contain carbon and hydrogen, along with other possible elements such as
oxygen, nitrogen, sulphur, halogens and phosphorus except the oxides of carbon, carbonates,
hydrogen carbonates, cyanides and cyanates. Inorganic compounds are the compounds consisting of
mineral constituents of the earth or generally found in non-living things. The term inorganic
compound refers to all compounds that do not contain carbon. Although, carbon dioxide, carbon
monoxide, carbonates and hydrogen carbonates are carbon-containing compounds, which are
classified as inorganic compound.

Exercise 3.1
Page-40

3.2. Organic Compounds

Hydrocarbons
A hydrocarbon is a compound that contains only carbon atoms and hydrogen atoms. Hydrocarbons
divided in to three large classes: alkanes, alkenes and alkynes.
Alkanes
Alkanes are hydrocarbons that have the general formula C nH2n+2, where, n is the number of carbon
atoms present, n = 1, 2, 3…..
For example, the molecular formula: C1H2×1+2 = CH4, C2H2×2 + 2 = C2H6, C3H2×3 + 2 = C3H8, and C4H2×4 +
2 = C4H10, respectively. When we compare the formulas of CH4 and C2H6 or C2H6 and C3H8, they
differ by one carbon and two hydrogen atoms or – CH2 – group called the methylene A family
group of compounds in which each member differs from the next by one methylene (-CH 2-) group is
called homologous series (homo is Greek for “the same as). The members of a homologous series are
called homologues.

Exercise 3.2
Page-41

Alkenes
Alkenes are hydrocarbons that have the general formula CnH2n, where, n is the number of carbon
atoms present, n = 2, 3….. For example, the molecular formulas
C2H2×2 = C2H4, C3H2×3 = C3H6, and C4H2×4 = C4H8, respectively.
Alkynes
Alkynes are hydrocarbons that have the general formula CnH2n-2, where n = 2, 3, 4, etc. For example
alkynes are C2H2×2-2 = C2H2, C3H2×3-2 = C3H4, and C4H2×4-2 = C4H6, respectively.

Exercise 3.4
Page-42

Nomenclature (Naming) of Hydrocarbon

The name of hydrocarbons is derived from the number of carbon atoms present (prefix) and the e of
alkanes, alkenes and alkynes and ‘-yne’, respectively.
i. a prefix-indicating the number of carbon atoms (listed in Table 3.1) and
ii. a suffix indicating the type of the functional group present in the molecule or the type of
hydrocarbon.
Table 3.1 Prefixes commonly used to indicate one to ten carbon atoms
Number of Prefix Number of Prefix
carbon atoms carbon atoms
1 Meth- 6 Hex-
2 Eth- 7 Hept-
3 Prop- 8 Oct-
4 But- 9 Non-
5 Pent- 10 Dec-
Example 1: Write the names of alkanes; CH4 and C3H8.
Solution:
 CH4 contains one carbon atom. S adding the suffix ‘-ane’ i4.e. becomes methane.
 C3H8 contains three carbon atoms ’and adding the suffix ‘-ane’ C3H8 becomes propane.
Example 2: Write the names of alkenes; C2H4 and C4H.
Solution:
 C2H4 contains two carbon atoms and adding the suffix ‘-ene’2H4 i becomes ethene.
 C4H8 contains four carbon atoms Adding the suffix ‘-ene’ 4H8 I.e. becomes butene.
 Example 3: Write the names of alkynes; C3H4 and C4H6.
Solution:
 C3H4 contains three carbon atoms ’and adding the suffix ‘-yne’ C3H4 becomes propyne.
 C4H8 contains four carbon atoms. Adding the suffix ‘-yne’4H6 ibe.-e. comes butyne.

Exercise 3.5
Page-43

Uses of Common Organic Compounds

Many organic compounds are very useful in our daily life. Some important organic compounds and
their uses are described in the following section.
Methane (CH4)
Methane is used primarily as fuel for cooking, heating and generating electricity. Methane is the main
constituents of biogas that is used as a domestic fuel.
Propane (C3H8) and Butane (C4H10)
The mixture of propane and butane is compressed at a moderate pressure and stored in steel cylinders.
It is marked as bottled gas and commonly known as “butagas”. It is mainly used for cooking and
heating.
Ethyne (C2H2)
One of the main uses of ethyne is to produce oxyacetylene flame, which is used in the cutting and
welding of steel and iron.
Ethanol (Ethyl alcohol) OR (CH3CH2OH)
Ethanol is used in the intoxication ingredient of many alcoholic beverages such as beer, wine, tella,
ouzo, teji, etc. Nowadays ethanol mixed with petrol is used as a fuel.
It is also used in the production of acetic acid, and in hospitals and clinics for cleaning wounds.
Ethanoic Acid (Acetic acid) OR (CH3COOH)
Table vinegar contains 4% to 8% acetic acid. Vinegar is used as food flavoring agent. It is also used
as a disinfectant. For use in preserving vegetables (pickling) it typically ranges up to 18%.
Formalin (CH2O)
When formaldehyde is dissolved in water it is called formalin. Formalin contains 40%, by volume, of
formaldehyde. Formalin is used for the preservation of biological specimens, because it makes
proteins hard and insoluble.
 Exercise 3.6
Page-45

3.3. Inorganic Compounds

Inorganic compounds can be classified into four groups according to their composition and their
properties. These include oxides, acids, bases and salts.
Oxides
Oxides are binary compounds containing oxygen and any other element.
Element + Oxygen → Oxide
Some common examples of oxides are water (hydrogen oxide, H 2O), carbon dioxide (CO2), lime
(calcium oxide, CaO), rust (iron (III) oxide), etc.

Exercise 3.7
Page-46
Types of Oxides
Most oxides are classified as
i. Metallic oxides are binary compounds containing only metals and oxygen.
Metal + Oxygen → Metallic Oxide
Examples: CaO, Na2O, Al2O3, MgO, etc.
ii. Non-Metallic Oxides are binary compounds containing only non-metals and oxygen.
Non-metal + Oxygen → Non-metallic
NO2, H2O, CO2, SO2, SO3, etc. are common example of non-metallic oxides.
Oxides are also classified as their properties or behaviors.
Acidic are oxides that react with water to form acids or acidic solutions. They are mostly non-
metallic oxides. Some examples of acidic oxides are SO2, P4O6, CO2, etc.
Basic are oxides that react with water to form bases or basic solutions. They are mostly metallic
oxides. Some examples of basic oxides are Na2O, Li2O, CaO, MgO, etc.

Exercise 3.8
Page-47
Properties of Oxides
Properties of Acidic Oxides
An acidic oxide or acid anhydride dissolves in water, to form acidic solution or an acid.
Acidic oxide + Water → Acid
Examples:
SO3 + H2O → H2SO4
CO2 + H2O → H2CO3
Acidic oxides react with bases to form salts and water.
Acidic oxide + Base → Salt + Water
Examples:
SO3 + Ca(OH)2→ CaSO4 + H2O
CO2 + 2NaOH → Na2CO3 + H2O
Acidic oxides react with basic or metallic oxides to form salt.
Acidic oxide + Basic oxide → Salt
Examples:
CO2 + Na2O → Na2CO3
SO3 + CaO→ CaSO4
Properties of Basic Oxides
A basic oxide or basic anhydride reacts with water to produce a base or alkali.
Basic oxide + Water → Base (alkali)
Examples:
CaO + H2O → Ca(OH)2
K2O + H2O → 2KOH
Basic oxides react with acidic oxides to form salts.
Basic oxide + acidic oxide → salt
Examples:
CaO + CO2→ CaCO3
Na2O + SO3→ Na2SO4
Basic oxides react with acids to form salt and water.
Basic oxide + Acid → salt + water
Examples:
CaO + 2HCl → CaCl2 + H2O
Na2O + H2SO4→ Na2SO4 + H2O

Exercise 3.9
Page-49
Laboratory Preparation of Sulfur dioxide and Magnesium Oxide
Sulfur dioxide and magnesium oxide can be prepared in the laboratory by using direct synthesis
method.
Direct synthesis involves the combination of oxygen with active metals and non-metals.
Non-metal + Oxygen → Non-metallic oxide
Example: S + O2 → SO2
Metal + Oxygen → Metallic oxide
Example: 2Mg + O2→ 2MgO

Exercise 3.10
Page-51

Acids and Bases

Acids
Acids are a group of substances that release hydrogen ions (H+) when they are in aqueous solution.
Examples: lemon juice, vinegar, sour tella and sour milk are some acidic substances in our daily life.
HCl, H2SO4 and HNO3 are common laboratory acids. They are also called mineral acids.
Properties of Acids
Acids generally have the following properties:
1. Acids have a sour taste
2. Acids change the color of indicators
3. Reaction of Acids with metals
Dilute acids react with active metals like zinc, magnesium, iron and aluminum to form salts and
liberate hydrogen gas.
Active Metal + Dilute Acid →Salt + Hydrogen
Example
Ca + 2HCl →CaCl2 + H2
Mg + H2SO4 → MgSO4 + H2
4. Reaction of Acids with Carbonates and Hydrogen Carbonates
Acids react with carbonates and hydrogen carbonates to form salts, water and carbon dioxide gas.
Acid + Carbonate → Salt + Water + Carbon dioxide
Example
2HCl (aq) + CaCO3 (s) →CaCl2 (aq) + H2O (l) + CO2 (g)
Example
Acid + Hydrogen carbonate →Salt + Water + Carbon dioxide
H2SO4 (aq) + Ca(HCO3)2 (aq) →CaSO4 (aq) + 2H2O (l) + 2CO2 (g)
5. Acids neutralize bases.
Acids react with bases and basic oxides to form salts and water.
Acid + Base → Salt + Water.
Examples:
2HCl + Ca(OH)2→CaCl2 + 2H2O
H2SO4 + 2NaOH → Na2SO4 + 2H2O
The reaction of an acid with a base is called neutralization reaction.
Naming and Writing Formula of Acids
When naming an acid, you can consider the acid to consist of an anion combined with as many
hydrogen ions are needed to make the molecule electrically neutral. Therefore, the chemical formulas
of acids are in the general form HnX, where X is a monoatomic or polyatomic anion and n is a
subscript indicating the number of hydrogen ions that are combined with the anion. The rules that
used to name an acid with the general formula HnX
1. When the name of the anion (X) ends in –ide, the acid name begins with the prefix hydro-. The
stem of anion has the suffix –ic and is followed by the word acid.
2. When the anion name ends in –ite, the acid name is the stem of the anion with the suffix –ous,
followed by the word acid.
3. When the anion name ends in –ate, the acid name is the stem of the anion with the suffix –ic
followed by the word acid
Table 3.2 Naming of common acids
Anion Example Acid name Example
ending
-ide Chloride, Cl- Hydro-(stem)-ic acid HCl (Hydrochloric acid)
-ite Sulfite, SO32- (Stem)-ous acid H2SO3 (Sulfurous acid)
-ate Nitrate, NO3- (stem)-ic acid HNO3 (Nitric acid)
Sulphate, SO42- (stem)-ic acid H2SO4 (Sulphuric acid)
Safety Precautions while Working with Acids
Acids can cause severe burns to exposed skin or severe eye injury or blindness if splashed in your
eyes. If taken by mouth, they will cause severe internal irritation and damage. Especially hydrochloric
acid, sulfuric acid and nitric acid are dangerous, poisonous and corrosive.
Therefore, they must be handled with great care.
The following measures are immediately taken if a concentrated acid is spilled on your skin, enter
your eyes or accidentally drink.
 If a concentrated acid is spilled or splashed on your skin, wash thoroughly the affected part with
water, and then wash it with 10% Na2CO3 solution.
 If an acid enters your eye, wash thoroughly with water for a long time and then seek medical
treatment.
 If you accidentally drink corrosive acids, take a base such as Mg(OH) 2 which is available in the
pharmacy to neutralize the acid
Bases
A base is an oxide or hydroxide of a metal which neutralizes acid to form salt and water. Bases which
are soluble in water are called alkalis.
An alkali is a substance that releases hydroxide ion (OH–) when dissolved in water.
Examples: NaOH, Ca(OH)2
Properties of Bases
1. Bases have bitter taste.
2. Effect on acid-base indicators
Alkalis change the color of indicators.
3. Bases neutralize acids.
Bases react with acids (acidic oxides) to form salt and water.
Base + Acid →Salt + Water
Example
Ca(OH)2 + H2SO4→CaSO4 + 2H2O

Naming and Writing Formula of Bases

Bases are named in the same way as other ionic compounds: the name of the cation is followed by the
name of the anion i.e. hydroxide
Examples: NaOH (sodium hydroxide), Ca(OH)2 (calcium hydroxide), NH4OH (ammonium
hydroxide)

Exercise 3.11
Page-54

Safety Precautions while Working with Bases

Just like acids, bases can cause severe burns to exposed skin or severe eye injury or blindness if
enters in your eyes. For example, NaOH and KOH are corrosive and poisonous. Therefore, they must
be handled with great care and you have to avoid contact with your skin and other parts of your body
while working with bases.
The following measures are useful if a concentrated base is spilled on your skin or enters your eyes.
 If a base is spilled on your skin, wash the affected area with plenty of water and then treat the
affected part with a weak acid such as dilute acetic acid to neutralize the base.
 If a base comes into contact with your eyes, wash the eyes with plenty of cold water and advice
medical doctor.
 If you drink a base by accident, neutralize it by drinking 1 – 2% dilute solution of acetic acid or
lemon juice and then seek medical treatment.
 If a base is spilled on your working table wipe the spillage immediately.
 Whenever bases are splashed on your cloth wash the affected part with running tap water.

Exercise 3.12
Page-64

Acid – Base Indicators

Acid-base indicators are dyes extracted from plants that show the presence of an acid or a base by
undergoing specific color changes when placed in a solution. Litmus, methyl orange and
phenolphthalein are common indicators.

Exercise 3.12
3.4. Neutralization Reaction
Page-64
The reaction of acids with basic oxides or bases to form salt and water is called neutralization
reaction.
Applications of Neutralization reaction in Daily Life
In our everyday life we come across many situations which involve neutralization reactions. The
following examples will illustrate common neutralization reactions that occur around us.
Neutralization at Home
 Toothpaste contains bases that neutralize the acid produced by bacteria in our mouth.
 Baking powder is usually used to help the cake rise.
 Conditioner is used with shampoo to prevent small scales on hair which make your hair
unmanageable.
Neutralization in Health
 Anti-acids contains bases such as aluminum hydroxide (Al(OH) 3 and magnesium hydroxide
(Mg(OH)2 to neutralize the excess acid in the stomach.
 Vinegar is acidic in nature which is used to cure wasp stings that are alkaline in nature.
 Baking powder is alkaline which is used to cure bee stings and ant bites that are acidic in nature.
Neutralization in Agriculture
 Acidic soil is treated with powdered lime, CaO, limestone, CaCO3 or ashes of burnt wood.
 The acidic gas from the decomposition of compost neutralizes the alkalis in basic soil.
Salts
Salts are group of chemicals that are obtained by the reactions of acids and bases. These reactions are
called neutralization reactions.
Salt is defined as a compound consisting of the positive ion of a base and the negative ion of an acid.
The positive ion in the salt can be that of a metal ion or ammonium ion. Sodium chloride (NaCl),
calcium carbonate (CaCO3), potassium nitrate (KNO3), sodium bicarbonate
(NaHCO3), diammonium phosphate ((NH4)2HPO4) are examples of salts.
Naming and Writing Formula of Salts
The group names of salts are related to the names of the acids from which they are derived.
Table 3.5 Names of some acids and group names of their salts
Name of the acid Group name of salt Example of salt
Carbonic acid, H2CO3 Carbonates, CO32- Calcium carbonate, CaCO3
Hydrochloric acid, HCl Chlorides, Cl- Sodium chloride, NaCl
Sulphuric acid, H2SO4 Sulphates, SO42- Calcium sulphate, CaSO4
Nitric acid, HNO3 Nitrates, NO3- Sodium nitrate, NaNO3
The name of a salt is derived from the names of two parts. The first part comes from the base. The
second part comes from the acid. You can always work out the name of the salt by looking at the
reactants. As illustrative examples, see the following chemical equations:
Sodium hydroxide (base) + Hydrochloric acid (acid) → Sodium chloride (salt) + Water
The name of the salt sodium chloride is obtained by taking the word ‘sodium’ from the name of the
base and ‘chloride’ from the name of the acid by dropping the word ‘hydro’ and changing the ending
‘-ic acid’ to ‘-ide’.
Follow the following simple rules to write the formula of salts.
1. Break the name of the salt up into the name of the action (positive ion) which is derived from base
and the name of anion (negative ion) which is derived from acid.
2. Use the action’s name to determine the formula for the action and anion’s name determine the
formula for anion.
3. Now criss cross the charges and put the numbers below the formulas.
Example:
a. Write the formula of Calcium carbonate.
1. Name of cation is calcium and name of anion is carbonate.
2. Formula or symbol of cation is Ca2+ and anion is CO32-
3. Ca2+ Co32- = Ca2(CO3)2 , Simplify and write the simplest formula of the salt. Thus, the formula
of calcium carbonate is CaCO3

Exercise 3.13
Page-67

Uses of Some Salts

1. Uses of Sodium chloride
 Sodium chloride is an essential nutrient and is used in healthcare to help prevent patients from
becoming dehydrated.
 It is used as a food preservative and as a seasoning to enhance flavor. Sodium chloride is also
used in manufacturing to make plastics and other products.
 It is also used to de-ice roads and sidewalks.
 Hospitals use an intravenous sodium chloride solution to supply water and salt to patients to
alleviate dehydration.
 Sodium chloride is essential to maintain the electrolyte balance of fluids in a person’s body.
 Sodium chloride has been used to flavor and preserve foods
 Salt helps to prevent spoilage and helps to keep foods like ready-to-eat meats and cheeses safe to
eat.
 Salt is also used in fermenting processes for foods like sauerkraut, pickles and kefir.
 Large quantities of sodium chloride are used in industrial manufacturing settings to make a range
of products. Plastic, paper, rubber, glass, chlorine, polyester, household
bleach, soaps, detergents and dyes are made using sodium chloride.
 Roadways and sidewalks are often de-iced by rock salt. Rock salt is the same type of salt used on
your dinner table before it is ground into finer crystals.
2. Uses of Sodium Bicarbonate
 It is used as pest control to kill cockroaches and controlling fungal growth
 It is used as a disinfectant
 It is used to protect armpits from bad smell and irritation
 It is used in cooking especially to bake food items
 It is used in medicine to be injected intravenously to the prevention of chemotherapy side effects
 It is used to wash kitchen products due to its antibacterial properties
 It is used to have clean teeth and mouth
3. Uses of Potassium nitrate
 Potassium nitrate has a wide variety of uses, largely as a source of nitrate.
 Nitric acid production
 As the oxidizer in black powder.
 Food preparation
 used in fertilizers as a source of nitrogen and potassium
 Used in some toothpastes for sensitive teeth
 Thermal storage medium in power generation systems.
 As a source of potassium ions for exchange with sodium ions in chemically strengthened glass

UNIT: FOUR
4. HUMAN BODY SYSTEMS AND HEALTH
4.1. Integumentary Systems
 are the organ of the body that forms a physical barrier between the external environment and the
internal body part
4.1.1. Components of integumentary system
 The integumentary systems have some components like skin, hair, nail, and glands.
1. Skin
 It is the outer layer of the body that covers the internal parts of the body
 It has three major layers. These are:
A) Upper layer
 is the outer most layer of the skin and called epidermis
 is made up of dead cells
 used to: reduce excess water loss, protect from light ray (UV light) and protect from entry of
disease causing microorganisms
B) Middle layer
 is the dermis which containing blood vessel (which are responsible for thermoregulation), lymph
vessel, sweat gland, sensory receptors and hair follicles.
C) Lower layer also called hypodermis
 contains fatty tissue that used to store energy and act as an insulation layer that means protecting
you from loss of excess heat
2. Hair
 Hair come from follicles, which are simple organs made up of cell called epithelial cells.
 The outer layer of hair is shaft that made up of dead cell that turned in to keratin and binding
materials
 The hair shaft is formed from three layers.
A) Medulla: deepest layer of hair shaft, only seen in large and thick hairs
B) Cortex: middle layer of hair shaft which provide strength, color and texture of hair fiber
C) Cuticle:
 outer layer of hair shaft is thin and colorless
 It serves as protection of the cortex
 These hairs are used to: help protect the skin, regulate body temperature and lend itself to the
evaporation and perspiration process
3. Nail
 is the hard covering at the end of the finger or toe
 it consists of several parts including:
a) The nail plate: The part of the nail that is visible
b) The nail bed: The skin that lies beneath the nail plate
c) The cuticle: The thin line of tissue that is located at the base of the nail and overlaps the nail
plate
d) The nail folds: The folds of the skin located on the sides of the nail plate
e) The lunula: The white-colored half-moon-shaped area
f) The matrix: Part of the nail that is not visible, located underneath the cuticle, this is the area
responsible for the growth of the fingernail.
4. Gland
 is an organ that makes one or more substances such as hormone digestive juice, sweat, tear, saliva
or milk
 Integumentary systems have four types of exocrine glands, that secrete some type of substances
outside the cell and body
 These includes
a) Sudoriferous glands: sweat glands that are hollow, cylindrical under skin, that excrete sweat
through small opening at the skin surface
b) Sebaceous glands: very small tubular shaped glands in dermis which used to release oil in to the
hair follicle to help lubricate and protect the hair shaft, keeping it from becoming hard and brittle
c) Calumnious glands: located in ear canal and it produce ear wax (medically coined cerumen) for
protections
d) Mammary glands: In female, the gland functions to produce breast milk after giving birth
4.1.2. Functions of Integumentary Systems
The skin
 serving as an enclosing barrier and providing environmental protection,
 regulating temperature,
 producing pigment and vitamin D,
 Sensory perception and homeostasis
 contain many numbers of sense organ: sense of touch, temperature, pressure and pain
The hair
 insulate the human body
 It does this in two ways
  First it serves as a physical barrier between external cold air and the skin
 second it also traps warm air in between the skin and the hair, keeping the body warmer
The nail
 protecting the upper end of each finger and toe from injury
 also used for sensation with sense of touch
Glands
 to secret different chemicals
 Some types of glands are used to:
 excrete wastes  produce ear wax for protections
 cooling down the body  produce breast milk for feeding the baby
 release oil in to the hair follicle
4.1.3. Major Skin Diseases and Disorders
 Skin diseases include diseases caused by: bacterial infections, viral infections, fungal infections,
allergic reactions, skin cancers, and parasites
 There are many different types of skin disorders. Here is some list:
1) Acne
 a disease of the oil-secreting glands of the skin that often affects adolescents, producing
eruptions on the face, neck, and shoulders that can leave pitted scars
 Caused by when the pores of your skin become blocked with oil, dead skin or bacteria
 Commonly located on faces, neck, shoulders, chest, and upper back
 Its symptoms are: tips, large, solid, painful, and lump under the skin.
2) Rosacea
 Is a recurring inflammatory disorder of the skin of the nose, cheeks, and forehead that is
characterized by swelling, dilation of capillaries, pimples, and a reddened appearance
 Most commonly associated with redness
3) Eczema
 an inflammation of the skin characterized by reddening and itching and the formation of scaly
or crusty patches that may leak fluid
 Includes dryness and recurring skin rashes that characterized by redness, skin swelling, itching
and dryness, crusting, cracking or bleeding etc.
4) Hives
 Hives are itchy welts that are raised up from the normal layer of the skin
  It is frequently caused by allergic reactions in the body but it also caused by outside factors
such as stress, illnesses, or tight clothes.
5) Warts
 a small benign rough lump that grows, usually, on the hands, feet, or genitals
 It caused by viral infections especially by human papilloma virus (HPV)
 Can be treated with liquid nitrogen or medicated creams.
6) Cold sore
 a red, fluid-filled blister usually found near the mouth
 The sore itself is painful or delicate
 symptoms include itching or burning sensations on the site before the sore is visible
 caused by the herpes simplex virus, and there is no known cure for the virus
7) Carbuncle
 Caused by Staphylococcus aureus bacteria
 is a red, irritated lump underneath the skin
 can be nearly any size, and the lump quickly fills with pus and becomes swollen
 symptoms include: tiredness, itching on the site of the lump, and fever
 treated with antibiotics and antibacterial washes
8) Blister:
is a bubble of fluid under the skin. The clear, watery liquid inside a blister is called serum.
If the blister remains unopened, serum can provide natural protection for the skin beneath it.
Blisters exactly heal by:
 Wash hand and blister by soap warm water,
 Swap blister by iodine
 Sterilize clean, sharp needle with rubbing alcohol etc.
9) Actinic keratosis:
 is a rough, scaly patch on the skin that develops from years of sun exposure
 It’s often found on the face, lips, ears, forearms, scalp, neck or back of the hands.

10). Latex allergy:

 is a reaction to certain proteins found in natural rubber latex, a product made from the rubber tree
 May cause itchy skin and hives or even anaphylaxis, a potentially life-threatening condition that
can cause throat swelling and severe difficulty breathing.
10) Chickenpox:
 Consists of an itchy, red rash that breaks out on the face, scalp, chest, back and, to a lesser
extent, arms and legs
 The spots quickly fill with a clear fluid, rupture and then turn crusty.
 Chickenpox is an infection caused by the varicella-zoster virus.
4.2. Muscular System
 Muscles are tissues that composed of cells that are called muscle fibers
 Muscles can be used to perform different types of body movements like pumping blood,
stability, posture, digestions, circulations, breathing air in and out etc.
4.2.1. Components of Muscular System
There are three distinct components of muscular systems: skeletal muscles, cardiac or heart muscles,
and smooth (non-striated) muscles
1. Skeletal muscle
 Skeletal muscles are the only muscles that can be consciously or voluntarily controlled.
 They are contracting the muscles causes’ movement of those bones.
 Example: chewing, talking, facial expressions, drinking.
 They found attached to the end bone.
2. Smooth muscle
 Smooth muscle lines the inside of vital organ blood vessels, eye, air way and organs such as
the stomach, digestive, reproductive, urinary tracts, and others.
 Smooth muscle acts involuntarily and cannot be consciously controlled.
3. Cardiac muscle
 Located only in the heart, cardiac muscle pumps blood around the body by involuntary action.
 They are auto rhythmic.
 Cardiac muscle stimulates its own contractions that form our heartbeat.
4.2.2. Function of Muscular Systems
Properties Muscles
All muscles cells can share the different types of properties for functions and used commonly by
each muscles. Some of these properties are:-
1. Contractility: is the ability of muscle cells to forcefully shorten
2. Extensibility: is the power of the muscle to be stretched
3. Excitability: is ability of muscle to give response to stimuli which come from motor neuron
and hormone
4. Elasticity: it is the quality or state of being elastic and capability of strained body to recover
its size and shape after deformations.
Main functions of the muscular system
The main functions of the muscular system are as follows:
1. Mobility: to allow movement. When muscles contract, they contribute to gross and fine
movement.
 Gross movement refers to large, coordinated motions and includes: Walking, running and
swimming
 Fine movement involves smaller movements, such as: writing, speaking and facial
expressions
2. Stability: Muscle tendons stretch over joints and contribute to joint stability
3. Posture: Good posture relies on strong, flexible muscles.
4. Circulation: The heart is a muscle that pumps blood throughout the body.
5. Respiration: Breathing involves the use of the diaphragm muscle.
6. Digestion: Smooth muscles in the gastrointestinal or GI tract control digestion.
4.2.3. Major Muscle Disease and Disorders
 Muscle Disorders are the diseases that affect the human muscle system and their main
manifestation is skeletal muscle weakness.
 They can be caused by different types of factors and make the muscle weak and reduction of
its strengths.
 There are many disorders but some of these are:-
1. Muscular dystrophy
 A group of inherited diseases characterized by weakness and wasting away of muscle tissue,
with or without the breakdown of nerve tissue
 Its different types involving an eventual loss of strength, increasing disability, and possible
deformity.
2. Muscle strains
 A muscle strain is an injury to a muscle or a tendon the fibrous tissue that connects muscles
to bones.
 Sometimes called pulled muscles, strains commonly occur in the lower back and in the
muscles at the back of the thigh (hamstrings).
4.3. Skeletal System
4.3.1. Structural Components of Skeletal System
The skeletal system consists of components of bones and connective tissue, including cartilage,
tendons, and ligaments. It’s also called the musculoskeletal system.
A. Bone:
 It is mineralized connective tissue that contains collagen and other minerals like calcium
phosphate and mineral crystal.
 Because of calcium phosphate the bones are firmness, compact or spongy, provide and
protection of body’s organ.
 They are made up of living cells and so called living organs.
 An adult human skeleton contains 206 bones.
Types of bone
Bones are a major component of the skeletal system. Based on their shape bones can be divided
in to four major groups:-
1. Long bones: it is hard and compact, tubular filled with yellow bone marrow. E.g. Upper
and lower limb, arm, leg, finger, and thigh bones.
2. Short bone: are compact bones with chambers or partitions but without marrow. E.g.
wrist, finger, toes and ankle bone.
3. Flat bones: are thin, flat, compact and typically curved. They have no cavity or hollow.
E.g. ribs, sternum, cranial bone and scapula.
4. Irregular bones: they are typically thin membranes which have nerves and blood vessels
that nourish the bone. On their surface there are small holes for entry and exit of
materials in to and out of bone. E.g. hip bones, facial bones and vertebrae

Additionally bones are also divided into two major groups by based
on their positions.
1. Axial skeleton: That divides the body into equal right and left regions. They include skull,
hyoid, vertebral column, and thoracic cage.
 Skull: include bone of cranium, face, and ears (auditory ossicles).
 Hyoid: U-shaped bone in neck between larynx and chin
 Vertebral column: Include spinal vertebrae
 Thoracic cage: includes ribs and sternum (breast bone).
2. Appendicular Skeleton: It supports the limbs and connects them to the axial skeleton. It
composed of bones of the upper and lower limbs, pectoral girdles, and the pelvic girdle. The
main functions of this skeleton are body movements, protections of digestive, execratory and
reproductive organ systems.
Major components of appendicular skeletons are:
 Shoulder bones: The shoulder bones are composed of clavicle and scapula. The clavicle or
collar bone is connected to the sternum in front while the scapula bone is at the back. E.g.
pectoral girdle.
 Limbs or appendage: The fore limbs are the front limbs that refer to the arms, the forearms
and the hands. It consists of various types of bones such as Humerus (upper arms), Radius
(inner lower arms), Ulna (outer lower arms), Carpals (wrists), and Metacarpals (hands) and
Phalanges (fingers)
 Hip bones: This bone also called hip girdle and composed of two hip bones. E.g. pelvic
girdle
 Hind limbs: The hind limbs are the back limbs or appendages and consist of different bones.
These bones include: Femur (upper leg or thigh), Tibia and Fibula (lower legs or shin),
Patella (kneecap) Tarsals (ankles), Metatarsals (feet), and Phalanges (toes). E.g. lower limbs.
B. Cartilage: Cartilage provides flexible and elasticity structures support for certain structures
in adult humans, including the nose, trachea, and ears.
C. Tendon: It is a fibrous band of connective tissue that is bonded to bone and connects muscle
to bone.
D. Ligament: It is stretchy and flexible band of tissue which held together at the joints or in
between the bones of a joint and it is a firm rubbery tissue.
E. Joints: It is a site where two or more bones or other skeletal components are joined together.
It has two main jobs, which are keep bone far apart and to hold bone in place as they move or
rotate.
Types of joints
There are two different types of joints, namely immovable and movable joints.
1) Immovable joints: are fixed in place and do not move at all. E.g. skull.
2) Moving joints: permits to move up and down or twist and bend in some directions. It
grouped in to two. E.g. hinge joint, ball and socket joints.
 A hinge joint: it looks like a hinge on a door which permit the movements front and back in
a single direction. The joints that located on elbow, knee, fingers, and toes are the best
examples.
 A ball and socket joint: it made from the round end of one bone that fitting into a cup
shaped socket in another. These types of joints can permit movements in every direction. E.g.
shoulder and hips joints
4.3.2. Functions of Skeletal System
 Movements: Joints, connective tissue and muscles work together to make your body parts
mobile and transport from one place to the other places.
 Produces blood cells: the bone contains bone marrow. They are site of blood cell formation
(WBC and RBC) and occur in normal adult.
 Protection and supports: The skeletal systems mainly protect and support the body of an
organism. They also give the form and structure of the body.
 Storage substance: It stores different types of minerals, like mineral salt, calcium, fats in
bone marrow and calcium phosphate that is needed for blood clotting, nerve function, and
muscle activity.
4.3.3. Major Diseases of Skeletal System
 Leukemia: Leukemia is cancer of the body's blood-forming tissues, including the bone
marrow and the lymphatic system.
 Osteopenia, osteitis, deformans and osteomalacia: similar to osteoporosis, these are other
types of bones loss.
 Osteoporosis: Osteoporosis literally means ‘porous bone’. It is a condition where bones
become thin and lose their strength, as they become less dense and their quality is reduced.
 Osteoarthritis: is involving degradation of joints. Its symptom is joint pain, tenderness,
stiffness, locking and sometimes an effusion.
 Fracture: is in which there is a break in the continuity of the bone. It may be a partial or
complete break in the bone.
4.4. Digestive System
 Digestive system is a network of organs that digest and absorb nutrition from food.
 Digestion is the process in which the larger, complex, hard and insoluble food substances are
changed into smaller, simpler, easier and soluble by the action of the digestive organs.
 In the activity of digestion there are the involvements of different digestive enzymes and
digestive organs.
 The two types of digestion are physical and chemical digestions.
Physical digestion is breaking large pieces down into smaller pieces includes cutting
and gridding food molecules in mouth by teeth.
Chemical digestion is breaking large molecules (proteins, fats, starches, etc.) into small
molecules (amino acids, fatty acids, sugars, etc)
Functions of Digestive System:
 physical and chemical digestion
 absorption
 collect & eliminate non-useable components of food
4.4.1. Structural Components of Digestive System
 The digestive system is made up of the alimentary canal or several organs including: the
mouth, esophagus, stomach, small intestine, large intestines, and anus.
 It also has associated organs such as salivary glands, liver and pancreas.
 Mouth → pharynx→esophagus→stomach→ small intestine→ large intestine
1. Mouth(Buccal Cavity, Oral Cavity):
 It is the first anterior opening parts of the gut which contains teeth.
 Digestion begins in the mouth with mastication (chewing).
 In mouth both types of digestion physical (mechanical) and chemical digestion occurs.
2. Teeth:
 Teeth of humans and other animals are hard structures that grow from jaw bone.
 They are used to bite and chew food.
 Each tooth consists of crown, neck and root.
 The true human teeth are made up of three layers these are
a. Enamel: the outer layers, white and hardest substances in the body.
b. Dentine: is the living layer under the tooth enamel.
c. Pulp cavity: it is the central parts of the teeth that contains the living tissue with blood
vessels and nerves which supply the living tooth with nutrients
Longitudinal section of teeth
 Each tooth has a
1. Crown (above gum)
2. Neck is where crown, gum and root meet
3. Root (below gum)
Sets of teeth
Mammals have two sets of teeth in their life: milk teeth and permanent teeth
a) Milk teeth
In human the first set has 20 teeth is called milk teeth. These milk teeth are appear first but
loose and fall out when a child is about 6 years old and replaced by the second or
permanent teeth which is.
b) The permanent teeth not replaced when once decay or loose set 28 teeth have. When
person is around 20 – 25 years old, four additional back teeth grow called wisdom teeth.
This development and arrangement of teeth is known as dentition.
Types of teeth
Human have four types of teeth. These are:
A. Incisors (I):
 Chisel shaped and frontal teeth with sharp edge.
 They are four on each jaw and used for biting, cutting and grinding food.
B. Canines (C):
 is long, sharp, pointed edge and located beside incisors.
 They are two on each jaw.
 Used to tear, piercing food and it is prominent in predator organisms like lion.
C. Premolars (P):
 Located behind canines with relatively flat edge.
 They are four in each jaw.
 Used for chewing, crushing, or grinding food.
D. Molars (M):
 With wider and stronger ridges having depressions.
 There are six in each jaw.
 Their function is similar to premolars.
Dental formula
Dental formula is the representing of the number, type and arrangement of teeth.
 It shows the number and type of teeth in one half of the upper and lower jaws.
They listed as:- incisors (I), canines (C), premolar (P) and molar (M).
Therefore the dental formula of adult human is: I= 2/2, C= 1/1, P= 2/2, M= 3/3.
Therefore, the total number of teeth in a given mammal can be calculated.
First add the number of teeth in upper and lower jaws, and then multiply each jaw by two.
Finally, sum up the product.
4. Stomach:
 The stomach is a muscular bag that produces enzymes like pepsin for protein digestion.
 It also produces another solution which is called hydrochloric acid.
5. Small intestine:
The first section of small intestine which is called duodenum is used to join the food with
two liquids: bile and pancreatic enzymes.
The small intestine has much finger like projection which called villi for absorption of
digested food in to blood vessels.
Major functions of small intestine:
 most chemical digestion of food (duodenum)
 secretes hormones which direct secretion of digestive juices by stomach, gall bladder,
pancreas
 most absorption of digested foodstuffs (jejunum & ileum)
Digestion end product of:
 Protein is amino acids
 Butter (fat) is fatty acids and glycerol entering in to small intestine to store for short
times and absorptions in to blood.
6. Large intestine:
It is parts of alimentary canal between small intestine and anus.
Major functions of large intestine:
 Absorb additional water as needed by body and formation of faeces.
 Absorb small amount of additional nutrients some Vit-K and B’s made by bacteria in
large intestine
 collects, concentrates and rids body of undigested wastes
Accessory Organs of Digestive Tract
A. Liver
 is the largest gland in body, lies immediately under the diaphragm
receives blood from the Hepatic Artery and the Hepatic Portal Vein
blood leaving the liver enters the Hepatic Vein to the Vena Cava
Bile is made by the liver cells and stored in gall bladder until it is needed.
Bile leaves the liver through the Hepatic Bile Duct
Bile has two important jobs.
 Neutralize the acid from stomach and make the semi digested food alkaline
 Emulsifies the fats in the food, which means breakdown of fat in to smaller droplets.
B. Gall Bladder
 lies on undersurface of liver, 3-4” long and 1.5” wide
 liver produces 0.6 – 1.2L of bile/day
 can hold 30-50 ml of bile
C. Pancreas
The pancreas is an organ located in the abdomen.
most digestion is carried out by pancreatic enzymes
The pancreas has two main functions:
a) An exocrine function that helps in digestion
b) An endocrine function that regulates blood sugar.
D. Salivary glands
 Located in the oral cavity, salivary glands secrete saliva.
 Saliva contains some proteins and enzymes that lubricate the mouth and begin the
chemical digestion of food.
4.4.2. Major Diseases of Digestive System
1. Constipations
 If the faeces in the large intestine stay too long, too much water absorption will take place
and it cause constipations.
 The most common causes are lack of fiber food (roughage) and not drinking of enough
water. (Roughage:-fibrous indigestible material in vegetable foodstuffs
which aids the passage of food and waste products through the gut)
Prevention
 Eating food which has more roughage gives the gut muscle work on.
 Drinking sufficient amount of water.
2. Diarrhea
 It is also called watery faeces.
  It caused by an infectious of the gut and then the gut more contracts strongly and hardly
than the usual.
 It can cause dehydration.
Prevention
 Treat patients by giving enough water salt to replace the loss fluid.
 Stool examination and early treatment by the proper medicines.
3. Hemorrhoids
 Are swollen veins in your lower rectum
 Internal hemorrhoids are usually painless, but tend to bleed.
 External hemorrhoids may cause pain.
 Hemorrhoids also called piles are swollen veins in your anus and lower rectum.
Prevention
 To prevent hemorrhoids and reduce symptoms of hemorrhoids, eat high-fiber foods.
 Eat more fruits, vegetables and whole grains, drink plenty of fluids and do regular
exercise.
4. Gastritis
 Is an inflammation, irritation, or erosion of the lining of the stomach
 It can occur suddenly (acute) or gradually (chronic).
Prevention
 Gastritis can be prevented by avoiding known trigger foods, quitting smoking, managing and
reducing stress, avoiding alcohol, maintaining a healthy weight, avoiding abuse of over-the-
counter pain medications.
5. Peptic ulcer disease
 Peptic ulcer disease is a condition in which painful sores or ulcers develop in the lining of the
stomach or the first part of the small intestine.
 Normally, a thick layer of mucus protects the stomach lining from the effect of its digestive
juices.
Prevention
 In order to prevent peptic ulcer it is recommendable to avoid tobacco products and alcohol.
 Don’t ignore your ulcer symptoms.
 Protect yourself from infections by washing hands regularly and consuming foods that have
been cooked thoroughly.
4.5. Respiratory System
 Respiration is the chemical and physical process in which oxygen is delivered to tissues or
cells in an organism and carbon dioxide and water are given off external respiration
 Breathing is a process of bring oxygen into organism’s body (inhalation) and removal of the
waste carbon dioxide (exhalation) from the body to the environments.
 Respiration is divided into two parts.
1. The first part is breathing which involves inhaling and exhaling.
2. The second part is cellular respiration, which involves chemical reactions or burning of
food by oxygen that release energy from food.
4.5.1. Functions of Respiratory System
 Exchange of Gases between Lungs and Bloodstream
 Supplies the body with oxygen and disposes of carbon dioxide
 Filter inspired airs
 Produces sound
 Clears the body from excess water and heat
 Control blood PH
4.5.2. Structural Components of Respiratory System
Organs of breathing includes: nose, pharynx, larynx, trachea, bronchi, bronchioles, alveoli, lung
etc.
 Nose: The human respiratory systems have nose with large surface area, good blood supply,
lots of hair and mucus.
 The hair: filter out dust particles and pathogens from inhaled air.
 The large surface area: used to moist the air and increases the humidity of the air.
 The mucus: filter inhaled air and collects bacteria and dust particles.
 Good blood supply: helps to warm the air that we inhale into the body.
 Pharynx- is the membrane-lined cavity behind the nose and mouth, connecting them to the
esophagus.
 Larynx- the hollow muscular organ forming an air passage to the lungs and holding the
vocal cords in humans and other mammals.
 Trachea- a large membranous tube reinforced by rings of cartilage, extending from the
larynx to the bronchial tubes.
 Bronchus- any of the major air passages of the lungs that diverge from the windpipe or
trachea.
 Bronchioles: are smaller tubes branching from each bronchus in the lung.
 Alveoli- are any of the many tiny air sacs in the lungs where the exchange of oxygen and
carbon dioxide takes place.
 Lung- is to provide a place where oxygen can reach the blood and carbon dioxide be
removed. The shape of the lung can be controlled by the relaxation and contraction of the
diaphragm and intercostal muscle.
4.5.3. Major Diseases of Respiratory System
Respiratory diseases range from mild and self-limiting, such as the common cold, influenza, and
pharyngitis to life-threatening diseases such as bacterial pneumonia, pulmonary embolism,
tuberculosis, acute asthma, lung cancer, and severe acute respiratory syndromes, such as
COVID-19
 Asthma- it is the chronic lung disease or disorders that are marked by recurring episodes of
airway obstruction manifested by labored breathing. It accompanied especially by wheezing
and coughing and by a sense of constriction in the chest and that is triggered by hyper
reactivity to various stimuli.
 Sinusitis- it is a pain full swelling of the tissues inside the sinus or nose. It can be due to
infections, allergies, or autoimmune problems. It is also an inflammation of the mucous
membrane that lines the Para nasal sinuses.
 Influenza- is a viral infection that attacks your respiratory system your nose, throat and
lungs. Commonly called the flu, but it’s not the same as stomach “flu” viruses that cause
diarrhea and vomiting.
 Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease or COPD: - refers to a group of diseases that cause
airflow blockage and breathing-related problems. It includes emphysema and chronic
bronchitis. Mainly it can be caused by smoking cigarette.
 Bronchitis: is an inflammation of the lining of your bronchial tubes, which carry air to and
from your lungs.
4.6. Circulatory System
 Circulatory system is the systems of transports substances in the body of an organism.
 Mainly these systems are used to transport air, food, mineral, vitamin, and other liquid
materials and solutions between cells in the body.
 They also used to transport the waste materials in order to remove in to the outside.
Types of blood circulation in human being
 There are two different types of blood circulation systems which are so called double
circulations. These are:-
1. Systematic circulations: blood flows between hearts and other body parts.
2. Pulmonary circulations: the blood flows between only heart and lungs.
4.6.1. Functions of Circulatory System
 Circulates oxygen and removes Carbon Dioxide
 Provides cells with nutrients.
 Removes the waste products of metabolism to the excretory organs for disposal.
 Protects the body against disease and infection.
 Clotting stops bleeding after injury.
4.6.2. Components of Circulatory System
 Blood circulation systems consist of the three elements that are: heart, blood vessel and
blood.
A) Heart
 It is the muscular blood pumping organ which made from involuntary muscles which is
called cardiac muscle.
 The left side of the heart always pumps oxygenated blood while the right side of the heart
receives the deoxygenated blood.
 Heart has four chambers.
1. Right atrium: upper parts of the heart and carry deoxygenated blood to lung. It has thin wall.
2. Left atrium: it is also the upper parts of the heart. It used to receive oxygenated blood from
lung and pump to left ventricle.
3. Right ventricle: lower chamber and pumps deoxygenated blood in to the lung.
4. Left ventricles: it pumps the blood at long distance of the body because of these it has
thicker and muscular walls.
Valves
 Valves are the structures that used to prevent the back flow of the blood.
Pathway of oxygenated blood flow: Lung --------- Pulmonary Vein---------- Left Atrium
---------- Left Ventricle -------- Aorta ----------- body tissue
Pathway of deoxygenated blood flow: body --------- venacava --------- right atrium ---- right
ventricle------ pulmonary artery ----- lung
B) Blood vessel
 They are the pathway through which transportation of substances take place in the body.
Based on their functions there are three major groups of blood vessels.
1. Artery: used to carry blood away from the heart in to different body parts. They have thick
and elastic wall. Except pulmonary artery and umbilical artery all artery carry oxygenated
blood.
2. Vein: used to return the blood back to the heart. Most of them carry deoxygenated blood
except pulmonary vein and umbilical vein.
3. Capillaries: used to connect artery and vein and carry blood to the tissues and cells. They are
narrow and thin wall blood vessel.
C) Blood
 The blood is one of the three elements of circulations.
 It is a fluid tissue that used to carry nutrients, respiratory gases, metabolic wastes and other
substances.
 Blood made from 45% solid and 55% liquid which is called plasma.
 The liquid parts of the blood plasma are composed of 90% water and the remaining 10% is
dissolved substances such as amino acid and glucose.
 The solid part of the blood is made from the three types of blood cell.
1. Red blood cells (erythrocytes): are disc shape, non-nucleated, and used to transport oxygen
and carbon dioxide in human body. They are smaller and 6.2-8.2 μm in diameters. Have red
pigmented substances called hemoglobin which carry oxygen in the blood.
2. White blood cells (leucocytes): are colorless, irregular shaped and nucleated. These cells are
12-17 μm in diameters larger than RBC. They used to prevent the body from disease causing
pathogens.
3. Platelets (thrombocytes): are colorless and non-nucleated. They have 2-3μm in diameter
and have biconvex shape. They are important for inciting the blood clotting when blood
vessel is cut or damage.
4.6.3. Major Diseases of Circulatory System
There are different types of disease or disorders which affect the human circulation systems.
Some of the diseases are:
1. Hypertensions:
It is also called high blood pressures
Caused by: age, obesity, high salt consumption, drug addiction, stress, kidney problem,
diabetes, etc.
 It can treat by:
 Less consumption of salt and fat,
 Regular exercise,
 Avoiding the use of drugs,
 Regularly checkup in nearest clinic etc.
2. Heart attack:-
also called a myocardial infarction
Occurs when blood stops flowing to a part of the heart and the heart muscle is injured
because of not receiving enough oxygen.
3. Strokes:-
A stroke occurs when the blood supply to part of your brain is interrupted or reduced,
preventing brain tissue from getting oxygen.
4. Heart failure:-
Is a chronic, progressive condition in which the heart muscle is unable to pump enough
blood to meet the body’s needs for blood and oxygen.
4.7. Reproductive System
 Reproduction is the production of offspring or new individuals through a sexual or asexual
process
4.7.1. Male and Female Reproductive Organs
A. Male reproductive organ
 The human male reproductive system consists of the testes and other sex organs like penis,
scrotum, vas deferens, urethra, prostate glands, and Cowper’s glands.
Functions of Male Reproductive Structures
 Testes: are two male reproductive glands. In addition to sperm cells, testes produce the sex
hormone, testosterone.
 Penis: is an erectile cylindrical organ for sexual intercourse during which it ejaculates semen
(sperm cells and fluid).
 Scrotum: a sac-like structure on the lower end of the penis.
 Epididymis: It stores sperm cells for maturation.
 Vas deferens or (sperm ducts): is a long tube extending from each epididymis to the urethra
for transportation of sperm cells and fluid.
 Sperm: is a mass of male reproductive cells produced by the testis.
B. Female reproductive organ
 It consists of ovary and other structures such as vagina, uterus, fallopian tube, cervix, clitoris,
and vulva.
Function of Female Reproductive Structures
 Ovaries: are two female reproductive glands made up of follicle cells, called graafian follicle
to produce ova or egg cells and sex hormones.
 Vagina: used for sexual intercourse and serves as birth canal.
 Fallopian tube (oviduct): is a narrow tube from the ovary to uterus for movement of an egg
and fertilization. It is a site for fertilization.
 Uterus (womb): is wide muscular tube for implantation of the fertilized egg and
development of an embryo. It is a site for pregnancy.
 Cervix: is a ring of muscles at the lower end of the uterus. It opens at the time of
menstruation and child birth.
 Clitoris: an erectile and sensitive tissue like a penis.
 Vulva: is the external genital of the female reproductive system.
Sexual characteristics
 Sexual characteristics are physical traits of an organism (typically of a sexually dimorphic
organism) which are indicative of or resultant from biological sexual factors.
 These include both primary sex characteristics and secondary sex characteristics.
a) Primary sexual characteristics:
Are those that are present at birth, are being of maleness and femaleness.
They include internal and external sex organs which are present in babies at the time of their
birth.
 The primary sexual characteristics in males are testes, penis, and seminal vesicles.
 The primary sexual characteristics in females are ovaries, oviduct, uterus, vagina etc.
b) Secondary sexual characteristics are the sexual characteristics controlled by hormones
which distinguish between sexually mature males and female but are not directly involved in
reproduction.
Secondary sexual characteristics of male
 Whole body undergoes the adolescence  Shoulder and chest broaden.
growth spurt and become tall.  Penis enlarges & its skin of penis and
 Growth of pubic hair, body hair, and facial hair. scrotum becomes darken.
 Larynx enlarges and cause voice deepens.  Testis begins to produce sperm cell.
 Developed more muscles.  Look beyond their family.
 Adolescents become more questioning and  Feel young and insecure, confused and
independents. angry.
Secondary sexual characteristics of female
 Developments in height and whole body  Widening of hips.
structure.  Voice becomes thinner.
 Hair grow around pubic and armpits.  Egg matured and start of menstruations.
 Breast developments.  Feeling of independent and questioning.
4.7.2. Menstruation
 The menstrual cycle is a sequence of events which takes place approximately every four
weeks throughout the fertile life of women, which is from the age of puberty to around 50
years of age.
 At puberty stage of female the FSH hormone from pituitary gland in brain start the ova to
develop. FSH also make ovary to produce female hormone estrogen.
 Estrogen stimulates the uterus to build up thick, spongy lining with enough of blood vessel
ready to support a pregnancy.
 About 14 days before the ova start ripening, one of them burst out of its follicle. This process
is called ovulation. After ovulation the hormone level begin to reduce. The remaining of
follicle forms the corpus luteum (yellow body) which secret hormone called progesterone.
 Progesterone keeps the thick, spongy wall and makes more blood vessels, ready to receive
fertilized ovum.
 If pregnancy does not occur about ten days after ovulation, estrogen and progesterone level
decrease blood vessel which built on uterus wall close down and discharged through vagina
in the form of blood which is called menstruation.
 After around the age of 50 years the women stop ovulation and menstruation cycle. This
phenomenon is called menopause.
 Menopause: - stopping of menstruation and ovulation in female.
 Ovulation: - movements of egg from ovary to fallopian tubes.
4.7.3. Reproductive Health
 Reproductive health is the physical, mental, and social health status of an individual related
to reproductive system at all stages of life.
 The problems include female genital mutilation, early marriage, rape, illegal abortion and
sexually transmitted infections.
Sexually transmitted diseases
 Are the diseases that can be transmitted from infectious person to healthy person during
sexual contact.
 Some of these diseases are:
1. HIV/AIDS
 HIV (Human Immunodeficiency Virus) is the virus that causes the disease AIDS or Acquired
Immune Deficiency Syndrome. So far, for this disease, caused by HIV and those damages
the immune system white blood cell specially T-cell, there is no cure or vaccine.
 Basically, the high-risk groups include homosexual men and women, intravenous drug users,
sex workers, and hemophiliacs; as well as the sexual partners of persons in these groups.
 HIV virus mainly transmitted from infected to healthy person by four ways.
 These are during breast milk, sharing of contaminated needles, unprotected sexual
intercourse and from infected mother to baby during birth.
Prevention
 Biological knowledge is quite important for controlling the spread of HIV/AIDS.
 Producing vaccine, creating awareness in the community about the issues related to
responsible sexual behavior.
 The most effective method is abstain from sex before marriage are the use of ABC rules
that are:
 A =abstain from sex
 B =be faithful to one sexual partner
 C =condomise
2. Gonorrhea
 Gonorrhea are the other types of STDs and caused by bacterium which called Neisseria
gonorrhea.
 These bacteria are found on mucus area of body such as vagina, penis, throat and rectum.
 It transmitted during unsafe sexual intercourse.
Symptoms
 The symptoms are may appear after a week and it is burning sensation during urination and
yellowish discharges from reproductive organ.
 If pregnant women are not treated, gonorrhea transmitted to her bay and cause blindness.
Preventions
 At the early stage it can be treated by the use of antibiotics.
 Remove sexual intercourse after infected until completely treatment.
 But the effective prevention methods are the respect of ABC methods.
3. Chancroids
 It is a disease which caused by Hemophilus ducreyi bacteria.
 Chancroid is the most common types of disease for men.
 It increased risk of HIV/ AIDS.
Symptoms
 Its symptoms are occurs in two stages of first and second stage.
 These are ulcer elation on reproductive organs, bleeding and painful of ulcers, swollen gland
filled with pus, and may cause of loss of penis or groin.
Prevention
 In first stage it prevented by the use of antibiotics but in addition to this it prevented by: good
sanitation mechanisms, accepting and using of ABC rules, appropriate use of drugs which are
prescribed and check up in clinic.
4. Syphilis
 It is one of the most too dangerous STDs.
 It caused by bacterium called Treponema palladium.
 It is common for the adult age of human.
 It transmitted by unsafe sexual intercourse.
 It also transmitted from mother to her fetus.
Symptoms
 The symptoms of syphilis have different stages.
 At the first stage, there is painless sore on penis, vagina, mouth and rectum.
 At the second stage, tiredness, fever, sore on throat, headaches, loss of appetite, etc.
 Finally change to irreversible problems, like illness of skin, bone, brain, and other organ.
Preventions
 The prevention methods of syphilis are the same as to the other prevention methods of
sexually transmitted disease.

UNIT FIVE
5. Ecosystem and conservation of natural resources
5.1. Ecosystem and Interactions
5.1.1. Definition and Components of Ecosystem
What is an ecosystem?
 Ecosystem is a community or group of living organisms that live in and interact with each
other in a specific environment. It contains both biotic and abiotic components.
 It is a structural and functional unit of ecology
Ecology is the study of the relationships between living organisms and their physical
environment.
Components of an ecosystem
An ecosystem has two major components are biotic and abiotic.
1. Biotic components:
 These components include all living organisms living in particular ecosystems like plant,
animal, bacteria, algae etc.
 Biotic components can be classified into three categories:
a) Producers: include all the autotrophs. They use light energy and synthesize food on their
own, e.g. plants, green algae, etc.
b) Consumers: include all the heterotrophs that directly or indirectly depend on producers for
their food. Consumers are further categorized as herbivores, carnivores, omnivores and
parasites.
c) Decomposers: include saprophytes which act on dead matter and decay them for their
nutrition.
2. Abiotic components
 Abiotic components are the physical and/or the chemical factors that act on the living
organisms at any part of their life. These are also called as the ecological factors.
 The physical and chemical factors are characteristic of the environment.
 The abiotic factors vary from ecosystem to ecosystem.
In an aquatic ecosystem, the abiotic factors may include water pH, sunlight, turbidity,
water depth, salinity, available nutrients and dissolved oxygen.
Similarly, abiotic factors in terrestrial ecosystems can include soil, soil types, temperature,
rain, altitude, wind, nutrients, sunlight, Land topography, etc.
Biological interaction
 Biological interaction is the effect that a pair of organisms living together in a community
have on each other.
 The interaction may be intraspecific or interspecific
1. Intra-specific interaction: occurs between the same species. These may be for competition
for food, territory, and for finding mate. E.g. lion and lion, birds with birds for food.
2. Inter-specific interaction: These are the interaction between one group of species with the
other group of species for various numbers of purpose. E.g. hyena and lion.
Predators: predator animals like hyena feed on others animals prey like cow.
Symbiosis
 Symbiosis is any type of biological association between two organisms that interact.
 The association could be:
 Beneficial to both,
 Beneficial to one without benefiting or harming the other
 Beneficial to one and harmful to the other.
 There are different types of symbiosis or biological interactions.
These includes
A. Mutualism: the relationships in which both organisms are get benefitted and it is an
obligatory relationship. E.g. fungi and algae, cow and some birds. Fungus digests dead body
to release chemicals and algae do photosynthesis.
B. Commensalism:- in this relationship one organism is get benefit while the other is neither
benefited nor harmed. E.g. big tree and epiphytes.
C. Parasitism:- the relations in which one organism is benefited (the parasite) and the other is
harmed (host). E.g. relation between human and tape worms.
D. Proto-cooperation:-the relation in which both organisms are benefitted but it is not
obligatory relationships. E.g. between teeth cleaning birds and crocodile.
E. Competition:-two populations compete for resources indirectly by efficient exploitation or
directly by physical forces. In this both populations are harmed. E.g. sport man
5.1.2. Trophic (Feeding) Relationships
Based on the mode of nutrition living organisms can be grouped in to two major groups namely
autotrophs and heterotrophs organisms.
1. Autotrophs: are organisms which can synthesize their own energy from the raw materials in
their surrounding environments. They also classified as
A) Photo autotrophs: - use sunlight for primary sources of energy to synthesize organic food
materials. Also called producers because they are source of food for other. E.g. green plants,
algae and photosynthetic bacteria.
B) Chemoautotrophs:-these type of organisms release energy from simple chemical reactions.
E.g. nitrifying bacteria.
2. Heterotrophs: cannot make foods & feed on other organisms so called consumers. They are
herbivores, carnivores, decomposer or omnivores.
5.1.3. Food Chain and Food Web
Food chains
 A food chain is the direct and simple feeding systems that involve the transfer of nutrient
and energy.
 In food chain the energy flows from one organism to the other organisms in one direction
autotrophs (producer) to heterotrophs (consumers).
 In the food chain each organisms occupies specific trophic level.
1. Producer (first trophic level):- all organisms directly or indirectly depend on first trophic
level. Sun is the main source of energy for all food chain.
2. Primary consumers (second trophic level): it contains herbivores and omnivores. They
feed on producers.
3. Secondary consumers (third trophic level): they are carnivores that mainly eat herbivores
and omnivores.
4. Tertiary consumers (fourth trophic level):- they are carnivores and mostly feed on other
carnivores.
Examples;- The wheat(producer) produce food by photosynthesis is eaten by goat. Then the goat
eaten by tigers, the tiger also eaten by lion
Wheat goat tiger
lion
1sttrophic level 2ndtrophic level 3rdtrophic level
4thtrophic level
Producer primary secondary
tertiary
Consumer consumers’
consumers
Food web
 Food web is too complex feeding interrelation among the organisms which consists of many
food chains.
5.1.4. Trophic Pyramids
 Pyramid is the diagram that used to express the amounts of organisms presents in each
trophic level.
 It can be used to express the number of biomass, amount of energy and number of organisms
in the trophic level.
A) Pyramid of numbers:
  It shows the total number of individual organisms at each level in the food chain of an
ecosystem
 It can be upright or inverted.
B) Pyramid of biomass:
 It provides more accurate representation of the energy contents at each trophic level.
 It shows the mass of producers that are needed to support primary consumers, the mass of
primary consumers required to support secondary consumers, and so on.
 Biomass is the total mass of dry organic matter.
 A pyramid of biomass shows the mass - in grams or kilograms - of the population of the
trophic levels in a food chain.
 It can be upright or inverted.
C) Pyramid of energy:- also known as a trophic or ecological pyramid,
 is a graphical representation of the energy found within the trophic levels of an ecosystem.
 The energy can be flow not recycled because its main sources are the sun and then energy
cannot be returned to the sun.
 As you move up the pyramid, through the trophic levels to primary, secondary and tertiary
consumers, the amount of energy decreases and the levels become smaller.
 Energy is lost at each trophic level due to:
 Incomplete consumption
 Incomplete digestion
 Loss of heat energy to the environment during respiration
 Excretion of the waste products of metabolism e.g. carbon dioxide, water, and urea
5.1.5. Nutrient Cycles and Energy Flow
 Living organisms require different kinds of chemical elements like nitrogen, oxygen, carbon,
hydrogen etc. for their metabolic and biological processes.
 The cyclic of elements from environment to organism and back to environment are called
nutrient cycle.
A. Nitrogen cycle
 The nitrogen cycle is a repeating cycle of processes during which nitrogen moves through
both living and non-living things: the atmosphere, soil, water, plants, animals and bacteria.
 This atmospheric nitrogen must convert to ammonia (NH3) (pungent gas: a colorless
pungent gas that is highly soluble in water.
 Use: refrigerant, manufacture of fertilizers, explosives, and plastics) and nitrates by
chemical synthesis especially by decomposers.
 Producers use oil nitrates to synthesis protein for the consumers.
The process of nitrogen cycle
Many of the process are carried out by microbes either to produce energy or to accumulate
nitrogen in the form needed for growth.
1. Nitrogen fixation:-Decomposers can break down protein in which is found in wastes and in
dead body of plant and animals in to ammonium compounds. Then it oxidized in to nitrates
which return in to soil by nitrifying bacteria.
2. Ammonification: - when plant and animal die or from their waste, the organic nitrogen is
convert to ammonium by decomposers. The processes are called ammonification or
mineralization.
3. Nitrification: - conversion of ammonia to nitrates by soil living bacteria. These are the
oxidation of ammonia by nitrosomonas bacteria in to nitrites (NO 2). Then also there is
oxidation of nitrite in to nitrates (NO 3) by nitrobacter bacteria. The nitrate is usable forms of
nitrogen by plants.
4. De-nitrification:-is reduction of nitrate back to inert nitrogen gas (N 2) completing the
nitrogen cycle. This process is performed by pseudomonas and clostridium bacterial species
in anaerobic conditions.
B. Oxygen cycle
 Oxygen cycle refers to the movement of oxygen through the atmosphere (air), biosphere
(plants and animals) and the lithosphere (the earth’s crust).
 The oxygen cycle demonstrates how free oxygen is made available in each of these regions,
as well as how it is used.
 The main driving factors of the oxygen cycle are the process of photosynthesis which has
responsible for life.
Stages of the Oxygen Cycle
 The steps involved in the oxygen cycle are:
1. All green plants during the process of photosynthesis, release oxygen back into the
atmosphere as a by-product.
2. All aerobic organisms use free oxygen for respiration.
3. Animals exhale Carbon dioxide back into the atmosphere which is again used by the plants
during photosynthesis. Now oxygen is balanced within the atmosphere.
4. Carbon cycle
 Carbon is released back into the atmosphere when organisms die, volcanoes erupt, fires
blaze, fossil fuels are burned, and through a variety of other mechanisms.
 It is one of the most important cycles of the earth and allow for the most abundant elements
to be recycled and reused throughout the biosphere and all of its organisms.
 In carbon cycles, carbon move from atmosphere to plants, from plant to animal, from plant
and animal to soil, from living thing to atmosphere and from atmosphere to ocean.
 There are six main processes in the carbon cycle: photosynthesis, respiration, exchange,
sedimentation, extraction, and combustion.
Carbon Cycle Steps
Following are the main steps that are involved in the process of the carbon cycle:
1. Carbon present in the atmosphere is absorbed by plants for photosynthesis.
2. These plants are then consumed by animals, and carbon gets bio accumulated into their
bodies.
3. When the plants and animals die and they are decomposed, carbon is released back into the
atmosphere.
4. Some of the carbon that’s not released back to the atmosphere eventually becomes fossil
fuels.
5. These fossil fuels are then used for man-made activities, which pumps more carbon back to
the atmosphere.
5. Hydrogen cycle
 The hydrogen cycle begins with the evaporation of water from the surface of the ocean.
 The hydrogen cycle consists of hydrogen exchanges between biotic (living) and abiotic (non-
living) sources and sinks of hydrogen-containing compounds.
6. Water cycle
 Water cycle is the continuous movements of water on above and below the surface of the
earth.
 The water cycle is also known as the “hydrologic cycle”
 It never stops; it does not have a beginning or an end.
 Water can change its states among liquid (water), vapor (gas), and solid (ice) at various
places in the water cycle.
 The water evaporates and turns to clouds. It falls down in the form of rain, snow or ice.
 The water that flow into river and streams eventually flows back in to the oceans.
 From the ocean it evaporates back in to clouds and starts the whole cycle over again and
becomes rain.
 There are four main parts to the water cycle: Evaporation, Convection, Precipitation and
Collection.
1) Evaporation: Evaporation is when the sun heats up water in rivers or lakes or the ocean and
turns it into vapor or steam. The water vapor or steam leaves the river, lake or ocean and goes
into the air.
2) Convection: Convection in the water cycle is when the air near the surface is heated, then
rises taking heat with it. Water vapor in the air gets cold and changes back into liquid,
forming clouds. This is called condensation.
3) Precipitation: occurs when so much water has condensed that the air cannot hold it
anymore. The clouds get heavy and water falls back to the earth in the form of rain, hail, sleet
or snow.
4) Collection/Storage: The Earth stores water in a number of places.
5.2. Conservation of Natural Resources
 Natural resources are resources that are drawn from nature and used with few modifications
 Example: oil, coal, natural gas, metals, stone and sand.
 It grouped in to two namely renewable and non-renewable.
1. Renewable natural resources: are capable of being produced, reused and replaced e.g.
vegetation, animal.
2. Nonrenewable resources: are cannot be easily made or produced if they are used once. e.g.
petroleum, coal.
Difference between Renewable and Non-Renewable Resources
Renewable resource Non-renewable resource
 It can be renewed as it is available  Once completely consumed, it cannot be renewed
in infinite quantity due to limited stock
 Sustainable in nature  Exhaustible in nature
 Low cost and environment-friendly  High cost and less environment-friendly
 Replenish quickly  Replenish slowly or do not replenish naturally at
all
What is conservation of natural resources?
 Conservation is the care and protection of natural resources so that they can persist for
future generations.
 If the natural resources is not conserved and not managed their number reduces and finally
become extinct.
5.2.1. Soil
 Soil is the loose surface material that covers most land.
 It consists of inorganic particles and organic matter.
 Soil is a mixture of broken rocks and minerals, living organisms, air, water and decaying
organic matters which called humus.
 Soils are home to myriad micro-organisms that fix nitrogen and decompose organic matter,
and armies of microscopic animals as well as earthworms and termites.
Types of soil
 There are three common types of soil namely: loam, sandy and clay soil.
A) Loamy Soil
 It is a combination of sand, silt and clay such that the beneficial properties of each are
included.
 It has the ability to retain moisture and nutrients; hence, it is more suitable for farming.
 This soil is also referred to as agricultural soil
 It has higher calcium and pH levels because of its inorganic origins.
 Drought resistant due to water-holding capacity
 Faster to warm up in the spring, compared to clay
 Can hold nutrients, making soils fertile
 Good infiltration of air and water
B) Sandy Soil
 This type of soil is dry, light, and gritty and does not hold water well.
 It is the poorest types of soil for growing plants because it has very low nutrients and poor
water holding capacity, which makes it hard for the plant’s roots to absorb water.
 This type of soil is very good for the drainage system.
 Sandy soil is usually formed by the breakdown or fragmentation of rocks like granite,
limestone and quartz.
C) Clay Soil
 Clay is the smallest particle among the other two types of soil.
 The particles in this soil are tightly packed together with each other with very little or no
airspace.
 This soil has very good water storage qualities and makes it hard for moisture and air to
penetrate into it.
 It is very sticky to the touch when wet but smooth when dried.
 Clay is the densest and heaviest type of soil which does not drain well or provide space for
plant roots to flourish.
Physical and chemical property of soil
Physical properties of soil
 Physical properties of soil include color, texture, structure, porosity, density, consistence,
aggregate stability, and temperature.
Soil horizon
 A soil horizon is a layer parallel to the soil surface whose physical, chemical and biological
characteristics differ from the layers above and beneath.
 Horizons are defined in many cases by obvious physical features, mainly color, root quantity,
pH, structure, size and texture.
 Humus is the biochemical substance that makes the upper layer of the soil become dark.
Soil texture
 It refers to the size distribution of the mineral particles found in a representative sample of
soil.
 Soil texture (such as loam, sandy loam or clay) refers to the proportion of sand, silt and clay
sized particles that make up the mineral fraction of the soil
 The soil’s ability to retain water is strongly related to particle size. So, sandy soils have
relatively poor ability to hold water.
 Soils that are high in clay content can hold relatively large amounts of water for extended
periods of time. Because clay-rich soils have the largest pore space, hence the greatest total
water holding capacity.
 Silt is intermediate in its water holding properties.
Soil fertility
 Soil fertility is the ability to sustain plant growth by providing essential plant nutrients and
favorable chemical, physical and biological characteristics.
 A loam soil contains more nutrients, moisture, and humus and has better drainage of water
air, and is easier to till. It is suitable for growing plants. So it is the most fertile soil.
 The major causes to soil fertility decline are a land degradation which is caused through the
different agents such as soil erosion, deforestation, overgrazing, sedimentation, continuous
 farming and pollution.
Key soil functions
 Food and other biomass production
 Medium for plant growth
 Environmental Interaction: storage, filtering, and transformation
 Biological habitat and gene pool
 Source of raw materials
 Physical and cultural heritage
 Platform for man-made structures: buildings, highways
Soil conservations
 Soil conservation is a set of management strategy for prevention of soil being eroded from
the earth’s surface or becoming chemically altered.
 It can do through the use of various methods. Some are:-
1. Afforestation: - it also called reforestation as tree grow tall, it also keep rooting deeper in to
the soil.
2. Terracing: - it is very good methods of soil conservations and leveling section of a hilly
cultivated area.
3. Contour ploughing: - it is a method of ploughing across the contour line of a slop.
4. Crop rotation: - is growing of dissimilar crops.
5.2.2. Water
 It is the main constituent of living cell and also used as a habitat for most organisms.
 Water used as universal solvents so it used for metabolic reactions.
 It has cooling effect, temperature regulation, lubricating body, transport food, hormone,
waste product etc.
 It helps for hydrolysis reaction, osmoregulation and removal of wastes.
 Animals need water for drinking, washing and living and as sources of oxygen.
 Water also used for plants to manufacturing of food and rigidity.
Water pollution
 Water pollution is the contamination of water sources by substances which make the water
unusable for drinking, cooking, cleaning, swimming, and other activities.
The Causes of Water Pollution
 Industrial Waste
 Marine Dumping
  Increased human activity,
 Agricultural and industrial wastes
 Sewage, garbage and pathogens
Impact of water pollution
 Toxic chemicals like mercury and lead, salts like phosphorous compounds etc are not broken
down inside living things. They build up in tissues of aquatic organisms.
 When human eat this organisms lead is stored in liver, kidney and damage nervous systems.
Finally they cause severe birth abnormality.
 Domestic wastes may contain urine, faces, viruses and bacteria. It transmitted the disease of
cholera, typhoid, and others for living organisms.
Water Conservation
Water must be conserved by the use of various methods for the continuity of life on earth. Some
of these methods are:-
1. Cover vegetation
2. Contour ploughing
3. Terracing
4. Building artificial mechanical barriers, check dams prevent running off.
5. Preventing water pollution by educating people and formulating water policy.
Ground water is water that found under the ground. This water must be conserved by different
methods. Some are by
 Use native plants in your landscape. They look great, and don’t need much water or fertilizer
 Use fewer chemicals around your home and make sure to dispose of them properly - don’t
dump them on the ground.
 Properly dispose of potentially toxic substances like unused chemicals, pharmaceuticals,
paint, motor oil, and other substances.
 Get involved in water education! Learn more about groundwater and share your knowledge
with others.
 Keeping it safe from contamination
 Using it wisely by not wasting it.
5.2.3. Air
 Air is made up of 78.09% nitrogen, 0.93% argon, 0.04% carbon dioxide, and other gases in
very small amounts.
 Air comprises almost 21% oxygen.
 Water vapor is also a constituent of air in varying amounts along with dust particles.
 The required gas for breathing and respiration are also found in the air.
Carbon Dioxide
 Carbon dioxide is a trace gas with a concentration of just about 0.04%.
 Carbon dioxide is produced through respiration and also through the decomposition of
organic materials.
 It is also produced through some natural sources like geysers, volcanoes, burning of fossil
fuel, deforestation, and hot springs.
 During the combustion of petroleum and natural gases, carbon dioxide is evolved. CO2 is
used in food industry as an additive in order to regulate acidity.
 Carbon dioxide is a great choice for use in soda products as it easily absorbs into a liquid
including soft drinks to forms tiny bubbles.
 The CO2 also serves as a protective measure that keeps the soft drink fresh and prevents the
growth of bacteria in the liquid while stored.
Oxygen
 Oxygen is the most important chemical element of air.
 Oxygen is a highly reactive gas which readily forms bonds known as oxides with other
elements.
 It is also highly combustible (quick to catch fire).
 Oxygen plays a critical role in respiration
 We humans, along with many other creatures, need oxygen in the air we breathe to stay alive.
 Oxygen is generated during photosynthesis by plants and many types of microbes.
Nitrogen
 The most abundant, pure component of air is nitrogen with a concentration of around 78%.
 Nitrogen is produced through a process called nitrogen fixation which is a continuous cycle
between the living organisms and the atmosphere.
 It is also produced in industries by fractional distillation of air in its liquid form.
Water Vapor
 The water vapor concentration in the atmosphere varies from about 0.01% to 3% depending
upon the temperature.
 When we respire we also release some amount of water vapor.
 In many chemical reactions, water vapor is evolved as a by-product.
 Apart from carbon dioxide and methane, water vapor also contributes to the greenhouse
effect as it absorbs and emits radiations.
 Water vapor is used as steam which helps in cooking and also in producing energy.
Effects of Air Pollution
Air pollution can cause different forms of effects on living and non-living things. Some are:
1. Global warming:-it is the rising of temperatures on the surface of earth as a result of
accumulation of greenhouse gas like carbon dioxide.
2. Global dimming:- is worldwide blockage or reduction of sunlight from reaching the earth’s
surface as a result of unborn hydrocarbon released in to the air.
3. Acid rain:-it caused by release of toxic substance in to the air like sulphuric and nitrogen
oxide from factories and vehicles.
4. Causing of lung cancer, heart disease, respiratory inflammations, brain damage, skin cancer
etc.
How prevent air pollutions?
By using different methods like:
 Avoid use of traditional fuels,  take care for water pollutions,
 using solar wind and hydroelectric powers,  educating society
 reforestation or planting trees,  establish law of pollution control etc
5.2.4. Forests
What is forest?
 The forest is a complex ecosystem consisting mainly of trees that buffer the earth and support
a variety of life forms.
 Harenna forest is one example of natural forests in south eastern Ethiopia.
 The trees help create a special environment which, in turn, affects the kinds of animals and
plants that can exist in the forest.
Importance of plant
 They clean the air,  They produce large quantities of oxygen
 Cool it on hot days, and take in carbon dioxide.
 Conserve heat at night, and
 Act as excellent beauty of the earth
 Reducing soil erosion.
 Roots help to hold the soil in place.
 Effects of human on forests
Human activities which destroy the forests are :
1. Deforestation: Cutting of trees on a large scale is termed as deforestation; it is one of the
Major causes of destruction of forests.
2. Pollution: Due to high pollution and it's outcomes like acid rain are highly responsible for
destruction of the forests.
3. Forest Fires: sometimes a small fire is triggered in forest which catches whole forest and
destroys it , and it a major cause of deforestation also.
4. Land for agriculture: Farmers and agriculturists cut forest area to obtain land for farming or
agriculture.
5. Malpractices: some malpractices like shifting cultivation leads to destruction of forests at
large scale and it causes pollution also.
5.2.5. Biodiversity
What is biodiversity?
 Bio-diversity or biological diversity refers to the collection of life and habitat in ecosystems.
 Biodiversity is also the measure of the wealth of species in a given place or habitats.
 Biodiversity includes all types of living organisms ranging from smaller microorganism to
largest organisms.
Importance of biodiversity
Biodiversity is important to humans for many reasons.
1. Provides humans with raw materials for consumption and production. Provisioning services
the production of food, fiber and water. Many livelihoods, such as those of farmers, fishers
and timber workers, are dependent on biodiversity
2. Provides functioning ecosystems that supply oxygen, clean air and water, pollination of
plants, pest control, regulating services the control of climate and diseases wastewater
treatment and many ecosystem services.
3. Recreation: many recreational pursuits rely on our unique biodiversity, such as bird
watching, hiking, camping and fishing.
4. Cultural: cultural services such as spiritual and recreational benefits.
5. Scientific: biodiversity represents a wealth of systematic ecological data that help us to
understand the natural world and its origin
Biodiversity conservation

General Science Note for Grade-8 Page 63

 The protection and efficient management of wild species and their environment is the prime
objective of conservation.
 This conservation is usually carried out in two ways namely in-situ and ex-situ.
A. In situ Conservation
 It means the conservation of biodiversity in their natural habitats itself.
 It helps in the multiplication of the species through the process of evolution and adaptation.
 It provides greater mobility to the animal species because of the large habitat area.
 Example- national parks, biosphere reserves, parks, sanctuaries.
B. Ex-situ conservation
 It means the conservation of biological diversity outside their natural areas.
 Established botanical and zoological gardens, conservation stands; banks of germplasm,
pollen, seed, seedling, tissue culture, gene, and DNA, etc.
 Example- Zoo, aquarium, seed banks, botanical gardens, etc.
5.2.6. Indigenous knowledge and Conservation of Natural Resources
 Local and indigenous knowledge refers to the understandings, skills and philosophies
developed by societies with long histories of interaction with their natural surroundings.
 This knowledge is integral to a cultural complex that also encompasses language, systems of
classification, resource use practices, social interactions, ritual and spirituality.
Indigenous Conservation and Management
 The recognition that local and indigenous people have their own ecological understandings,
conservation practices and resource management goals has important implications.
 For example, indigenous knowledge conservation of soil are terracing, contour ploughing,
crop rotation, mixed cropping and fertilization some methods.
 The lands on which they live and the natural resources on which they depend are inseparably
linked to their identities, cultures and livelihoods.
How does indigenous knowledge help in environmental conservation?
 Indigenous knowledge is one of the greatest assets of a community.
 In a time when the climate is changing this knowledge can help them to adapt to these
changes and control the environment around them.
 Indigenous knowledge means local knowledge that is unique to a given society and is
embedded in their cultural traditions.

General Science Note for Grade-8 Page 64

 UNIT SIX
6. THE SOLAR SYSTEM
6.1. Family of the Solar System
The Solar Systems
 The Solar System is the Sun and all the planets, satellites, asteroids, meteors, and comets
that are subject to its gravitational pull
 Our solar system includes the Sun, eight planets including their moons, dwarf planets,
smaller bodies such as asteroids, comets and meteors.
The Sun
 The Sun is a star closest to our Earth.
 It is located at the very center of our solar system.
 The Sun is mostly made up of hydrogen gas (about 71%), helium gas (about 27%) and other
gases (2%).
 The temperature at the surface of the Sun is very high, around 5500 °C.
 It is about 15 million °C at its center.
 The Sun is the largest and most massive object in our solar system making up 98% of the
total mass of the solar system.
The Planets
 Planets are celestial bodies that revolve around the Sun in a well-defined path. This path is
known as the orbit of the planet.
 In 2006, the International Astronomical Union (IAU) declared the number planets to be
eight.
 In addition to this, as of 2014, this union has recognized five dwarf planets.
 Based on their distance from the Sun, planets in our solar system classified into two.
1. Terrestrial (inner) planet: mercury, Venus, earth and mars.
2. Jovian (outer) planet: Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, and Neptune.
1. Mercury
 Mercury is the closest planet found at a distance of 57.9 million km from the Sun.
 It is the smallest planet of our solar system.
 Mercury has no satellite of its own.
 Mercury has the most extreme temperatures in the solar system, reaching 426 °C during
the day and -173 °C during the night.
 It takes 88 days for Mercury to make one complete revolution around the Sun.
General Science Note for Grade-8 Page 65
2. Venus
 Venus is the nearest planet to earth.
 It is found at a distance of 108.2 million km from the sun.
 Venus has a thick dense atmosphere mostly made up of carbon dioxide which is an
effective greenhouse gas. That is why Venus has the highest surface temperature and it is
the hottest planet in the solar system.
 Venus has mountains, volcanoes and dunes just like Earth.
 Venus has no moon.
 Rotation of Venus on its axis is somewhat unusual.
 It rotates in the opposite direction to all other planets.
 It takes 243 days for Venus to make one complete revolution around the Sun.
3. The Earth
 Our home planet, the Earth is found at a distance of 149.6 million km from the sun.
 The Earth is the third nearest planet to the sun.
 Having a look from space, it appears blue green due to the reflection of light from water
and landmass on its surface.
 The Earth has only one moon.
 It takes 365.25 days for the Earth to make one complete revolution around the Sun.
4. Mars
 Mars is found at a distance of 227.9 million km from the sun.
 It is the fourth planet from the Sun and the second smallest planet in the solar system.
 Mars is known as the Red Planet, because of its reddish color.
 It has only two moons.
 Mars has mountains, volcanoes and valleys just like the Earth.
 It takes 687 days for Mars to make one complete revolution around the Sun.
 Scientists are interested in visiting Mars thinking that there may be some water in cracks
and tiny holes in underground rock. For this purpose, they send Robots to Mars,
 The largest volcano in the solar system, Olympus Mons, is on Mars and it is three times
taller than Mount Everest.
 Mars also has the deepest and longest valley in the solar system, known as Valles
Marineris.
5. Jupiter
 Jupiter is found at a distance of 778.3 million km from the sun.

General Science Note for Grade-8 Page 66

  It is the fifth planet from the sun, found next to Venus.
 Jupiter is the largest planet of the solar system. Jupiter has 79 moons.
 It also has faint rings around it. Jupiter appears quite bright in the sky, for this reason you
can easily recognize it.
 It takes 11.89 years for Jupiter to make one complete revolution around the Sun.
6. Saturn
 Saturn is found at a distance of 1432 million km from the Sun.
 We get Saturn next to Jupiter. Saturn has the largest number of moons, which are 82
moons.
 One interesting thing about Saturn is that it is the least dense among all the planets.
 Its density is less than that of water.
 Saturn is known for its rings. These rings are not visible with the naked eye.
 It takes 29.37 years for Saturn to make one complete revolution around the Sun.
7. Uranus
 Uranus is found at a distance of 2871 million km from the Sun.
 It is the seventh planet from the sun. It is blue-green in color.
 Uranus is the third-largest planet in our solar system.
 It has 27 moons.
 Uranus was the first planet discovered using a telescope and it can be seen only with the
help of large telescopes.
 Like Venus, Uranus rotates from east to west.
 The most remarkable feature of Uranus is that it has highly tilted rotational axis.
 It takes 84.099 years for Uranus to make one complete revolution around the Sun.
8. Neptune
 Neptune is the eighth and farthest planet of the solar system.
 It is found at a distance of 4498 million km from the Sun.
 In the Solar System, it is the fourth-largest planet by diameter, the third-most massive
planet, and the coldest.
 Neptune has 14 moons.
 It can be seen only with the help of large telescopes.
 It takes 165 years for Neptune to make one complete revolution around the Sun.
Dwarf planets

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 Dwarf planets are bodies that are too small to be considered full-fledged planets, but too
large to fall into smaller categories.
 The five dwarf planets that have got acceptance by IAU are: Pluto, Eris, Ceres, Haumea, and
Makemake.
Terrestrial (inner) and Jovian (outer) planets
 According to their orbits, planets are grouped into two classes: The inner and outer planets.
1) The inner planets are also called terrestrial (or rocky) planets because their surfaces are
made of rock.
 The first four planets closest to the sun (Mercury, Venus, Earth, and Mars), are the inner
planets.
 They have the following characteristics.
 Low mass: Earth is the heaviest.
 High densities (4000 to 5500 kg/m3).
 They are made of rock and have metallic cores.
2) outer planets also called Jovian planets
 The four planets further from the sun (Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, and Neptune) are called the
outer planets.
 The outer planets are very different from the four inner planets.
 They have the following behaviors:
 Large diameters (4 to 11 times Earth’s size)
 High mass (14 to 318 times Earth’s mass)
 Low average densities (700 to 1700 kg/m3)
 They are mainly made of hydrogen and helium without a solid surface.
 The outer planets have large number of moons.
Some Other Members of the Solar System
 There are some other bodies which revolve around the Sun.
 They are also members of the solar system.
 They are Asteroids, comets and meteors.
Asteroids
 Asteroids are large number of small objects that revolve around the Sun.
 Most asteroids are found in the asteroid belt, which lies between the orbits of Mars and
Jupiter

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 Asteroids closest to the Sun are mainly metallic objects. Those further away are rocky
objects.
 Asteroids can only be seen through large telescopes.
Comets
 Comets are icy and dusty objects that revolve around the Sun in highly elliptical orbits.
 Their period of revolution round the Sun is usually very long.
 A comet appears generally as a bright head with a long tail.
 The length of the tail grows in size as it approaches the sun.
 The tail of a comet is always directed away from the sun
Edmund Halley and His Comet
 The most well-known comet in the Solar System is known as Halley’s Comet.
 The comet is named after English astronomer Edmond (or Edmund) Halley, who examined
reports of a comet approaching Earth in 1531, 1607 and 1682.
 He concluded that these three comets were actually the same comet returning over and over
again.
 Halley predicted the comet would come again in 1758.
 Halley’s Comet appears after nearly every 76 years.
 The last time it was seen was in 1986, and the predicted next appearance of Halley in the
inner Solar System will be in 2061
Meteors and Meteorites
 Meteors are commonly known as shooting stars, although they are not stars.
 A meteor is usually a small object moving around the sun.
 When a meteor occasionally enters the Earth’s atmosphere, it gets heated up because of
friction and evaporates in a very short period of time.
 Some meteors are so large that a part of them reaches the surface of the Earth before they
evaporate completely. These are called meteorites.
Galileo Galilei (1564–1642)
 Galileo is an Italian astronomer, mathematician, physicist, inventor and philosopher.
 In 1609 Galileo built his first telescope, though he is not the first inventor of the telescope,
and began making observations.
 His observations of the night sky changes mankind’s view of the universe, and our place in
it.

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  With his telescope Galileo discovered the four primary moons of Jupiter (now known as the
Galilean moons).
 He also discovered many new stars, the phases of Venus and Saturn’s rings.
 Galileo was also known to discover the craters and mountains on the Moon and Sun-
centered solar system, against Earth-centered solar system.
 This view of Galileo brought him into serious conflict with the Church. Because of this
Galileo was arrested at home at the end of his lifetime.
 Galileo became completely blind by the age of 74, but NOT because he looked at the Sun
through his telescope.
6.2. Formation of the Solar System
 Scientists believe that our solar system is formed approximately 4.6 billion years ago from
the cloud of dust and gas, mainly hydrogen and helium.
 This cloud of dust and gas was slowly rotating in space.
 At that time the cloud was disturbed by the explosion of a star known as supernova.
 The energy of this explosion causes the cloud to start contracting.
 As the contraction increases, the particles of the cloud were squeezed into less space.
 As a result, the cloud’s density becomes greater and the increased attraction of gravity pulled
more gas and dust towards the center of the cloud. This caused the cloud to rotate faster and
there it causes a solar nebula.
 A solar nebula is a large cloud of gas and dust from which the sun, planets and other solar
system (asteroids, meteors and moons) be formed.
The Birth of the Sun
 At the heart of the nebula, the contraction proceeds. As a result, ball of hydrogen gas
whose pressure and temperature become quite huge become formed.
 Most of the contracting mass is collected in the center, forming the Sun.
 The fact that most of the material was pulled toward the center, accounts for 99.8% of the
mass of the solar system to be that of Sun.
The Birth of the Planets
 The planets are formed from the same cloud of gases and dust as the Sun.
 Not all the nearby gas and dust were drawn into the core of the cloud.
 The infinitely large number of left over gas and dust particles will also began to stick
together by their mutual gravity. This forms clumps.

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  These clumps smashed into one another, forming larger and larger objects that led to the
birth of Earth, other planets and moons in our Solar System.
 The comets, asteroids, and meteorites are surviving remnants from the processes that
formed the solar system.
Motion of satellites around earth
 Planets are celestial bodies that revolve around Sun, whereas a celestial body that revolves
around a planet is called a satellite.
 Moon is the natural satellite of the Earth. There are many man-made satellites revolving
round the Earth. These are called artificial satellites.
 Artificial satellites are launched from the Earth.
 Artificial satellites have many practical applications. They are used for;
 Weather forecasting and transmitting television and radio signals.
 They are also used for telecommunication and remote sensing.
 Our country, Ethiopia, has launched two artificial satellites.
 The 1st Earth Observation satellite of Ethiopia (ETRSS-1) was launched on the 20th of
December 2019 in collaboration with the government of China.
 ET-SMART-RSS is the second Ethiopian satellite, launched followed by ETRSS-1.
 ET-SMART-RSS has a higher resolution than ETRSS-1.
 The naming ET-SMART-RSS is ET for Ethiopia /ESSTI, SMART is for Beijing
Smart Satellite Technology and RSS stands for Remote Sensing Satellite.
 It is launched on December 22, 2020.
The main mission of the Ethiopian space satellite is for addressing urgent national challenges in
the areas of;
 Natural resource management,
 Climate change and variability,
 Weather forecasting and monitoring,
 Different forms of natural disasters mitigation (like drought, landslides, and flood),
 Mapping and exploration of minerals,
 Water resource availability and supply,
 Transport infrastructure monitoring,
 Energy and tourism development,
 Agriculture modernization, forestry, ecosystems
 Border surveillance and national security.

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6.3. Earth in Comparison with Solar System
 The Earth is the planet we are living in.
 It is the third planet from the Sun and the only planet in our Solar System that is known to
support life.
 The Earth is about 12,750 km in diameter.
 The Earth is the fifth largest planet in our Solar System (after Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, and
Neptune).
Compare the distance of each planet from the sun
The distance of each planet from the Sun varies because all the planets orbit the Sun on different
elliptical paths.
Distance of planets from Sun
Planet Distance from the sun (in Distance using a scale (1 cm = 2
million km) million km)
Mercur 57.9 30 cm
y
Venus 108.2 50 cm
Earth 149.6 75 cm
Mars 227.9 1.0 m
Jupiter 778.3 3.70 m
Saturn 1432 6.75 m
Uranus 2871 13.7 m
Neptune 4498 22.2 m
Compare the size of Earth with other planets in the solar system
How big is Earth?
 Earth is the fifth-largest planet in the solar system.
 It’s smaller than the four gas giants: Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus and Neptune, but larger than
the three other rocky planets, Mercury, Mars and Venus.
Size of the Planets
 Below are the estimated diameters of the eight planets in our solar system, in order of size.
 The diameter sizes relative to Earth is also given to help you picture them better
Planets Radius
No Name of Diameter of Size relative to Earth
. planet planet

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 1 Mercury 4 880 km 0.383 x size of Earth
2 Mars 6 794 km 0.533 x size of Earth
3 Venus 12 104 km 0.949 x size of Earth
4 Earth 12 750 km
5 Neptune 49 528 km 3.883 x Earth‘s size
6 Uranus 51 118 km 4.007 x Earth‘s size
7 Saturn 120 536 km 9.449 x Earth‘s size
8 Jupiter 142 984 km 11.209 Earth‘s size
6.4 Our planet’s Suitability for Life (Uniqueness)
What Makes Earth Suitable for life?
Earth is the only planet that has life. There are many factors which make Earth suitable for life.
These are:
 Earth has right amount of liquid water. About 71 percent of the Earth’s surface is covered
with oceans and lakes. This liquid water is not too much to cover the mountains, and not so
little that it’s a dry desert.
 Earth is found at the right distance from the Sun. The distance of the Earth from the Sun
makes it to receive enough energy to allow water to exist as a liquid on its surface. If it was
too close, the Earth would be too hot. It would lose all the oceans. If it is too far, then the
oceans would freeze over.
 Earth has the right temperature that allows liquid water to exist, and also provides a relatively
stable environment for organisms. Earth’s temperature average is 15°C.
 Earth has the right moon. Because of our moon, Earth is titled, this result to the formation of
seasons. Without the moon, the rotation of the Earth would result in a day that averages about
4 hours.
 Earth has the right Sun. Our Sun is the most important source of energy for life on Earth. It’s
also a stable and long-lasting star.
 Earth has the right core. Earth’s solid inner core and liquid outer core play crucial roles in
protecting life from solar radiation. Earth has a strong magnetic field which deflects most of
the solar wind (charged particles that flow from the Sun). Without it, solar winds would strip
away Earth’s oceans and atmosphere.
 Because of its huge mass, Jupiter attracts most of the asteroids towards itself and away from
Earth. Jupiter shields Earth from constant stellar bombardment.

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 The Earth’s atmosphere is rich in oxygen, Nitrogen, Carbon Dioxide, and other compounds
that are essential for life.
 Earth has an ozone layer to block harmful rays coming from Sun.
The unique Characteristics of the Earth
 The Earth is the only planet in the solar system on which life is known to exist.
 Some special environmental conditions are responsible for the existence and continuation of
life on the Earth. These include just the right distance from the Sun, so that it has the right
temperature range, the presence of water and suitable atmosphere and a blanket of ozone.
 Thus, we must take special care to protect our environment so that life on Earth is not
disturbed.
UNIT SEVEN
7. Physical phenomena in the surrounding
7.1. Phenomena of Light (Source & Properties)
 Light is a form of energy that enables us to see objects surrounding us. We see object when
light from a source or from a reflecting body enters our eyes.
Sources of Light
 Object which emits its own light is called a source of light.
 It is also known as a luminous object.
 Objects which do not emit light are known as non –luminous objects.
 There are two types of sources of light:
1. Natural sources of light: produce light naturally without any human involvement.
Examples: Sun, Stars, Lightning etc.
2. Artificial (man-made): are man-made light sources. Examples: candle, electric bulb, and
burning wood etc.,
Properties of Light
General characteristic of light:
 Is a form of energy produced by luminous objects
 travels in a straight line
 can travel through a vacuum
 can be reflected
 can be bent/refracted
 travels with a speed of 3.0 × 108 m/s in a vacuum

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 Reflection of Light
 Reflection is the phenomenon in which light travelling in one medium, falls on the surface of
another medium and returns back to the first medium.
 Depending on the nature of the reflecting surface, reflection could be either regular or
diffused.
a) Regular reflection (Specular reflection):
 Happens when light is reflected from smooth and shiny surfaces.
 All the rays are reflected in the same direction.
 Forms a clear image that can be seen.
 Example: Reflection from a mirror. Mirrors are excellent reflectors of light.
b) Diffuse reflection:
 Happens when light is reflected from a rough, unpolished surface.
 The rays are reflected in many different directions.
 Forms, a blurry image or no image.
 Example: reflection from a wall, wood, paper etc

The differences between Regular reflection and Irregular reflection

Regular reflection Irregular reflection
The reflection occurs on a smooth surface The reflection occurs on a rough surface
Here the reflected rays and incident rays are All the incident rays and reflected rays are non-
parallel parallel
All the incident rays and reflected rays move in All the incident rays and reflected rays move in
a single direction distorted directions
The images in the regular reflection are clear The images in irregular reflection are not clear
The images are produced through shiny and The images are produced through hard surfaces
polished surfaces like wood, paper, cardboard

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 Refraction of light
 Refraction is a phenomenon in which there is a bending of light rays as it travels from one medium to another.

Dispersion of light
 Is the phenomenon of splitting of a beam of white light into its seven constituent colors when
passed through a transparent medium such as a prism
 Is caused by the change of speed of light ray (resulting in angle of deviation) of each
wavelength by a different amount
 The various colors seen are Violet, Indigo, Blue, Green, Yellow, Orange and Red.
 The sequence of colors remembers as VIBGYOR.
 The band of seven colors is called the spectrum.
 The different component color of light bends at a different angle with respect to
the incident angle.
 The violet light bends the least while the Red bends the most.

Dispersion of white light by the glass prism

7.2. Vision and Imaging
 Imaging is the process of forming images.
 Images are formed either by reflection (using mirrors) or by refraction (using lenses).
 X-rays, CT scans (Computed Tomography), ultrasound and MRIs (Magnetic Resonance
Imaging) are imaging tools used by doctors to diagnose injury or illness.
 They produce images of internal structures of the body for the purpose of accurate diagnosis.

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 Image Formed by a Human Eye
 The human eye is also an imaging tool.
 It forms a real picture of the observed object on the retina by optical system of the eye.
 When the image finally reaches the retina, it is inverted, but the brain will correct this.
 For the vision to be clear, the image has to be formed directly on the retina.
Image formation by Plane Mirror
 An image is a visual representation of an object which is placed somewhere in front of a
mirror or lens.
 A mirror with a plane surface is called a plane mirror.
 It forms an image by reflection.
 When our right side appear left and our left side appear right, such a shift of the lateral side
of the images in the opposite direction is called lateral inversion.
Real image versus virtual image
 Real images can be placed on a screen, but virtual images can’t be placed on a screen.
 Real images are always inverted but virtual images are erect.
The characteristics of the image formed by a plane mirror
 The image is virtual and erect.
 The image is of the same size as that of the object.
 The image is laterally inverted. Right sides appear to be left and left side appeared to be
right.
 The image is as far behind the mirror as the object is in front of it.
Transmission of Light through Objects
Different types of materials transmit light differently. Based on the way they transmit light,
materials can be divided into transparent, translucent, and opaque.
1. Transparent Material: Materials that allow light to pass through them completely.
Example: Glass, clean water, clear plastic and air
2. Translucent Material: Objects that allow light to pass through partially (transmits some
amount of light). Example: Oiled paper, waxed paper, and frosted glass
3. Opaque Material: Materials that do not allow (completely blocks) light to pass through
them. Example: Metal sheet, wood sheet, wall, thick card board, stone, etc.
7.3. Sound
 Sound is a form of energy which produces a sensation of hearing in our ears.
 This energy is produced by vibrating objects.

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 Vibration means a kind of back and forth motion of an object. This back and forth motion of
the body causes the substances around it to vibrate.
How do Objects Produce Sound?
 Sound is produced by vibrating bodies.
 The objects that produce sound are called sources of sound.
 Animals, various types of objects, musical instruments are examples for sources of sound.
Medium
 Medium is the material or substance through which sound is transmitted.
 It can be solid, liquid or gas.
 Sound travels more quickly through solids than through liquids and gases because the
molecules of a solid are closer together and, therefore, can transmit the vibrations (energy)
faster.
 Sound travels most slowly through gases because the molecules of a gas are farthest apart.
 Sound cannot travel through vacuum.
Hearing
 We hear sound through our ears.
 The eardrums of our ears sense the vibrations produced by a vibrating object and send them
to the brain. This process is called a hearing.
 The structure of the ear plays an important role in hearing the sound.
Noise and music
 Unpleasant sounds are called noise.
 The sounds which are pleasant to hear are called music.
Sound Pollution
 The presence of excessive or unwanted sounds in the environment is called sound pollution.
 Major causes of sound pollution are sounds of vehicles, explosions, machines, loudspeakers
etc.
 In the home, Television and radio at high volumes, some kitchen appliances, all contribute to
sound pollution.
Effects of sound pollution
 There are direct links between noise and health.
 The sound produced in our normal conversation is about 60 decibels (dB).
 If a person is being exposed to the sound of 80dB continuously it may lead to hearing
problems.

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 A whisper is about 30 dB, normal conversation is about 60 dB, and a motorcycle engine
running is about 95 dB.
 Loud noise above 120 dB can cause immediate harm to your ears.
The table below shows decibel (dB) levels everyday sources of sound.
Noise Average decibels (dB)
Soft music, whisper 30
Average home noise 40
Normal conversation 60
Heavy traffic, noisy restaurant 80-89
A very loud radio, stereo, or television 105-110
Standing beside or near sirens 120
Gun shot, jet engine 140
Sound pollution creates some health hazards. Some of them are listed below.
 Noise may cause irritation, stress, nervousness and headache.
 Long term exposure to noise may disturb the sleeping pattern of a person, hearing ability and
may leads to loss of hearing.
 Noise causes lack of concentration in one’s work. .
Measures to Control Sound Pollution
We cannot stop production of sound but we can reduce sound pollution by some measures.
Sound pollution can be significantly reduced by adopting the following steps.
 Strict guidelines should be set for the use of loudspeakers on social, religious and political
occasions
 All automobiles, air craft engines, transport vehicles, industrial machines and home
appliances should have effective silencers
 Use of automobile horns should be minimized
 All communication systems must be operated in low volumes
 Residential areas should be free from heavy vehicles
 People working in noisy factories should wear ear plugs
 Noise producing industries, and heavy vehicles should be set up away from residential areas
 Trees must be planted along the roads and around buildings to cut down on the sounds
reaching the residents

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 Echo
Echo is A repeated sound that is caused by the reflection of sound waves from a surface
Hard and flat surfaces (wall, mountain and buildings) are a good reflector while soft surfaces
such as clothes, papers, curtains, carpet, furniture, etc. absorb sound.
Some of the real life applications echo is:
Hearing aid: It is a device used by the people who are hard of hearing. Here the sound
waves, which are received by the hearing aid, are reflected into a narrower area leading to the
ear.
Sound boards: Curved surfaces can reflect sound waves. This reflection of sound waves is
used in auditorium to spread the waves uniformly throughout the hall.
The working of a stethoscope: It is based on the reflection of sound. In a stethoscope, the
sound of the patient’s heartbeat reaches the doctor’s ear by multiple reflections of sound.
7.4. Heat
 Heat is a form of energy that flows from a body at a higher to a body at a lower temperature
 The energy transfer will continue until both objects are at the same temperature.
 When the two objects attain the same temperature, then the flow of heat stops.
Mechanisms of Heat Transfer
 There are three ways through which heat can be transferred from a hot object to a cold object
1) Conduction: is the mode of transfer of heat from hotter part of a material to its colder part
with successive particle collision. In all solids, heat is transferred by the process of
conduction.
2) Convection: is the mode of heat transfer from the hotter part of a fluid (liquid or gas) to its
colder parts by the movement of the liquid (or gas) itself.
3) Radiation: Heat transfer from a body at high temperature to a body at a lower temperature,
without any material medium between them. Radiation occurs without any medium at all.
Radiation takes place through a vacuum or transparent medium which can be either solid or
liquid.
Conductors and Insulators
 Conductors are Substances that allow heat energy to be transferred through them
 Insulators are Substances that do not allow heat energy to be transferred through them. Poor
conductors are known as insulators.
 Insulation is the way that is used to reduce heat loss or heat gain by providing a barrier
between the inside of your home or body with the outside found at different temperature.

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7.5. Simple Circuit
 A circuit is the complete path, from one terminal of the electric cell through the bulb and
back to the other terminal of the electric cell.
 A circuit could be open or closed.
 If there is any gap in the path of a circuit, the bulb does not light up. Such a circuit is called
an open circuit.
 The bulb lights up only when a bulb and wire form a complete path. Such a circuit is called a
closed circuit.
 The following materials are used to have a functioning electric circuit.
1) Electric cell or battery: A cell is a source of electricity and a battery is a combination of two
or more cells.
2) Bulb: An electric bulb is a device which glows and emits light, when electric current is
passed through it.
3) Conductors (wire): Materials that allow electric current to pass through them.
4) Resistor: is any device in the circuit that produces light or heat, when current is flowing
through it.
5) Switch: is a simple device that either breaks the circuit or starts the flow of current.
Electrical Safety
 Never play with electrical wires and sockets.
 Do not connect the two terminals of a cell directly through a wire or conductor.

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 Electric symbols and their uses

(a) actual components (b) symbols

Simple Circuit diagram
7.6. Magnetism
 Magnetism is the branch of physics which deals with the property of a magnet.
 Magnets are materials which have the property of attracting metals like iron, cobalt and
nickel.
 Magnetism was discovered about 4000 years back in ancient Greece.
 Materials that are attracted by a magnet are called magnetic materials.
 Materials that are not attracted by a magnet called non-magnetic materials.
Classification of Magnets
Magnets are classified into two types: natural magnets and artificial magnets
1) Natural Magnets: Magnets found in nature. They are permanent magnets i.e., they will
never lose their magnetic property. Lodestone is the first discovered natural magnet.

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2) Artificial Magnets: Magnets that are made by people in the laboratory or factory. They can
be made in various shapes and dimensions. Bar magnets, U-shaped magnets, horseshoe
magnets, cylindrical magnets, disc magnets, and ring magnets are some examples of artificial
magnets. Artificial magnets are usually made up of iron, nickel, cobalt, steel, etc.

Magnetic Field
 Magnetic field of the magnet is the region around a magnet where its influence is felt.
 We cannot see the magnetic field, but it can be represented by a set of curves around a
magnet called magnet field lines.
 The shape of a magnetic field can be shown using iron filings or small compasses.

Properties of magnetic field lines

 The arrow shows the direction of the field
 Magnetic field lines do not intersect one another
 The two poles of a magnet always exist in pairs
 Outside the magnet filed lines point from north to south pole but inside the magnet they point
from south to north pole
 Where the filed lines are closest together is where the magnetic field is strongest.
Magnetic force
 Like poles of a magnet repel each other.
 Unlike poles of a magnet attract with each other.
Uses of Magnets
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Today magnets play an important role in our lives. Some of the important uses of magnets are
given below.
 Magnets are used to hold objects (like stickers, refrigerator doors, etc.).
 Magnets are used to separate magnetic materials from non-magnetic materials.
 Magnets are used for making compasses.
 Magnets are used to store data in computers.
 Magnets are used in scanning machines called MRI (Magnetic Resonance Imaging) which
doctors use to look inside peoples body.
 Using magnets, we can do heavy lifting which is not humanly possible to do.
 Magnets are used inside TVs, loud speakers and radios, electric motors and generators.
 The debit and credit cards is of magnetic nature and are used to store data just like
computers’ hard drives.
 Magnetically levitated trains, known as maglev trains, use magnets under the cars to float
above the magnetic tracks.
 Both magnetic attraction and repulsion are used to move the train car along the guide way.
These days such kinds of trains are being used in developed countries. Maglevs can move
with a speed of 500 km/h.
 Magnets are used in telephones, hair driers, door belts, mixer and grinder, fans, washing
machines, television sets, tape recorders, and in headphones and loudspeakers.

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