IDEAL SINGLE PHASE TRANSFORMER

1. The core must have no hysteresis or eddy currents.

2. The magnetization curve must have the shape shown in Figure below. Notice that for an
unsaturated core the net magnetomotive force , implying that Npip= Nsis

3. The leakage flux in the core must be zero, implying that all the flux in the core couples
both windings.
4. The resistance of the transformer windings must be zero.
 REAL SINGLE PHASE
TRANSFORMER
The transformer’s hysteresis curve is shown
• Based on Faraday’s law:
eind= dλ /dt
Where λ = ∑ φi (on N turn)
• Φav.=λ / N
• And e ind= N d Φav/dt
 REAL SINGLE PHASE
TRANSFORMER
• Operation of a real Transformer

• For an ideal transformer, all the primary fluxes,’Фp’ are

assumed to be mutual flux that travels through the core and
cuts both the windings uniformly.
𝑑∅𝑝 𝑑∅𝑀
i.e. vp(t)=ep(t)=Np. 𝑑𝑡 = Np. 𝑑𝑡
 REAL SINGLE PHASE
TRANSFORMER

• The mutual flux Фp= ФM travels through the core to the

secondary winding without any loss and hence
𝑑∅𝑠 𝑑∅𝑀
i.e. vs(t)=es(t)=Ns. 𝑑𝑡 = Ns. 𝑑𝑡
𝑑∅𝑀
𝑉𝑝(𝑡) 𝑒𝑝(𝑡) 𝑁𝑝. 𝑑𝑡 𝑁𝑝
Hence, = = = =a (The turns ratio)
𝑉𝑠(𝑡) 𝑒𝑠(𝑡) 𝑁𝑠.𝑑∅𝑀 𝑁𝑠
𝑑𝑡
 REAL SINGLE PHASE
TRANSFORMER
• For real transformer, all the flux ‘Фp’ are not mutual flux, ‘ФM’,
some of them do not reach to the secondary winding, rather it
passes through the primary winding itself, which is called
leakage flux, ‘ФLp’ 𝑑∅𝐿𝑝
eLP(t)= 𝑁𝑝.
i.e. ‘Фp’= ‘ФM’ + ‘ФLp’ 𝑑𝑡

𝑑∅𝑝 𝑑∅𝑀 𝑑∅𝐿𝑝 𝑑𝐹

Hence, 𝑁𝑝. = 𝑁𝑝. 𝑑𝑡 + 𝑁𝑝. 𝑑𝑡 = 𝑁𝑝. 𝑑𝑅
𝑑𝑡
𝑁𝑝 𝑑𝑁𝑝.𝑖𝑝(𝑡)
=> Vp(t)=ep(t) + eLp(t) =𝑅 . 𝑑𝑡
=> ep(t)= Vp(t)-eLp(t)
Supply Voltage 𝑁𝑝μ𝐴𝑁𝑝 𝑑𝑖𝑝(𝑡)
voltage Loss
= . 𝑑𝑡
𝑙

𝑁𝑝2μ𝐴 𝑑𝑖𝑝(𝑡)
= 𝑙 . 𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑖𝑝(𝑡)
Modeled as voltage drop across an inductor = L𝑝. 𝑑𝑡
 REAL SINGLE PHASE
TRANSFORMER
Realizing the leakage flux in
a real Transformer
• φp=φm+φLp
• φS= φm - φLS
• Since φm >>φLS , φm >>φLp
• φm can be employed to
determine the induced voltage in
the windings and approximately :
Vp(t)/Vs(t)=Np/NS=a
• As smaller the leakage fluxes, the
better ideal transformer turn ratio
approximate the real transformer
turn ratio
 REAL SINGLE PHASE
TRANSFORMER
• For the secondary winding, ‘ФM’ is the flux that reaches to it as
the travelling flux through the core and a voltage is induced
according to Faraday’s law.
• However, if a load is connected, a secondary flux which opposes
the mutual flux will be created and pass through the secondary
winding itself, called the secondary leakage flux, ‘ФLs’
‘Фs’≠ ‘ФM’, rather, ‘Фs’= ‘ФM’- ‘ФLs’ Going through similar analysis that
𝑑∅𝑠 𝑑∅𝑀 𝑑∅𝐿𝑠 has been done for eLp(t)in order to
Hence, 𝑁𝑠. = 𝑁𝑠. 𝑑𝑡 − 𝑁𝑠. 𝑑𝑡 come up with an electrical model of
𝑑𝑡 𝑁𝑠2μ𝐴 𝑑𝑖𝑠(𝑡)
eLs(t), we get, eLs(t)= 𝑙 . 𝑑𝑡
=> Vs(t)=es(t) - eLs(t) 𝑑𝑖𝑠(𝑡)
= Ls. 𝑑𝑡
Secondary Induced Voltage
terminal voltage Loss i.e. this voltage can be modeled as
voltage a voltage drop across an inductor.

Modeled as voltage drop across an inductor

 REAL SINGLE PHASE
TRANSFORMER
• For real transformer, there are also resistive voltage drop
across both the windings as the windings are made up of
copper.
 REAL SINGLE PHASE TRANSFORMER
Magnetization Current in a Real Transformer
• ac source even when the secondary is open
circuited supply a current to produce flux in real
ferromagnetic core
• There are two components in the current:
(a) magnetization current iM, required to produce
flux (For ideal transformer, at no-load, the
primary current is nearly zero as the reluctance
of the core is zero)
(b) core-loss current ih+e supplies hysteresis & eddy
current losses of core
 REAL SINGLE PHASE
TRANSFORMER
• Magnetization curve of a typical real transformer
core can be considered as a saturation curve
 REAL SINGLE PHASE
TRANSFORMER
We know,
• Knowing the flux in the core, 𝐹 𝑁𝑝.𝑖𝑝(𝑡)
magnitude of magnetization Φp(t)= 𝑅= 𝑅
current can be found from =>
𝑅
ip(t)= . Φp(t)
curve 𝑁𝑝
𝑅.𝑉𝑚
Ignoring the leakage flux in the core: = 𝑁𝑝.𝑁𝑝.ω . sinωt
φav = 1/Np∫ vp(t) dt 𝑙.𝑉𝑚
= μ𝐴𝑁𝑝2.ω . sinωt
If vp(t) = Vm cos ωt
𝑙.𝑉𝑚
➔ φav= 1/Np∫ Vm cos ωt dt = μ𝐴𝑁𝑝2.ω . cos(ωt−900)
= Vm/(ω Np) sin ωt
• If current required to produce
a given flux determined at
different times from the
magnetization curve, the
magnetization current can be
found.
 REAL SINGLE PHASE
TRANSFORMER
• Finding magnetization current
 REAL SINGLE PHASE
TRANSFORMER
• Magnetizing current (another example)
 REAL SINGLE PHASE
TRANSFORMER
• Note (Magnetization Current):
1 – magnetization current is nonsinusoidal
2 - once peak flux reaches the saturation point, a small increase
in peak flux results in a very large increase in magnetization
current
3 - fundamental component of magnetization current lags the
voltage applied by 90◦
4 - higher harmonics (odd one) are present in the magnetization
current and may have relatively large amount compared to the
fundamental & as core driven further into saturation, larger the
harmonic components become.
𝑙.𝑉𝑚
As ip(t)=μ𝐴𝑁𝑝2.ω . cos(ωt−900), the
flowing branch of
magnetization current can be modeled by a reactance XM
connected across
 REAL SINGLE PHASE
TRANSFORMER
• Other components of no-load current of
transformer- is required to supply the
hysteresis and eddy current losses in the core
• assuming sinusoidal flux in the core , eddy
current loss in core proportional to dφ/dt and is
largest when flux pass 0
• Eddy and hysteresis loss current is as shown
in Fig 1 and the total current required to
produce flux in the core shown in Fig 2.
 REAL SINGLE PHASE TRANSFORMER
(Modeling of ‘ih+e’ and its flowing branch)
• ‘ie’ is proportional to dφ/dt and hence can be
𝑉𝑚
𝑑∅𝑝(𝑡) 𝑑( .sinω𝑡)
𝑁𝑝.𝜔
expressed as, ie α α
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝑉𝑚
α 𝑁𝑝
. cosωt
i.e. ie α 𝑉𝑚 co𝑠ω𝑡
• Eddy current is proportional to voltage and in phase with the voltage
as shown in Fig 1 .
• Hence, its flowing can be electrically modeled by a shunt resistive
branch ‘Rc’ across the primary supply voltage.
• However, because of the unpredictable behaviour of hysteresis loss
‘ih’ is non-linear and consequently, ‘ih+e’ is non-linear too.
 REAL SINGLE PHASE
TRANSFORMER
• Exciting Current components: I h+e & im)
• The total current required to produce flux in the core shown in
Fig 2.

Fig 1 Fig 2
 REAL SINGLE PHASE
TRANSFORMER
• Current Ratio & Dot Convention
• A current flowing into dotted
end of winding produces
a positive mmf, while current
flowing to undotted end of winding
produces negative mmf
• Two current flowing into dotted ends of their
respective windings produce mmfs that add
• If one current flows into a dotted end of a winding and
one flows out of dotted end, then mmfs will subtract
each other
REAL SINGLE PHASE TRANSFORMER
(Modeling of primary current on load)
𝐹𝑝−𝐹𝑠 𝑁𝑝𝑖𝑝−𝑁𝑠𝑖𝑠
ФM= 𝑅𝑐𝑜𝑟𝑒 = 𝑅𝑐𝑜𝑟𝑒
At no-load condition, Nsis=0 as is=0 and
𝑁𝑝𝑖𝑝−𝑁𝑠𝑖𝑠 𝑁𝑝(𝑖𝑒𝑥𝑐)−0
hence ФM= 𝑅𝑐𝑜𝑟𝑒 = 𝑅𝑐𝑜𝑟𝑒
However, at loading condition, Nsis ≠ 0
and produces an opposing flux, ФLS which
tries to reduce ‘ФM’ that must remain
constant.
• An extra component of primary is
required to be generated in the primary
to compensate for this opposing effect
as follows.
𝑁𝑝(𝑖𝑝+𝑖𝑝′ )−𝑁𝑠𝑖𝑠 𝑁𝑝 𝑖𝑒𝑥𝑐 +(𝑁𝑝𝑖𝑝′ −𝑁𝑠𝑖𝑠)
ФM= =
𝑅𝑐𝑜𝑟𝑒 𝑅𝑐𝑜𝑟𝑒
′
Ip’ should be such that 𝑁𝑝𝑖𝑝 = 𝑁𝑠𝑖𝑠
′
𝑖𝑝 𝑁𝑠 1
i.e. 𝑖 = 𝑁𝑝= 𝑎 for real transformer
𝑠
𝑖𝑝 𝑁𝑠 1
Whereas, for ideal transformer, . = =
𝑖𝑠 𝑁𝑝 𝑎
THE EQUIVALENT CIRCUIT OF A TRANSFORMER
The losses that occur in real transformers have to be accounted for in any
accurate model of transformer behavior. The major items to be considered in the
construction of such a model are:

1. Copper (PR) losses. Copper losses are the resistive heating losses in the
primary and secondary windings of the transformer. They are proportional to
the square of the current in the windings.

2. Eddy current losses. Eddy current losses are resistive heating losses in the
core of the transformer. They are proportional to the square of the voltage
applied to the transformer.

3. Hysteresis Losses. Hysteresis losses are associated with the rearrangement

of the magnetic domains in the core during each half-cycle, as explained in
Chapter 1. They are a complex, nonlinear function of the voltage applied to the
transformer.

4. Leakage flux. The fluxes which escape the core and pass through
only one of the transformer windings are leakage fluxes. These escaped fluxes
produce a leakage inductance in the primary and secondary coils, and the
effects of this inductance must be accounted for.
Summarizing response an Ideal
transformer

The ideal transformer is represented above. The induced counter-

emf voltages and the input impedance are designated with primed
symbols. There is a long list of what is not included in the ideal
transformer. When the turns ratio is not available use the
nameplate voltage ratio. The following slide lists a number of
formulas used with an ideal transformer. The effects of flux
leakage and winding resistance are insignificant at no load.
 Ideal transformer formulas
𝑉𝑝 𝐸𝑝 𝑁𝑝
= = =𝑎
𝑉𝑠 𝐸𝑆 𝑁𝑆

𝑖𝑝 𝑁𝑠 1
= =
𝑖𝑆 𝑁𝑝 𝑎

Input Impedance of an Ideal Transformer:

𝑍𝑖𝑛 = 𝑎2 𝑍𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑

The apparent power input must equal the apparent power output:

Pin=Vp.Ipcosθ =Vs.Iscosθ =Pout

Equivalent circuit parameters
for a real transformer
 Approximate Equivalent Circuit of a
Real Transformer
• in practice in some studies these
models are more complex than
necessary
• i.e. the excitation branch add
another node to circuit, while in
steady state study, current of
this branch is negligible
• And cause negligible voltage
drop in Rp & Xp
Therefore approximate eq.
model offered as shown in Figure.
 Tests conducted on Transformer to obtain Equivalent
Ckt. Parameters (The Open Circuit Test)
Mainly four parameters Rc, XM, Req, Xeq will
be determined by two tests namely, open circuit
test and short circuit test.
Open Circuit Test Setup:
i) Secondary (normally the HV winding) is kept
open, that means there is no load across
secondary terminals; hence there is no current in
the secondary.
ii) Voltage is applied to the primary winding until
rated voltage is reached. Normally, the L.V side is
chosen as the primary for safety.
iii) Voltage, current and power will be measured by
voltmeter, ammeter and wattmeter and their
readings are noted as Voc, Ioc and Poc.
Parameters obtained: As there is no load on the
secondary, is is zero and correspondingly the primary
load component is zero, i.e. ip(measured)=ip’s
excitation component,i.e. the current flowing through
Rc and XM.
Ammeter reads the no-load current, Ioc=Iexc
The wattmeter reads the core losses, Poc
and the voltmeter reads the applied primary voltage,
Voc.
The Open Circuit Test (Using Poc, Voc and Ioc)

Note: The open circuit test was done by

energizing the LV (low voltage) side with
secondary (HV) open.
 Tests conducted on Transformer to obtain
Equivalent Ckt. Parameters (The Short Circuit Test)
Short Circuit Test Setup:
i) Secondary (normally the LV winding) is shorted
by a jumper wire, that means there is no voltage
across secondary terminals; but a large current
flows in the secondary.
ii) Voltage is applied to the primary winding and is
increased until rated current flows through the
secondary winding. Normally, the H.V side is
chosen as the primary as this side voltage can be
adjusted over an wide range to flow rated current
through secondary winding.
iii) Voltage, current and power will be measured by
voltmeter, ammeter and wattmeter and their
readings are noted as Vsc, Isc and Psc.
• Parameters obtained: Test is done at reduced
voltage (about 5% of rated voltage) with full-load
current in the secondary. So, the ammeter reads
the full-load current, Ip=Load component of Ip i.e.
the current flowing through the series impedance
parameters Req and Xeq;
• The wattmeter reads the winding losses, and the
voltmeter reads the applied primary voltage.
The Short Circuit Test (Using Psc, Vsc and Isc)

• Core losses are negligible as the

applied voltage is << rated voltage.
The Per unit system of calculation
➢ Solving circuits containing transformers can be quite a tedious operation
because of the need to refer all the different voltage levels on different
sides of the transformers in the system to a common level.
➢ The per-unit (pu) system of measurements eliminates the need for
explicit voltage-level conversions at every transformer in the system.
➢ In a per-unit system related to the device's ratings, machine and
transformer impedances fall within fairly narrow ranges for each type
and construction of device.
➢ In the per-unit system, the voltages, currents, powers, impedances, and
other electrical quantities are not measured in their usual SI units
(volts, amperes, watts, ohms, etc.). Instead, each electrical quantity is
measured as a decimal fraction of some base level. Any quantity can be
expressed on a per-unit basis by the equation

where "actual value" is a value in volts, amperes, ohms, etc.

The Per unit system of calculation
Two base quantities are used to define a given per-unit system. The ones
usually selected are voltage and power (or apparent power). Once these
base quantities have been selected, all the other base values are related to
them by the usual electrical laws. In a single-phase system, these
relationships are: • In a power system, a base apparent power and
voltage are selected at a specific point in the
system.
• A transformer has no effect on the base apparent
power of the system, since the apparent power into
a transformer equals the apparent power out of the
transformer.
• Voltage changes when it goes through a
transformer, so the value of Vbase changes at every
transformer in the system according to its turns
ratio.
• As the base quantities change in passing through a
transformer, the process of referring quantities to a
common voltage level is automatically taken care of
during per-unit conversion.
Example 2-3:Application of Per Unit System of calculation
This system contains a 480-V generator connected to an ideal 1 : 1 0 step-up transformer, a
transmission line, an ideal 20:1 step-down transformer, and a load. The impedance of the
transmission line is 20 + j 60Ω. and the impedance of the load is 10 300Ω. The base values for this
system are chosen to be 480 V and 10 kVA at the generator.
(a) Find the base voltage, current, impedance, and apparent power at every point in the power
system.
(b) Convert this system to its per-unit equivalent circuit.
(c) Find the power supplied to the load in this system.
(d) Find the power lost in the transmission line.
 2-winding transformer as
Autotransformer
What is an AutoTransformer?
▪is a kind of transformer which shares a
common single winding.
Purpose:
▪ Single winding is used when a small
amount of adjustment (up/down) of
voltage is required.
2-winding transformer

Autotransformer
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 Autotransformer

2-winding transformer

Autotransformer (Step down) Autotransformer (Step up)

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 Advantages and disadvantages of autotransformer
Advantages of Auto transformers:
▪ Have less leakage flux
▪ Efficiency is higher when compared with the conventional one.
▪ Its size is relatively smaller
▪ Better voltage regulation due to lower equivalent impedance
▪ Lower cost
▪ Less copper is required in its design and construction.

Disadvantages:
▪ Lack of electrical isolation between primary and secondary
▪ Lower impedance allows a higher short circuit current if a fault occurs

Department of EEE, UIU

2-winding transformer as Autotransformer

V1 = 200V, V2 = 100V
I1 = 50A, I2 = 100V

Single phase 200V/100V, 50Hz, 10kVA two winding transformer

A two winding transformer connected as an autotransformer in various ways

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 Autotransformer

Autotransformer (Step down)

VH: Voltage on High voltage side

IH: Current on High voltage side
VL: Voltage on Low voltage side
VH: Current on Low voltage side

Relationship between voltage

and current in the coils:

Also,
Similarly

Department of EEE, UIU

 Autotransformer
Apparent Input Power Apparent output Power

Assuming apparent input and output power as equal and denoting is as SIO

the apparent power in the transformer winding,

So, the above equation describes the apparent power rating advantage of an autotransformer
over a conventional transformer. The smaller the series winding, the greater the advantage.

Department of EEE, UIU

 Problem #1(Exercise 2-17)
A 10-kVA 480/120-V conventional transformer is to be used to supply power from a 600-V source to a 120- V
load. Consider the transformer to be ideal, and assume that all insulation can handle 600 V.
(a) Sketch the transformer connection that will do the required job.
(b) Find the kilovoltampere rating of the transformer in the configuration.
(c) Find the maximum primary and secondary currents under these conditions.

The kVA rating of the autotransformer:

Maximum primary current

Maximum secondary current

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 Problem #2
A 10-kVA 480/120-V conventional transformer is to be used to supply power from a 600-V source to a 480- V
load. Consider the transformer to be ideal, and assume that all insulation can handle 600 V.
a) Sketch the transformer connection that will do the required job.
b) Find the kilovoltampere rating of the transformer in the configuration.
c) Find the maximum primary and secondary currents under these conditions.
d) The transformer in Problem #2 is identical to the transformer in Problem #1, but there is a significant
difference in the apparent power capability of the transformer in the two situations. Why? What does
that say about the best circumstances in which to use an autotransformer?

b) The kVA rating of the autotransformer:

C) Maximum primary current

Maximum secondary current

d) The apparent power handling capability of the autotransformer is much

higher when there is only a small difference between primary and secondary
voltages. Autotransformers are normally only used when there is a small
a) difference between the two voltage levels.

Department of EEE, UIU