Перелік дисциплін на державний

1. Лексикологія
1. Semasiology (Different Approaches to Meaning. Types of Meaning. Coinages ˈkɔɪnɪdʒ of this type are not specific English, they may be found in
Motivation of Meaning. Change of Meaning. The Results of Semantic
many if not all languages of the world, e.g., in Ukrainian: м’яв, гав, ку-ку
Change).
тощо. But these examples are few, they constitute a small part of the
Lexicology deals with words, word-forming morphemes and
language.
word-groups (or phrases). All these linguistic units have meaning of some
Morphological motivation. The main criterion in morphological
kind. The branch of Lexicology which is devoted to the study of meaning is
motivation is the relationship between morphemes constituting the word.
known as Semasiology.
Hence all one-morpheme words are non-motivated. In words composed of
Semasiology is one of the youngest branches of linguistics. The
main objects of semasiological study are as follows: semantic development of more than one morpheme the carrier |ˈkærɪərz| of the word-meaning is the
words, its causes and classification, types of lexical meaning, polysemy and combined meaning of the component morphemes and the meaning of the
semantic structure of words, semantic grouping and connections in the structural pattern of the word. This can be illustrated by the semantic analysis
vocabulary system (i.e. synonyms, antonyms, terminological systems, etc.). of different words composed of phonemically identical morphemes with
Meaning is one of the most controversial terms in the theory of identical lexical meaning. Thus, the words finger-ring and ring-finger contain
language. There is no universally accepted definition of meaning so far. two morphemes, the combined lexical meaning of which is the same; the
The two main types of meaning that are readily observed are the difference in the meaning of these words can be accounted for by the
grammatical and the lexical meanings. difference in the arrangement of the component morphemes.
Grammatical meaning. Grammatical meaning may be defined as Morphological motivation is also apparent |əˈpærənt| in
the component of meaning recurrent in identical sets of individual forms of
derivation: |ˌderɪˈveɪʃn| reader (one who reads), oversleep (to sleep beyond the
different words. Thus, when we take, e.g., such a set of word-forms as tables,
girls, books, etc. we notice that they though denoting widely different objects time of waking), rebuild (to build again or anew), etc.
of reality have something in common. This common element is the Morphological motivation is “relative”, i. e. the degree of
grammatical meaning of plurality which can be found in all of them. motivation may be different. Thus the word endless is completely motivated as
Nouns have also the grammatical meaning of case which can be both the lexical meaning of the component morphemes and the meaning of the
illustrated by a set of word-forms mother’s, girl’s, night’s, world’s, etc. The set pattern is perfectly transparent. The word cranberry is only partially motivated
of the verb word-forms asked, thought, worked, etc. illustrate the grammatical because of the absence of the lexical meaning in the morpheme cran-.
meaning of tense. Verbs have the grammatical meaning of voice, of aspect. Semantic motivation. Semantic motivation is based on the co-
Lexical meaning. The definitions of lexical meaning given by existence ˌkəʊɪɡˈzɪstəns| of direct and figurative meaning, i. e. of the old sense
various authors, though different in detail, agree in the basic principle: they all
point out that lexical meaning is the realization of concept or emotion by and new within the same synchronous |ˈsɪŋkrənəs| system. Thus the word
means of a definite language system, cf.: mouth denotes a part of a human face, and at the same time it can mean
The term motivation is used to denote the relationship existing metaphorically any opening or outlet: the mouth of a river, for instance. In its
between the morphemic or phonemic composition and structural pattern of the direct meaning the word mouth is not motivated, but in its figurative meaning it
word on the one hand, and its meaning on the other. There are three main types is semantically motivated, though this motivation is relative.
of motivation: phonetical motivation, morphological and semantic Results of semantic change can be generally observed in the
motivation. changes of denotational meaning of the word (restriction/narrowing and
Phonetical motivation is observed in words in which the sound-
extension of meaning) or in the alteration of its connotational |ˌkɑːnəˈteɪʃn
clusters |ˈklʌstər| are a direct imitation of the sounds these words denote (they meaning (amelioration/degradation and deterioration/elevation of meaning).
are called Changes in the denotational meaning may result in the restriction
echoic |eˈkəʊɪk| words): boom, buzz, chatter, clip, crack, cuckoo, of the types or range of referents denoted by the word. In this case we have
giggle, gurgle, hiss, hop, mew, purr, sip, sizzle, splash, swish, whistle, etc. narrowing/specialisation of meaning..
2. Word-Formation: Affixation, Conversion, Compounding.
After A.I. Smirnitsky, word-formation is the system of derivative R. Zandvoort makes distinction between complete and partial
|dɪˈrɪvətɪv| types of words and the process of creating new words from the
conversion kənˈvɜːrʒn . In cases of complete conversion, the converted word
material available in the language after certain structural and semantic
formulas and patterns. It is that branch of Lexicology which studies the takes the adjuncts ˈædʒʌŋ(k)t and grammatical endings proper to that part of
derivative structure of existing words and the patterns on which a language speech while in cases of partial conversion the converted word takes only some
builds new words. of the characteristics of the other part of speech so that it really belongs to two
Affixation is commonly defined as the formation of words by parts of speech at the same time. Thus, the poor, though plural in meaning,
adding derivational affixes to stems. Distinction is made between two types of does not take a plural ending, it becomes a noun to some extend only.
affixes: prefixes – affixes which precede the root and suffixes – affixes which So conversion consists in making a new word from some existing
follow the root. word by changing the category of a part of speech, the morphemic shape of the
Prefixes and suffixes differ significantly in their linguistic status: original word remaining unchanged. The new word has a meaning which
the former generally have a distinct meaning of their own, the latter rarely differs from that of the original one though it can more or less be easily
have, but as a rule serve to modify the meaning of the word (brown – associated with it, e.g.: The leaves were turning yellow (the adjective denotes
brownish, book – booklet) or to convert |kənˈvɜːrt| it into another part of colour). The leaves yellowed (the converted unit no longer denotes colour, but
speech (bright – brightness). the process of changing colour).
In terms of origin affixes are divided into native and borrowed Conversion is widely spread in Modern English. The main reason
and in terms of productivity – into living or productive and dead or for the wide spread development of conversion in present-day English is the
unproductive affixes. The dead affixes are mainly of historical interest, while absence of morphological elements serving as classifying signals, as formal
signs marking the part of speech to which the word belongs. The analytical
living affixes are of paramount ˈpærəmaʊnt importance for the structure of the structure of Modern English greatly facilitates processes of making words of
present-day English. one category of parts of speech from words of another. So does the simplicity
Suffixes may be classified according to different principles: of paradigms of English parts of speech. A great number of one-syllable words
1. The first principle of classification is part of speech formed. is another factor in favour of conversion, for such words are naturally more
Within the scope of the part-of-speech classification suffixes fall into noun-
mobile and flexible than polysyllables ˈpɒlɪsɪləbəlz .
forming suffixes, e.g. -age, -ance, -ation, -dom, -ence, -er, -ess, -
hood, -ing, -ment, -ness, -ship, -th, etc. (courage, arrogance, translation, Composition (or Compounding) is a type of word-building, in
kingdom, patience, writer, tigress, childhood, feeling, experiment, kindness, which new words are produced by combining two or more stems. There are at
friendship, length), adjective-forming suffixes, e.g. -able, -al, -ant, -ar, -ate, - least three aspects of composition that present special interest.
en, -ent, -ful, -ic, -ish, -less, -ly, -or, -ous, -some, -y (eatable, final, constant, The first is the structural aspect. Compounds are not
familiar, accurate, wooden, convenient, sinful, poetic, childish, hopeless, homogeneous ˌhɒmə(ʊ)ˈdʒiːnɪəs in structure. Traditionally three types are
friendly, major, courageous, quarrelsome, windy), verb-forming suffixes, e.g.
-ate, -en, -fy, -ize, -ute (appreciate, broaden, justify, harmonize), adverb- distinguished: neutral ˈnuːtrəl, morphological and syntactic sɪnˈtæktɪk|.
forming suffixes -ly, -ward (quickly, eastward, attribute), numeral-forming In neutral compounds the process of compounding is realized
suffixes -fold, -teen, -th, -ty (twofold, sixteen, tenth, twenty). without any linking elementsas in blackbird, shop-window, sunflower,
2. According to the lexico-grammatical character of the base the bedroom, etc. There are three subtypes of neutral compounds depending on the
structure of the constituent stems.
affix is added to. Proceeding from this principle suffixes fall into: 1) deverbal
Compounds which have affixes in their structure are called
|diːˈvɜːb(ə)l| suffixes (those added to the verbal base), e.g. -er, -ing, -ment, -
able, etc. (reader, reading, agreement, suitable); 2) denominal suffixes (those derived dɪˈraɪvd| or derivational |ˌderɪˈveɪʃn compounds: absent-
added to the noun base), e.g. -less, -ish, -ful, -ist, -some, etc. (handless, mindedness, blue-eyed, golden-haired, broad-shouldered, lady-killer, film-
childish, mouthful, violinist, troublesome, etc.; 3) de-adjectival suffixes (those goer, music-lover, honey-mooner, teen-ager, baby-sitter, etc.
affixed to the adjective base), e.g. -en, -ly, -ish, -ness, etc. (blacken, slowly, The third subtype of neutral compounds is called contracted
reddish, brightness, etc.). compounds. These words have a shortened (contracted) stem in their structure:
3. A classification of suffixes may also be based on the criterion TV-set (-program, -show, -canal), V-day (Victory Day), G-man (Government
of sense expressed by a set of suffixes. It should be mentioned first of all that man “FBI agent”), H-bag (handbag), T-shirt, etc.
meanings of affixes are specific and considerably differ from those of root Morphological compounds are few in number. This type is non-
morphemes: affixes have widely generalised meanings and refer the concept productive. It is represented by words in which two compounding stems are
conveyed by the whole word to a certain category. So, within the bounds of a combined by a linking vowel or consonant: Anglo-Saxon, handiwork,
certain part of speech suffixes are classified into various groups. spokesman, statesman, etc.
By conversion kənˈvɜːrʒn is meant the process of coining | In syntactic compounds words are formed from segments of
ˌkɔɪnɪŋ| new words in a different part of speech and with a different speech, preserving in their structure numerous traces of syntagmatic relations
distribution characteristic but without adding derivative element, so that the typical of speech: articles, prepositions, adverbs, as in lily-of-the-valley, Jack-
basic form of the original and the basic form of the derived word are of-all-trades, good-for-nothing, mother-in-law, sit-at-home.
homonymous ˈhɑːmənɪm . In other words, it’s the formation of a new word
through changes in its paradigm.
 А great many Latin abbreviations which are commonly used in
modern English, were borrowed during the third period, among them: e.g.
(exempli gratia) – for example, i. e. (id est) – that is to say, a.m. (ante meridiem
– before noon, v.v. (vice versa) – the opposite, etc. (et cetera) – and so on, cf.
(confer) – compare, op. cit. (opus citatum) – a work cited.

Greek Borrowings
Borrowings from Greek like those from Latin go back to an early
period. Modern scientific and technical terms of Greek origin are nearly all of
international currency ˈkɜːrənsɪ . Greek terms added much to the precision of
scientific terminology. We can find them in many fields. They are used to
3. Etymological Peculiarities of Modern English Vocabulary (Words of denote names of sciences (physics, mathematics, philology, philosophy). We
Native Origin. The Foreign Element in the English Vocabulary: Celtic can come across terms of Greek origin in the field of:
Borrowings, Romanic Borrowings, Germanic Borrowings). medicine (adenoids, paediatrics, psychiatry,
The vocabulary of Modern English is a product of many epochs psychoanalysis);
iːpɒk. To comprehend the nature of the English vocabulary and its historical literature and art (poem, poetry, drama, tragedy,
comedy, epilogue, episode, epos, elegy, ode, rhythm, etc.);
development it is necessary to examine |ɪɡˈzæmɪn| the etymology of its linguistics (synonym, antonym, homonym, metaphor,
different layers, the historical causes of their appearance, their volume and role hyperbole, idiom);
and the comparative importance of native and borrowed elements in political life (democracy);
philosophy (basis, category);
replenishing |rɪˈplenɪʃɪŋ the English vocabulary.
mathematics (hypotenuse);
Semantic borrowing (or semantic loan) is the appearance of a new meaning physics (dynamo, hydraulic, pneumatic, thermostat).
due to the influence of a related word in another language. Some Greek borrowings came to English from Latin through
Borrowings can be classified according to different criteria. One French, e.g.: academy, agony, anarchy, anatomy, anecdote, angel, atom, bulb,
of the criteria is according to the language from which the word was bureau, calm, carol, carrot, centre, chair, chamber, cherry, comedy, cream,
borrowed. In this respect the Celtic language should be dwelt ˈdwelt with cube, cycle, cylinder, daffodil, demon, diet, energy, grammar, guitar, harmony,
first of all as the Celtic language was the language of the native inhabitants of hero, horizon, hymn, idiot, ink, irony, lamp, lantern, logic, melon, method,
the British Isles. Of great interest are borrowings from Romanic, Germanic music, noise, ocean, oil, organ, pain, planet, rhythm, symbol, talent, theatre,
and Slavonic languages. Attention should be paid also to some miner theory, tour, tower, trousers, type, zone.
borrowings. Germanic Borrowings
The Celtic Element in the English Vocabulary There are about 800 words borrowed from German into English,
In the fifth century A.D. the Germanic tribes (the most numerous most of them are terms. The oldest and constant influence of the German
amongst them being the Angles, the Saxons and the Jutes) migrated across the language is in the sphere of mineralogy |ˌmɪnəˈrælədʒɪ and geology dʒɪ
sea now known as the English Channel to the British Isles. There they were ˈɑːlədʒɪ| , so we can find German loans among geological names and the names
confronted kənˈfrəntəd by the Celts, the original inhabitants of the Isles.. of metals and minerals (iceberg, cobalt, bismuth, nickel, zink, quartz, wolfram).
Examples of Celtic words appearing in Old English and preserved until Many German borrowings denote concepts of philosophy, political economy,
the present time are: down (пагорб), dun (темно-сірий колір), bin (засік), medicine and psychoanalysis (determinism, intuition, transcendental,
bald (лисий), bog (болото), doe (самка оленя), gull (чайка), loop (петля), dialectics, homeopathy, inferiority complex). There are also many words of
peat (хмиз), penguin (пінгвін), tall (високий), twig (гілка). Here belong also everyday use (kindergarten, poodle, plunder, rucksack, sauerkraut, schnapps,
less frequent words, such as brat (грубий плащ), broсk (бобер), coble schnitzel, waltz).
(рибальський човен), crock (глечик, карафа). The words bard, brogue Modern German borrowings are usually non-assimilated words
(грубий черевик), claymore, plaid, pontoon (понтон), shamrock (трилисник) which preserve morphological, phonetical and graphic peculiarities of the
are all of Celtic origin, but none of them existed in the English of the Anglo- original language, e.g.: Gelandersprung (‘a jump over an obstacle in skiing’),
Saxon period. wunderkind (‘a prodigy child’).
From other Celtic languages were borrowed such words as
crowd, flannel (from Welsh), clan, loch, slogan, whiskey (from Gallic), shanty,
Tory (from Irish).
Some Celtic words penetrated into English through other
languages. Thus, the words beak, budget, bulge, cloak, clock, gravel, harness,
javelin, job, lawn, mine, mineral, mutton, tunnel came through French.
The Celtic language left many proper names, namely: Aileen,
Cathleen, Coleen, Doreen, Mona, Sheila and Alan, Brian, Donald, Roy, etc.
Romanic Borrowings
Classical borrowings are subdivided into Latin and Greek
borrowings.
 Vocabulary can be studied as a system that includes various components, such
as synonyms, antonyms, paronyms, word-families, and semantic fields. Each
of these components contributes to the richness and complexity of the
language, allowing users to convey subtle nuances of meaning and express
their thoughts and emotions more precisely.
Synonyms ˈsɪnənɪm| are words that have similar meanings, often but not
always interchangeable in specific contexts. For example, the words "happy"
and "glad" are synonyms because they both suggest a positive emotional state.
Synonyms can be used to avoid repetition or add variety to one's speech or
writing.

Antonyms ˈæntənɪm are words that have opposite meanings. They help to
create contrast and balance in language. For example, the words "hot" and
"cold" are antonyms because they describe opposite temperature conditions.
Paronymsˈperəˌnɪm are words that have similar spellings and/or pronunciations
but different meanings. They can be a source of confusion for language
learners and require careful attention to context. For example, "compliment"
and "complement" are paronyms because they sound similar, but they have
different meanings.
Word-families are groups of words that are related to each other based on a
4. Vocabulary as a System (Synonyms, Antonyms, Paronyms, Word- common root word. They can help learners to expand their vocabulary by
families, Semantic Fields). learning new words that are related to words they already know. For example,
Modern English has a very extensive vocabulary. A question the word "play" can form a word family with "player," "playful,"
naturally arises whether this enormous word-stock is composed of separate "playground," and "playtime."
independent lexical units, or it should perhaps be regarded as a certain Semantic fields are groups of words that are related to each other based on a
structured system made up of numerous interdependent and interrelated sub- shared theme or category. They can be useful for learners to organize their
systems or groups of words. This problem may be viewed in terms of possible vocabulary and understand how words relate to each other. For example, the
ways of classifying vocabulary items. semantic field of "animals" might include words like "dog," "cat," "bird," and
According to lexical field theory, the vocabulary of a language is "fish."
essentially a dynamic and well-integrated system of lexemes structured by
relationships of meaning. The system is changing continuously by the
interaction of various forces such as the disappearance of previously existing
lexemes, or the broadening |ˈbrɒdənɪŋ or narrowing of the meaning of some
lexemes. The system is mainly characterized by the general-particular and part-
whole relationships, which hold not only between individual lexemes and the
lexical field within which they are best interpreted ˌɪnˈtɜːprətəd , but also
between specific lexical fields and the vocabulary as a whole.
2. Стилістика
1. Figures of substitution. l Figurative periphrasis is based upon metaphor or metonymy:
Stylistic semasiology is a part of stylistics which investigates To marry – to tie the knot (metaphor)
stylistic phenomena in the sphere of semantics, i.e. in the sphere of meanings, Enthusiast – young blood (metonymy)
regardless of the form of linguistic units. It investigates the rules and laws of Money – root of evil (metaphor).
shifts of meanings; the patterns according to which the meanings are shifted Metaphor
(various combinations of meaning). Metaphor, like metonymy, is the result of transference of the
In semantics, meaning is the message conveyed by words, name of the object to another object. However, metaphoric transference is of
sentences, and symbols in a context. What is the meaning of the word ‘nurse’? different nature: it is based upon similarity of the objects (not contiguity). In
“That nurse’? “I’m not your nurse!’?. semiotic terms it’s an iconic sign. Metaphors appear to flout the Gricean
Figures of substitution maxim of QUALITY (always tell the truth), as they are used figuratively.
1) FIGURES OF QUANTITY: hyperbole, meiosis, litotes. Metaphorical Group consists of METAPHOR,
2) FIGURES OF QUALITY: metonymy, metaphor, irony, ANTONOMASIA, PERSONIFICATION and EPITHET.
synecdoche, periphrasis, euphemism, epithet, antonomasia, personification. Classification of metaphors
Figures of Quantity According to the pragmatic effect produced upon the addressee,
HYPERBOLE metaphors are subdivided into trite (or hackneyed, or dead – стерта) and
Hyperbole [hai’pebeli] is a deliberate exaggeration of a certain genuine (or fresh, or original).
quality of an object or phenomenon. Metaphors may also be classified according to their structure:
E.g. Mary was scared to death. simple (or elementary) and prolonged (or sustained).
MEIOSIS Simple Metaphors
This figure of quantity is opposite in meaning to hyperbole. e.g. But nothing happened. He was stalemated; and he was
Meiosis [mai’ousi:z] is a deliberate diminution [dimi’njusn] of a burning up with marble fever (I. Stone. The Agony and the Ecstasy)
certain quality of an object or phenomenon. (just a drop in the ocean) e.g. Lecoq said, "Just because you put your life and ego into
E.g. There was a drop of water left in the bucket. stone doesn’t mean anything will come out of it. (D. Weiss. Naked CameI)
LITOTES Prolonged (sustained) metaphor
l Litotes [‘laitouti:z] is a specific variant of meiosis. e.g. The world stood still. The traffic stopped, the plants ceased
l Features: Litotes has a peculiar syntactic structure. It is a growing, men were paralyzed, the clouds hung in the air, the winds dropped,
combination of the negative particle ‘not’ and a word with the tides disappeared, the sun halted in the sky (R. Gordon)
negative meaning or a negative prefix. Such a combination Epithet
gives positive sense to a negative utterance: ‘not bad’ Unlike mere attributes epithets describe objects expressively.
means ‘good’, ‘not unkind’ means ‘kind’. Epithets are subjective and evaluating, often metaphorical: e.g. loud ocean,
E.g. Martin is not without a sense of humor. wild wind, irresistible charm.
Figures of Quality Epithet is based on the interplay of emotive and logical
METONYMY meaning in an attributive word, phrase, or even sentence, used to
Metonymy (from Greek = name change) is transference of a characterize an object.
name of one object to another object. This is a trope by which the name of a e.g. a smiling sun, the frowning cloud.
REFERENT is replaced by the name of an attribute, or by the name of an ANTONOMASIA (From Greek ‘name instead’,
entity related in some semantic way (cause and effect, instrument instead of an this variety of metaphor) is based upon the principle of
actor, creation instead of an author etc). identification of human beings with things which surround them.
SYNECDOCHE [si’nekdiki] People may be identified with other people, with animals, with
This variety of metonymy is realized in two variants: inanimate objects and natural phenomena.
l The first variant is naming the whole object by mentioning Personification is a figure of speech in which an
part of it: inanimate object, animate non-human, or abstract quality is given
e.g. Caroline lives with Jack under the same roof (under the same HUMAN ATTRIBUTES. E.g. Lie is a strange creature, and a
roof = in the same house). very mean one. The night was creeping towards the travellers.
Here comes another beard. Personification is attributing human properties to
The blue suit bowed and left the room. lifeless objects – mostly to abstract notions, such as thought,
PERIPHRASIS actions, intentions, emotions, seasons of the year, etc.
l This variety of metonymy is the replacement of a direct name IRONY
of a thing or phenomenon by description of some quality This figure of quality is realized when the speaker intentionally
of this thing or phenomenon. breaks the principle of sincerity of speech. Ironically used
Periphrasis intensifies a certain feature of the object described. It words acquire meanings opposite to their primary language
stands close to metonymy because it is one more way to meanings: ironical ‘good’ means ‘bad’, ‘pleased’ means
rename objects. ‘displeased’ etc.
Logical periphrasis is based upon one of the inherent properties E.g. What a noble illustration of the tender laws!
of the object: Favoured country! – they let the paupers go to sleep!
E.g. weapons = instruments of destruction It must be delightful to find oneself in a foreign country without a penny in
Love = the most pardonable of human weaknesses one’s pocket.
Київ – місто каштанів
2. Figures of combination.
Metaphor: A metaphor combines two things that are not literally related but Onomatopoeia ˌɒnə(ʊ)mætəˈpiːə : Onomatopoeia uses words that imitate the
share common characteristics. For example, "she was a ray of sunshine" sound of what they describe. For example, "buzz" imitates the sound of a bee.
combines a person with a natural phenomenon. Irony: Irony involves using language to convey the opposite of what is meant,
Simile ˈsɪmɪlɪ : Similar to a metaphor, a simile combines two things, but using
often for humorous |ˈhjuːm(ə)rəs or dramatic effect. For example, saying "Oh,
the words "like" or "as". For example, "her eyes are as blue as the ocean"
combines a person's eyes with the color of the ocean. great!" when something bad happens is ironic.
Personification: Personification gives human characteristics to non-human Oxymoron ˌɑːksɪˈmɔːrɑːn : An oxymoron combines two words with opposite
objects or animals. For example, "the wind whispered through the trees" gives or contradictory meanings to create a new meaning. For example, "jumbo
the wind a human characteristic of whispering. shrimp ʃrɪmp " combines the words "jumbo", meaning large, and "shrimp",
Hyperbole haɪˈpɜːrbəlɪ| : Hyperbole involves exaggerating |ɪɡˈzædʒəreɪtɪŋ| meaning small.
something to emphasize a point or create a dramatic effect. For example, "I've Pun |pʌn| : A pun involves using a word or phrase that has multiple meanings
told you a million times" exaggerates the number of times something has been or sounds similar to another word, to create a humorous effect. For example,
said. "I'm reading a book on anti-gravity. It's impossible to put down" uses the
Alliteration: Alliteration involves using the same sound at the beginning of double meaning of "put down" to create a pun.
several words in close proximity. For example, "Peter Piper picked a peck of
pickled peppers" uses the repetition of the "p" sound.
Assonance |ˈæsənəns| : Assonance is similar to alliteration, but involves the
repetition of vowel sounds in close proximity. For example, "The rain in Spain
falls mainly in the plain" repeats the long "a" sound.
3.Syntactic expressive stylistic means rhythm rɪðəm and is typical of poetry. It makes speech persuasive and is a
Syntactic expressive stylistic means refer to the use of various patterns and feature of the publicistic and oratory styles. It underlines important informa-
structures of language to convey emotions, create rhythm, and emphasize tion and is widely used in everyday speech.
certain ideas or aspects of the text. INVERSION
Inversion is the syntactic phenomenon of intentional changing word-order of
Syntactic expressive means and stylistic devices of the English language: the initial sentence model: To her family Martha gives all her time
• based on reduction |rɪˈdʌkʃ(ə)n| of the initial |ɪˈnɪʃl| sentence model: ellipsis, RHETORIC ˈretərɪk| QUESTIONS
These are not questions but affirmative or negative statements put into the
aposiopesis ˌapə(ʊ)ˌsaɪəˈpiːsɪs| , nominative sentences, asyndeton |əˈsɪndɪt(ə)n; interrogative shape. A rhetoric question needs no answer, because the answer
• based on extension of the initial sentence model: repetition, polysyndeton, "it to it is quite obvious.
is (was) he, who...", the emphatic verb "to do", Communicative functions. A rhetoric question enhances the expressiveness of
• based on change of word-order: inversion, detachment; speech. Used in oratory style, rhetoric questions aim at catching the attention
• based on interaction of syntactic structures in context: parallel constructions; of the audience, making the sequential sentences sound persuasive and
• based on transposition of meaning and connection of constituent kən significant.
ˈstɪtʃuːənts parts: rhetoric questions, parceling.
ELLIPSIS An elliptical sentence is such a syntactic structure in which there is
no subject, or predicate, or both. The main parts of elliptical sentences are
omitted by the speaker intentionally in cases when they are semantically
redundant |rɪˈdʌnd(ə)nt .
Communicative functions. Ellipsis saves the speaker from needless ef-fort,
spares his time, reduces redundancy |rɪˈdʌnd(ə)nt of speech. Elliptical
structures may also reveal such speakers' emotions as excitement, impatience,
delight, etc. As a stylistic device, ellipsis is an effective means of protagonists |
prəˈtæɡ(ə)nɪst ' portrayal pɔːrˈtreɪəl.
APOSIOPESIS ˌapə(ʊ)ˌsaɪəˈpiːsɪs|
Like ellipsis, aposiopesis is also realized through incompleteness of sentence
structure, though this incompleteness is of different structural and semantic
nature: it appears when the speaker is unwilling to proceed and breaks off his
narration abruptly |əˈbrʌptlɪ| : If you go on like this...
ASYNDETON |əˈsɪndɪt(ə)n
It is deliberate dɪˈlɪbərət| omission of structurally significant conjunctions and
connectives.
For example: John couldn 't have done such a silly thing, he is enough clever
for that. Fathers, mothers, uncles, cousins.
Communicative functions. Asyndeton makes speech dynamic and ex-pressive.
Sometimes it implies the speaker's haste heɪst| , nervousness and impatience.
REPETITION
Stylistic repetition of language units in speech (separate words, word-
combinations or sentences) is one of the most frequent and potent stylis-tic
devices.
For example: Never take the rifle again. Put it back! put it back! Put it back!
There are several structural types of repetition:
ANAPHORA. əˈnæfərə The repeated word or word-combination is at the
beginning of each consecutive |kənˈsekjətɪv| syntactic structure.
For example: Victory is what we need. Victory is what we expect.
EPIPHORA ɪˈpɪf(ə)rə| . The repeated unit is placed at the end of each
consecutive|kənˈsekjətɪv syntactic structure.
For example: It is natural to be scared in a case like that.
POLYSYNDETON [ ͵pɒlıʹsındıtən ]
It is stylistically motivated redundant rɪˈdʌnd(ə)nt| repetition of conjunctions
or prepositions: The dog barked and pulled Jack, and growled, and raged.
Communicative functions. Polysyndeton is a means of rhythmical organization
of the utterance. Due to this quality it is widely used in poetry. It also makes
for underlining the most important part of information.
PARALLEL CONSTRUCTIONS
Parallelism is a stylistic device of producing two or more syntactic structures
according to the same syntactic pattern:
Mary cooked dinner, John watched TV, Pete played tennis.
Communicative functions. Syntactic parallelism is polyfunctional. It creates
3. Історія мови
1. The problem of periodization of the history of English. The historical
development of a language is a continuous uninterrupted process without
sudden ˈsʌdn breaks or rapid ˈræpɪd| transformations. The commonly
accepted traditional periodization divides English into three periods: Old
English (OE), Middle English (ME) and New English (NE). OE begins with
the Germanic settlement of Britain (5th c.) or with the beginning of writing
(7th c.) and ends with the Norman Conquest (1066); ME begins with the
Norman conquest and ends on the introduction of printing (1475), which is the
start of Modern English or New English period; the New period lasts to the
present day.Each period is marked by a set of specific features of phonology,
grammar and vocabulary. The English scholar Henry Sweet (1845-1921),
author of a number of works on the English language and on its history,
proposed the following division |dɪˈvɪʒn of the history of English according to
the state of unstressed endings:1st period, Old English – the period of full
endings (any vowel may be found in an unstressed ending);2nd period,
Middle English – the period of levelled endings (vowels of unstressed endings
have been levelled under a neutral vowel);3rd period, Modern English – the
period of lost endings (endings are lost). The following periodization of
English history is partly based on the conventional three periods; it
subdivided the history of the English language into seven periods taking into
account differing in extra- and intralinguistuic factors.

The first period Old English. Early Old English (450-700) lasts from the
West Germanic invasion of Britain till the beginning of writing. It is the stage
of the dialects of the West Germanic . The tribal |ˈtraɪbl dialects were used for
oral communication, there being no written form of English. Old English
(Anglo-Saxon, Written OE) (700-1066)

The second period Middle English.Early Middle English (1066-1350), the

year of the Norman Conquest. It was the stage of the greatest dialectal
divergence daɪˈvɜːdʒ(ə)ns caused by foreign influences –Scandinavian and
French. Local dialects were used for oral communication. Under Norman rule
the official language in England was French, or rather its variety called Anglo-
French or Anglo-Norman; it was also the dominant language of literature.

The third period New English. Early New English (1476-1660). Lasted from
the introduction of printing to the age of Shakespeare. The first printed book in
English was published by William Caxton in 1475. This period is transition
between the age of Shakespeare, also known as Literary Renaissance. This
period was also a time of sweeping changes at all levels, in the first place
lexical and phonetic, also the growth of the vocabulary.
 (exempli gratia) – for example, i. e. (id est) – that is to say, a.m. (ante
meridiem – before noon, v.v. (vice verca) – the opposite, etc. (et cetera) – and
so on, cf. (confer) – compare, op. cit. (opus citatum) – a work cited.

Greek Borrowings
Borrowings from Greek like those from Latin go back to an early period. But
the influx of Greek words did not begin until the time of the Revival |rɪˈvaɪvl|
of Learning. These are mostly bookish borrowings. Modern scientific and
technical terms of Greek origin are nearly all of international currency.They
are used to denote names of sciences (physics, mathematics, philology,
philosophy). We can come across terms of Greek origin in the field of:
medicine (adenoids, pediatrics, psychiatry, psychoanalysis);
literature and art (poem, poetry, drama, tragedy, comedy,
epilogue, episode, epos, elegy, ode, rhythm, etc.);
linguistics (synonym, antonym, homonym, metaphor, hyperbole,
idiom);
political life (democracy);
philosophy (basis, category);
mathematics (hypotenuse);
physics (dynamo, hydraulic, pneumatic, thermostat).
A great many Greek words came in chiefly through the medium of
Latin, for Latin itself was largely indebted ɪnˈdetɪd to Greek. Through Latin
such words as abyss, aloe, anthem, asphalt, asylum, axiom, basis, cactus,
camera, cemetery, chaos, character, chart, chorus, comma, diploma, echo,
epoch, ethnic, exotic, gigantic, glossary, hemisphere, idea, laconic, opium,
orphan, pyramid, system, thesis were borrowed.
Some Greek borrowings came to English from Latin through
French, e.g.: academy, agony, anarchy, anatomy, anecdote, angel, atom, bulb,
bureau, calm, carol, carrot, centre, chair, chamber, cherry, comedy, cream,
cube, cycle, cylinder, daffodil, demon, diet, energy, grammar, guitar, harmony,
2. Foreign influence on the English vocabulary.
hero, horizon, hymn, idiot, ink, irony, lamp, lantern, logic, melon, method,
music, noise, ocean, oil, organ, pain, planet, rhythm, symbol, talent, theatre,
From the earliest stages of its development, English has come into contact with
theory, tour, tower, trousers, type, zone.
a number of foreign languages.
Some proper names come from Greek too: male names: Alexander,
The Celtic language. Examples of Celtic words appearing in Old English and Andrew, Basil, Eugene, Gregory, Nicholas, Peter, Philip, Stephen, Timothy;
preserved until the present time are: down (пагорб), dun (темно-сірий колір), female: Barbara, Christine, Doris, Lydia, Margaret, Melanie, Sophia.
bin (засік), bald (лисий), bog (болото), doe (самка оленя), gull (чайка), loop The French Element in the English Vocabulary . French borrowings can be
(петля), peat (хмиз), penguin (пінгвін), tall (високий), twig (гілка). Here found in many spheres. sfɪr] They can be classified into the following semantic
belong also less frequent words, such as brat (грубий плащ), broсk (бобер), groups:
coble (рибальський човен), crock (глечик, карафа). The words bard, brogue 1. terms relating to military matters: aggress, admiral, arms, battle,
(грубий черевик), claymore, plaid, pontoon (понтон), shamrock (трилисник) camp, chivalry, combat, command, conquer, defense, destroy, enemy,
are all of Celtic origin, but none of them existed in the English of the Anglo-
navy, penalty, sergeant, soldier, surrender, traitor, troops, etc.;
Saxon period. From other Celtic languages were borrowed such words as
2. law terms: accuse, arrest, constable, court, crime, deny, goal, jail,
crowd, flannel (from Welsh), clan, loch, slogan, whiskey (from Gallic), shanty,
judge, justice, prison, procure, punish, testify, verdict;
Tory (from Irish). Some Celtic words penetrated |ˈpenəˌtretəd into English 3. cookery terms: biscuits, boil, dinner, fry, jelly, pastry, roast, soup,
through other languages. Thus, the words beak, budget, bulge, cloak, clock, sausage, supper;
gravel, harness, javelin, job, lawn, mine, mineral, mutton, tunnel came through 4. political life: policy, government, parliament, minister, state,
French. The Celtic language left many proper names, namely: Aileen, sovereign;
Cathleen, Coleen, Doreen, Mona, Sheila and Alan, Brian, Donald, Roy, etc. 5. literary terms: novel(ist), publisher, magazine, editor;
The influence of the Celtic language upon English may also be traced in names 6. religious terms: pray, religion, service, tempt, saint;
of places.
7. words denoting things which make our life pleasant: comfort,
delight, joy, flower;
Classical Borrowings
Classical borrowings are subdivided into Latin and Greek borrowings. 8. names of titles and professions: baron, duke, duchess, butcher,
Latin Borrowings painter, tailor;
Latin borrowings are usually divided into early Latin loans |ləʊn and later
loans. German Borrowings . There are about 800 words borrowed from German into
The very first borrowings from Latin appeared still in the first century B.C. At English, most of them are terms. The oldest and constant influence of the
that time most of the territory known now as Europe was occupied by the German language is in the sphere of mineralogy and geology, so we can find
Roman Empire. Among the inhabitants of the continent were Germanic tribes | German loans among geological names and the names of metals and minerals
traɪb| . Their tribal languages contained only Indo-European and Germanic (iceberg, cobalt, bismuth, nickel, zink, quartz, wolfram). Many German
elements. After a number of wars between the Germanic tribes and the Romans borrowings denote concepts of philosophy, political economy, medicine and
these two opposing peoples came into peaceful contact. Trade was carried on, psychoanalysis (determinism, intuition, transcendental, dialectics,
and the Germanic people gained knowledge of new and useful things. It is to homeopathy, inferiority complex). There are also many words of everyday use
the Romans that the Germanic tribes owe the knowledge of butter, cheese, (kindergarten, poodle, plunder, rucksack, sauerkraut, schnaps, schnitzel,
some new fruits and vegetables of which they had no idea before, and the Latin waltz). The loan words which entered the English vocabulary in the period of
names of these things enter their vocabularies: cherry, pear, plum, pea, beet, World War II usually denote political and military notions characterizing the
pepper, cup, kitchen, mill, port, wine. To this period also belongs the word
mango which survives in the English monger, which has now become a bloody aggressive regime |reɪˈʒiːm| of Hiltler, e.g.: blitz (from Blitzkrieg),
component part of such compound words as fishmonger, ironmonger, blackshirt, fürer, Bundeswehr, Gestapo, Luftwaffe, nazi, SS-man, Third
warmonger. Among the words of early loans from Latin are also such as: arc, Reich, Volkssturm, Wehrmacht. After the war such words as Berufsverbot,
arena, ass, belt, castle, cell, cereal, chest, colony, cook, cup, dish, kitchen, Volkswagen appeared. There are also some loan translations: class struggle,
mile, mill, mule, street, villa, wall. gas chamber, masterpiece, place in the sun, surplus value, swan song, thing-in-
Some geographical or topographical terms are also of Latin origin of this itself, world outlook, world market. Modern German borrowings are usually
period: equator, continental, meridian, latitude, peninsular. non-assimilated words which preserve morphological, phonetical and graphic
Besides, a great many Latin abbreviations which are commonly used in
peculiarities of the original language, e.g.: Gelandersprung (‘a jump over an
modern English, were borrowed during the third period, among them: e.g.
obstacle in skiing’), wunderkind (‘a prodigy child’).
 two major external factors favoured the rise of the national language and the
literary standards: - the unification of the country - the progress of culture.

The "national" language embraces |ɪmˈbreɪs| all the varieties of the language
used by the nation including dialects. The ''national literary language"
applies only to recognized standard forms of the language, both written and
spoken. For earlier periods of history the term "literary language" may
indicate the language of writing in a wider sense, including chronicles
ˈkrɒnɪk(ə)l, legal documents, religious texts, etc.

The Early Modern English period (approximately 1500-1700 AD)

significant changes in the English language and the establishment of new
literary norms. During this period, several key developments influenced the
literary landscape: Printing Press and Standardization |stændərdəˈzeɪʃən|:
The invention of the printing press in the 15th century enabled the mass
production and dissemination |dɪˌsemɪˈneɪʃn| of written texts. This led to
increased standardization and the establishment of a more uniform written
English language. Printers and publishers played a crucial ˈkruːʃ(ə)l role in
promoting linguistic norms and creating a standard spelling system. The
Influence of Classical and Continental Literature: The Renaissance brought
a renewed interest in classical literature and the works of ancient Greek and
Roman writers. The study of classical languages and literature, such as Latin
and Greek, influenced English writers and shaped the literary norms of the
time. Translations of classical texts and exposure ɪkˈspəʊʒər| to Continental
European literary traditions also contributed to the development of new styles
and genres. Rise of Drama and Playwriting: The Early Modern English
period saw a flourishing of drama and the emergence of notable playwrights
such as William Shakespeare, Christopher Marlowe, and Ben Jonson. The
establishment of public theaters and the popularity of drama as a form of
entertainment influenced the development of the literary norm. Metrical
ˈmetrɪkl Poetry and Sonnet Sequences: Poetry in the Early Modern English
3. Establishment of the literary norm in the Early New English period. period followed specific metrical patterns and forms. The Emergence of
English Prose: The Early Modern English period witnessed the growth of
Formation of the English national language The formation of the national prose writing, including essays, letters, and prose fiction. Influential prose
literary English language covers the Early NE period (c. 1475—1660). works, such as Thomas More's "Utopia" and Francis Bacon's philosophical
essays, contributed to the development of prose norms and styles.
Henceforth it is possible to speak of the evolution of a single literary language
instead of the similar or different development of the dialects. The English literary norm was formed at the end of the 17th century.

4. Теоретична граматика
1. The definition and general characteristics of word-groups as syntactic units.

Word-groups are a combination of two or more words that function together to 3. They can have different functions: Word-groups can function as
express a complete thought or idea. They are syntactic units because they are nouns, verbs, adjectives, adverbs, and more, depending on their
structured according to the rules and principles of syntax, which govern the structure and context.
way words are organized in a sentence.
4. They can be modified: Word-groups can be modified by other
Some general characteristics of word-groups as syntactic units include: words, such as adjectives, adverbs, prepositions, and articles.

1. They have a head word: Every word-group has a word that is the 5. They can be standalone ˈstandələʊn or part of a larger sentence:
most important or central, called the head word. The other words Word-groups can be independent clauses, complete sentences on
in the group provide information about the head word and its their own, or they can be part of a larger sentence, functioning as a
function in the sentence. subordinate clause or a phrase.

2. They have a specific order: Word-groups follow a specific order Overall, word-groups as syntactic units form an essential part of language
of words according to the rules of grammar. For example, structure and help us to communicate complex ideas and information
adjectives usually come before nouns, while adverbs usually come effectively.
after verbs.

2. The theories of classification of parts of speech.

There are various theories of classification of parts of speech. Some of the 3. Functional approach: This approach categorizes parts of speech
major theories are: based on their functions in communication. The functional
classification includes three categories: content words (nouns,
1. Traditional approach: This approach categorizes parts of speech verbs, adjectives, and adverbs), function words (articles,
based on their function in a sentence. The traditional classification prepositions, conjunctions, and pronouns), and discourse markers
includes eight parts of speech: noun, pronoun, verb, adjective, (interjections and expletives).
adverb, preposition, conjunction, and interjection.
4. Cognitive |ˈkɑːɡnətɪv approach: This approach categorizes parts
2. Structural approach: This approach categorizes parts of speech of speech based on the cognitive processes involved in the use and
based on the role they play in phrases and sentences. The understanding of language. The cognitive classification includes
structural classification includes five parts of speech: noun, verb, three categories: lexical categories (nouns, verbs, adjectives, and
adjective, adverb, and function word (preposition, conjunction, adverbs), grammatical categories (articles, prepositions,
and interjection).
 conjunctions, and pronouns), and phonological categories (sounds Overall, the classification of parts of speech is a complex area of study that
and intonation patterns). requires a deep understanding of the structures and functions of language.

5. Загальне мовознавство

1. Characteristics of human languages

Displacement. This is the ability to use language to talk about times, places Cultural transmission. This refers to how languages are acquired əˈkwaɪər by
and people other than ‘here and now’. It also enables us to say things which we
our children. The assumption |əˈsʌm(p)ʃ(ə)n| is that there is no genetic
know to be false i.e. to lie. Bees are said to be able to convey some of this
information in their ‘dance’ which they employ to pass on information about component (although Noam Chomsky challenges this with his theory of
food sources. Universal Grammar) which would enable a child to simply start speaking e.g.
English at a certain age, but rather that children need to be exposed to a
language (and culture) in order to acquire it. Many animals, however, do seem
Arbitrariness. |ˈɑːrbɪtrerɪnəs This means that there is generally no natural, to pass the ability to communicate on to their offspring genetically e.g. dogs
inherent |ɪnˈhɪər(ə)nt relationship between the signs (i.e. sounds or letters) we will bark |bɑːrk| even if they have never heard another dog.
produce and their meaning. For this reason, different languages can use
different signs to refer to one and the same thing e.g. a flower in English is
квітка in Ukrainian. When language tries to mirror or ‘echo’ the sounds made Duality. |duːˈælətɪ| Duality (or ‘double articulation’) refers to two separate
by animals and objects this is called onomatop(o)eia (cuckoo, tick-tock). layers of language working together to provide us with a pool of sounds which
Arbitrariness also enables languages to evolve, both in the sense that existing we can combine to communicate with one another. On the one hand, we have a
signs can come to mean new things (e.g. pen which used to refer to a quill), but limited number of discrete sounds (e.g. the 44 phonemes in English) which in
also that new signs can be introduced for existing things. Animal languages, in isolation have no inherent |ɪnˈhɪər(ə)nt meaning e.g. b, i, or n. On the other
contrast, are more likely to have fixed reference i.e. a certain sign has a specific hand, we have a virtually unlimited number of distinct meanings which we can
and fixed meaning. Productivity. ˌprɑːdʌkˈtɪvətɪ| This is an important create by combining these sounds in certain ways e.g. bin, or nib. Various other
characteristic of human language allowing us to continuously create new combinations such as bni are not meaningful in English, but could possibly be
in other languages. A further feature of human language is reflexiveness, which
utterances |ˈʌt(ə)r(ə)ns| , combining the ‘building bricks’ of language in ever means that we are able to use the language to talk about language – which is
new ways, whether these be sounds, words or sentences. Human languages are typically what linguists do.
therefore continually evolving.