12/5/2023 ELECTRICITY 1

Let’s observe Virtual Lab

12/5/2023 ELECTRICITY 2
Electric Charge (Q)
The intrinsic property of a particle
because of which it experiences force
in electromagnetic field is called
electric charge.
The positive charge experience force
in the direction of electric field
The negative charge experience force
in the direction opposite to that of
electric field.

SI unit: Coulomb (C)

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Charge carriers
The charged particles which contribute to an electric current are known
as charge carriers.
For examples: electrons (e-), protons (p+) or ions.
Current is due to the flow of charge particles called charge carriers.
Sometimes, a current is due to a flow of positive charges.
Ex : A beam of protons produced in a particle accelerator. In this case,
the current is in the same direction as the particles.

12/5/2023 ELECTRICITY 4
Contd… Sometimes a current is due to both
positive and negative charges.
Ex: Flow of charged particles
.
through a solution (electrolyte)
which contains both positive and
negative ions. In this case these ions
move in opposite direction when
the solution is connected to a cell.
Sometimes, a current is due to the
flow of negative charges (electrons).
Ex: Electric current in a conductor.

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How much charge does
each particle carry? This charge is so small that to have a
 Each electron carries a tiny negative charge charge equivalent to one coulomb
of approx. – 1.6 × 10-19C. about 6 million million million
 The magnitude of this charge is represented electrons are needed.
by ‘e’.

i.e. e = 1.6 × 10-19 C

e = 1.6 × 10-19 C

 This is the smallest possible unit of charge. or 1.6 × 10-19 C = e

 The smallest possible unit of charge is called
1
elementary charge (e). or 1 C = e
1.6 ×10−19
 Thus, elementary charge e = 1.6 × 10-19 C.
12/5/2023 ELECTRICITY
1 C = 6.25 × 1018 e. 7
Contd…
Protons are positively charged particle, with a charge of + e.
i.e. + 1.6 × 10-19 C
This charge is equal and opposite to that of an electron.
Ions carry charges that are multiples of + e and –e.
For example, Zn++ ion has a charge of +2e, SO4- - ion has a charge of -2e,
Al+++ has a charge of +3 e and so on.
From above illustrations, it is clear that “Charge is Quantized”. It means
that charge can only come in amounts which are integer multiples of the
elementary charge.
i.e. Q = ± N e --------------- (1)
Where N is integer having values 1,2,3,4,…..etc. and e is the elementary
charge.

12/5/2023 ELECTRICITY 8
Are they possible?
(a) 3.2 × 10-19 C (b) 2.5 × 10-19 C

(c) 6.0 × 10-19 C (d) 8.0 × 10-19 C

(e) 10.0 × 10-19 C

𝑄
We have, Q=±Ne or, N =
𝑒

So, (a) N = 2 (b) N = 1.56 (c) N = 3.75 (d) N = 5 (e) N = 6.25

[Since electric charge is carried by particles, it must come in amounts which are
multiples of e].

12/5/2023 ELECTRICITY 9
Only exception:
The only exception is in the case of the fundamental particles called
quarks, which are the building blocks from which particles such as
protons and neutrons are made.
1 2
Quarks have fractional charges such as ± e or ± e.
3 3
However, they always appear in twos or threes so that their combined
charge is either zero or a multiple of e.
For example proton is made up of three quarks i.e. up, up, and down
2
quarks where up quarks have a charge of + e and down quarks have a
3
1
charge of - e.
3
2 2 1 2𝑒+2𝑒 −1𝑒 3
So charge of proton = uud = + e + e - e = = + e.
3 3 3 3 3
Hence the charge of proton = +e.
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Conservation of Charge: The principle of conservation of charge states
that, “the algebraic sum of all the electric
charges in any closed (isolated) system is
constant”.
Let us consider an isolated system of glass rod
and silk cloth.
If you rub a glass rod with silk, both initially
uncharged, the silk cloth acquires a negative
charge (since it takes electrons from the glass
rod) and the glass rod acquires a positive
charge of the same magnitude (since it has lost
as many electrons as the silk has gained).
Before rubbing,
Charge (QG) on glass rod = 0
Charge (QS) on silk cloth = 0
Total net charge before rubbing = QG + QS
= 0
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Contd…
After rubbing,
Charge (QG’) on glass rod = + 5 e
Charge (QS’) on silk cloth = - 5 e
.
Total net charge after rubbing = QG’ + QS’
=+5e–5e
=0
Hence, in an isolated system, total initial
charge = total final charge.
Thus in this process, charge is neither
created nor destroyed; it is merely
transferred from one body to another.

12/5/2023 ELECTRICITY 13
Examples:
• Flow of charge in conductor:
• Ionization of CuSO4 in a solution:

CuSO4 = Cu++ + SO4- -

Total net charge before ionization = 0

Total net charge after ionization = 0

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Electric Current (I):
Electric current is the rate of flow electric charge past a point.
If Q coulomb of charge passes through a point in an electric circuit in time t then
the electric current is
Charge (Q)
Electric Current (I) =
time(t)
Q
I = ------------------ (1)
t
SI unit = ampere (A)
What is 1 ampere?
• When 1 C of charge passes a point

in a circuit in 1 s, then the current is said to be 1 A.

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Contd… What is 2 A current?
. • When 2 C of charge passes a point in
a circuit in 1 s, then the current is
said to be 2 A.
• Ammeter = instrument to measure
electric current
• It is connected in series with an
electrical load in a circuit.
• Ideal ammeter has zero resistance so
that when it is connected in series
with the electrical load, it won’t
disturb the flow of electric current
through the load.

12/5/2023 ELECTRICITY 16
Contd…
• From the definition of electric current, we have
Q
I=
t
or Q = I × t
or ∆𝑄 = I × ∆t
[Where, ∆𝑄 is the charge which flows during a time ∆t and I is the
current].
Hence, Electric Charge = current × time
Define One coulomb (1 C) charge.
One coulomb is the charge which flows past a point in a circuit in a
time of 1 s when the current is 1 A.
Note that the ampere (A) and the coulomb (C) are both SI unit; the
ampere is a base unit while the coulomb is a derived unit.
12/5/2023 ELECTRICITY 17
Q. Calculate the current in a circuit when a charge of 600 C passes a point in a circuit in
5.0 minutes.
• Solution:
Charge (Q) = 600 C
Time (t) = 5.0 min. = 5 × 60 sec. = 300 sec.
Electric current (I) = ?
We have,
Q
I=
t
600 C
=
300 s
= 2 C/s
=2A

12/5/2023 ELECTRICITY 18
Q. There is a current of 5 A through a lamp for 2.0 hours. Calculate how much
charge flows through the lamp in this time.
Given,
Electric current (I) = 5 A
Time (t) = 2.0 hrs. = 2 × 60 ×60 sec = 7200 s
Charge (Q) = ?
We have,
Q=I×t
= 5 × 7200
= 36000 C
= 3.6 × 104 C

12/5/2023 ELECTRICITY 19
Q. How many electrons pass through a given cross-section of the conductor in 1 second if there is a
current of 3.2 A current in that conductor?

Solution: Since, an electron has a charge of

Q magnitude 1.6 × 10−19 C.
I=
t
3.2 C
or, I t = Q So, number of electrons (N) =
1.6 ×10−19 C

or, Q = 3.2 × 1 = 2 x 1019

or, Q = 3.2 C
N = 2 x 1019

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Direction of Electric Current (I):

1. Conventional Direction
2. Actual Direction
.

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Contd… Conventional Direction:
It was supposed to be due to the flow of
positive charges.
The conventional direction of electric current
in metal is from positive terminal of the cell or
battery (i.e. power supply) to its negative
terminal.
. Actual Direction:
It is found due to the flow of electrons that
carry negative charges.
The actual direction of electric current in
metal is from negative terminal of the cell or
battery (i.e. power supply) to its positive
terminal.
Scientific convention???
Conventional Direction

Is it a vector or a scalar quantity then?

Scalar quantity

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Circuit Diagram:
• A schematic diagram of an electric circuit that helps to get the idea as how the electric
circuit works is called circuit diagram.
• According to International Electro-technical Commission (IEC), a part of a set of
internationally agreed conventional symbols for electrical components are given
below:
• [IEC is an international organization that establishes agreements on electrical symbols,
safety standards, working practices etc. so that there will be less likelihood of
misunderstanding among various people working at different organization in different
countries.]

Component Name Circuit Symbols

1. Connecting leads

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Contd…
Component Name Circuit Symbol

2. Cell

3. Battery of cells

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Contd…
Component Name Circuit Symbol

3. Fixed Resistor

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Contd…
Component Name Circuit Symbol

4. Variable Resistor

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Contd…
Component Name Circuit Symbol
5. Power supply

6. Junction of conductors

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Contd…
Component Name Circuit Symbol

7. Crossing conductors (no connection)

8. Filament lamp

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Contd…
Component Name Circuit Symbol
9. Voltmeter

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Contd…
Component Name Circuit Symbol
10. Ammeter

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Contd…
Component Name
Circuit Symbol
11. Switch

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Contd…
Component Name Circuit Symbol
12. Microphone

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Contd…
Component Name Circuit Symbol
13. Loudspeaker

14. Fuse

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Contd…
Component Name Circuit Symbol

15. Earthing

16. Alternating Signal

12/5/2023 ELECTRICITY 36
Contd…
Component Name Circuit Symbol
17. Capacitor

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Contd…
Component Name Circuit Symbol
18. Thermistor

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Contd…
Component Name Circuit Symbol
19. Light-dependent resistor (LDR)

20. Semiconductor diode

12/5/2023 ELECTRICITY 39
Contd…
Component Name Circuit Symbol
21. Light-emitting diode (LDR)

18. Electric Heater

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12/5/2023 ELECTRICITY 42
Drift Velocity (vd): • The conduction of electricity in metal is due
to free electrons, which are the outermost
loosely bound valance electrons.
• These free electrons have thermal energy
which depends on metal’s temperature and
are in thermal equilibrium with the rest of
the conductor.
.
• So they are in a random motion like the
molecules of a gas confined in a vessel.
• Since these free electrons move randomly in
all directions, there is no net flow of charge
in any direction.
• If we consider any cross-section of the
conductor, the rate at which they pass
through it from left to right is same as the
rate at which they pass through it from right
to left.
• Thus net flow of electrons across any cross
section of the metallic conductor is zero and
hence there is no current in it.
12/5/2023 ELECTRICITY 43
.
1. Electric Field (E)
2. Force F
𝐹 .
3. Acceleration, a =
𝑚
4. Velocity (v)
An electron
5. Kinetic Energy

Direction of drifting electrons

12/5/2023 ELECTRICITY 44
Contd…: • At the same time, the vibrating atoms/ions gain
energy, thus increasing their amplitude of
But when a battery is connected across vibration.
the metallic conductor, an electric field • This leads to an increase in the conductor’s
is set up between its ends. internal energy and hence the temperature, that’s
why conductor carrying current gets warm.
When there is an electric field inside the
conductor, each electron experiences a • After being stopped by vibrating atoms/ions on
force in the direction opposite to that of collision, these electrons are again accelerated by
electric field.
the electric field and again collide with the
vibrating atoms/ion losing their velocity and
So, these electrons are accelerated kinetic energy.
inside the metal and they gain velocity as • Due to repeated collisions, the average
well as kinetic energy (K.E). acceleration of electrons is reduced to zero but on
the average the electrons drift in the direction
However, these electrons collide with an opposite to the direction of electric field with a
atom (ion) vibrating about its fixed mean constant average velocity, known as drift velocity.
position (called a lattice site). • This one-way drift of the charges on the electrons
So they give their kinetic energy to is responsible for the current in the metallic
those vibrating atoms, thus , decreasing conductor.
their velocity and kinetic energy. • Hence, drift velocity is the constant average
velocity attained by the free electrons in a
conductor under the influence of an external
electric field applied across the conductor.
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12/5/2023 ELECTRICITY 46
Relation between Drift velocity Let us consider a conductor of length (L) and cross-
(vd) and electric Current (I): sectional area (A) having ‘n’ free electrons per unit
volume each carrying an elementary charge ‘e’.
Then, Volume of the conductor (V)= A L
No. of ‘free’ electrons (N) = nAL
Total charge Q of ‘free’ electrons =nALe
When a battery is connected across the ends of the
conductor, electric field is established inside the
conductor that causes the charge ‘Q’ to pass through
the length ‘L’ in time ‘t’ with average drift velocity
‘vd’. Then the resulting steady current ‘I’ through the
vd conductor is given by,
Q
I=
. t

nALe L L
= = nAe = nAevd [where vd = ]
t t t

I = vdenA -------------- (1)

I
So, the drift velocity, vd = ---------- (2)
12/5/2023 ELECTRICITY 𝐴𝑛𝑒 47
Q. Calculate the mean drift velocity of electrons in a copper wire of diameter 1.0 mm with a
current of 5.0 A. The electron number density for copper is 8.5 ×1022 cm-3.
Solution:
I
Here, Electric Current (I) = 5.0 A We have, I = vdenA or vd = 𝐴𝑛𝑒
Diameter = 1.0 mm = 10-3 m
πd2
5.0
Cross sectional area (A) = vd =
4 0.785× 10−6 ×8.5 × 1028 ×1.6 × 10−19
3.14 ×(10−3 )2 2 5.0
A=
4
m vd =
10.676× 103
3.14 × 10−6
A= m2 = 0.785 × 10-6 m2
4 vd = 0.468 × 10−3 m/s
No. of free electron per cubic centimeter (n) vd = 0.47 mm/s
= 8.5 ×1022
n = 8.5 ×1028/m3
This drift velocity is indeed very small.
Elementary charge (e) = 1.6 ×10-19 C
Drift Velocity (vd) = ?

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Q. With the above calculated drift velocity (vd) what is the time required for
the electrons to traverse a 1 m length of copper wire ?
Solution: Note:
Drift velocity is of the
Drift Velocity (vd) = 0.47 mm/s = 0.47 × 10−3 m/s order of 10-4 m/s.
Length (L) = 1 m Average thermal
Time (t) = ? speed of the electrons
distance traversed (L) is of the order of 106
We have, vd = m/s.
time (t)
L 1
t = =
vd 0.47 × 10−3
t = 2127.66 s
t = 35.46 min.

t = 0.59 hr.
12/5/2023 ELECTRICITY 49
Then how is it possible for the electric bulb in your house to emit light
instantly when you switch it on?
The reason is that when you switch
on, the electric field (E) is set up in
. the wire with a speed approaching
the speed of light, and all the
electrons experience force and start
to move all along the wire at very
nearly the same time.

12/5/2023 ELECTRICITY 50
 Variation of Drift velocity (vd) in different situations:
I 1
We have, vd = ------------ (A) ii. vd ∝ --------------------- (ii) [For
𝐴𝑛𝑒 A
From this equation, it is clear that: constant, I & n]
i. vd ∝ I ---------------------- (i) [For
constant, A & n]

1
iii. vd ∝ ---------------------(iii) [For
n
constant, I & A]

12/5/2023 ELECTRICITY 51
Q. The current in the copper wire of cross – sectional area 1.1 x 10-7 m2 is 3.0 A.
The number n of free electrons per m3 for copper is 8.0 x 1028 m-3.

i. Describe what is meant by the term • Ans: (i) The average displacement
mean drift velocity of the electrons in the travelled by the electrons along the
wire. [1] wire per second is known as mean
ii. Calculate the mean drift velocity v of drift velocity of the electrons.
the electrons in the wire. [3] • Ans (ii): We have, I = vdenA
I
iii. Name the charge carriers responsible vd =
𝐴𝑛𝑒
for the electric current in a metal and in
an electrolyte. [2] 3.0
vd = −7 28 −19
1.1× 10 ×8.0 × 10 ×1.6 × 10

Vd = 2.1 × 10−3 m/s

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iii. Name the charge carriers responsible for the electric current in a
metal and in an electrolyte. [2]

Ans:
Free electrons in a metal.
Both positive and negative ions in an electrolyte.

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12/5/2023 ELECTRICITY 55
 In terms of energy considerations.
12/5/2023 ELECTRICITY 56
The amount of electrical
energy gained by each
coulomb of charge when it
𝞮=? 𝞮 = 10 J/C = 10 V
The SI unit of emf is J/C or
passes through the source is
10 J volt (V).
called emf (𝞮) of that source. 0J

1C 1C
The potential difference (V) between any two points in a circuit
is the amount of electrical energy converted (transformed) into
other forms of energy when one coulomb of charge passes
from one point to the other.

10 J 0J

1C 1C
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Electromotive force (e.m.f.): We have, 𝞮 =
𝐄
𝐐
Emf (𝞮): 𝞮= =V
𝐉
(volt)
𝐂
The amount of electrical energy
received by each coulomb of charge
as it passes through the source is
𝞮 = 12 V
called e.m.f. of the source. E =? 0J
Let E be the energy gained by Q
coulombs of charge as it passes 1C 1C
through the source then…
Q Coulombs E
Emf 𝞮 is related to the source of energy.
𝐄
1 Coulomb
𝐐

𝐄
Thus, e.m.f. 𝞮 =
12/5/2023 𝐐 ELECTRICITY 58
Q. The e.m.f. (𝞮) of a source is 9 V, what does it mean?

Ans:
It means that when 1 coulomb of charge passes through the source it
receives 9 J of electrical energy.

Q.The e.m.f. (𝞮) of a dry cell is 1.5 volt, what does it mean?

Ans: It means that 1.5 joules of electrical energy is gained by each coulomb
of charge when it passes through the dry cell.

12/5/2023 ELECTRICITY 59
Potential difference (V): We have, V =
𝐄
𝐐
𝐣𝐨𝐮𝐥𝐞𝐬 (𝐉) 𝐉
P.d.(V): V= = = V (volt)
𝐜𝐨𝐮𝐥𝐨𝐦𝐛 (𝐂) 𝐂
Potential difference between two
points is the amount of electrical
energy transformed (converted) into 𝞮 = 12 V
other forms of energy when one
coulomb of charge passes from one
point to other.
Let E be the energy lost by Q coulombs
of charge as it passes between two
points then…
Q Coulombs E P.d. (V) is related to the electrical appliances.

𝐄
1 Coulomb 0J
𝐐 E =12 J
𝐄
Thus, p.d. V =
𝐐 1C 1C
12/5/2023 ELECTRICITY 60
Q. The potential difference (V) between two points in a circuit is one volt,
what does it mean?
Ans:
It means that 1 joule of electrical energy is transformed into other
forms when 1 coulomb of charge passes from one point to the other.

Q. The potential difference (V) between two points in a circuit is 5 volt, what
does it mean?

Ans: It means that 5 joules of electrical energy is transformed into other

forms when 1 coulomb of charge passes from one point to the other.

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12/5/2023 ELECTRICITY 62
 𝐄 In terms of Work done (W).
Emf, 𝞮 =
𝐐

Doing work is a way of 𝑾

transferring energy. E=W Emf, 𝞮 =
12/5/2023 ELECTRICITY
𝐐
63
 𝑾
Electromotive force (e.m.f): We have, 𝞮 =
𝐐
𝐣𝐨𝐮𝐥𝐞𝐬 (𝐉) 𝐉
Emf (𝞮): 𝞮=
𝐜𝐨𝐮𝐥𝐨𝐦𝐛 (𝐂)
= =
𝐂
V (volt)
The total work done by the source
to move one coulomb of charge
𝞮=?W
around the complete circuit is called
emf of the source.
Let W be the total work done to 1C
move Q coulombs of charge around
the complete circuit then…
W
Q Coulombs W
𝑾
1 Coulomb
𝐐

𝑾
Thus, e.m.f. 𝞮 =
12/5/2023 𝐐 ELECTRICITY 64
Potential difference (V): We have, V =
𝒘
𝐐
P.d.(V): V=
𝐣𝐨𝐮𝐥𝐞𝐬 (𝐉)
=
𝐉
=V (volt)
𝐜𝐨𝐮𝐥𝐨𝐦𝐛 (𝐂) 𝐂
Potential difference between two
points is the work done in moving
unit charge from one point to other.
P.d. =?
𝞮
Let w be the work done to move Q
coulombs of charge from one point
ot another point in a circuit then…

Q Coulombs w
𝒘
1 Coulomb
𝐐 A B
𝒘
Thus, p.d. V =
𝐐 1C 1C
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Voltmeter:

.
Voltage + meter = voltmeter
Voltmeter is a device used to
measure potential difference
between two points in a
circuit.
An ideal voltmeter has an
infinite resistance.
It should be connected in
parallel across the electrical
component to measure p.d.
across it.

12/5/2023 ELECTRICITY 66
Contd…
𝞮=?

V1 V2

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Contd…
Principle of Conservation of Energy: 𝞮 = 10 V In other words, total energy of the system
remains constant.
Energy can neither be created nor be
destroyed but it can only be transformed Thus, input energy = output energy
from one form to another.

6V 4V

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R1 ELECTRICITY
R2 68
Q. In the circuit below, the battery converts an amount E of chemical energy to electrical
energy when charge Q passes through the resistor in time t.
[9702_s07_qp_1]
Which expressions give the e.m.f. of the
battery and the current in the resistor?
.

12/5/2023 ELECTRICITY 69
Q. In terms of energy transfer W and charge q, what are the definitions of potential
difference (p.d.) and electromotive force (e.m.f.)?

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12/5/2023 ELECTRICITY 71
Electrical resistance (R) :
Resistor: An electrical component made to have a specific value of resistance
between its ends is called a resistor.
Resistance (R): The property of any electrical component to oppose the flow of
charge (or current) through it is known as electrical resistance.
The resistance of any electrical component is defined as the ratio of potential
difference(V) across it to the current (I) through it.
𝑉
i.e. R = --------- (1)
I
V = IR -------- (2)
The SI unit of resistance (R) is ohm (𝛀).
Larger units of resistance are: k𝛀 ? M𝛀?
1 k𝛀 = 1000𝛀 (103𝛀)
1 M𝛀 = 106𝛀
12/5/2023 ELECTRICITY 72
Define 1 𝛀 resistance? potential diffe𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒
resistance =
current
𝑉
R=
I
. If V = 1 V and I = 1 A then above
equation becomes
1V V
R= =1 =1𝛀
1A A
Hence, the ohm is the resistance of a
component when a potential difference
of 1 volt drives a current of 1 ampere
through it.

12/5/2023 ELECTRICITY 73
12/5/2023 ELECTRICITY 74
Cause of Electrical
• The main cause of electrical resistance is
Resistance: the collision of charge carriers
(electrons) with the vibrating
atoms/ions.
. • When charge carriers move under the
action of electric field across the
material, then they collide with the
vibrating atoms/ions of the material and
hence their velocity is slowed down.
That means these charge carriers feel
opposition or resistance.
• Although resistance is used to control
the flow of charge carriers (current), it
dissipates energy in the form of heat.

12/5/2023 ELECTRICITY 75
Contd…
𝞮 = 15V
𝞮 = V1 +V2

V1 =7 V V2 =8 V

R1 R2
12/5/2023 ELECTRICITY 76
Internal resistance (r):
𝞮 r

The resistance of a cell or a power supply to the flow charge carriers

(current) through it is called internal resistance.
For a power supply, this may be due to the wires and components inside,
whereas for a cell the internal resistance is due to the chemicals within it.

r 𝞮

12/5/2023 ELECTRICITY 77
 𝞮 r

R
Terminal potential difference is the amount of
electrical energy converted into other forms of
energy when 1 C of charge passes from one terminal
𝞮=V+v
to the other terminal.
12/5/2023 ELECTRICITY 78
 𝞮=V+v
Energy supplied Energy transferred Energy wasted per
per coulomb by per coulomb to the coulomb in the
the cell (𝞮) external circuit (V) internal resistance
of the cell (v)

e.m.f. (𝞮) p.d. across R (V) p.d. across r (v)

e.m.f. (𝞮) Useful volts (V) ‘Lost’ volts (V)

12/5/2023 ELECTRICITY 79
 Now, 𝞮 = V + v
or 𝞮 = IR + v V = IR
or 𝞮 = IR + Ir v = Ir
or 𝞮 = I (R+r)

𝞮
or I=
𝑅+𝑟

𝞮
I= --------- (1)
𝑅+𝑟
12/5/2023 ELECTRICITY 80
 𝑽 𝑽
R= I=
𝑰 𝑹

𝞮
I=
𝑹+𝒓

12/5/2023 ELECTRICITY 81
Q. A battery has an e.m.f. of 3.0 V and an internal resistance of 2.0 𝛀.
The battery is connected to a load of 4.0
𝛀.
What are the current in the circuit (I),
.
terminal potential difference V and
potential difference across internal
resistance v.
Solution: We have,
𝞮
I=
𝑅+𝑟
3.0
I=
4.0+2.0
3.0 1
I= = A
6.0 2
12/5/2023 ELECTRICITY
I = 0.5 A 82
Contd…
Now,
Terminal potential difference(V) = IR
or V = IR = 0.5 × 4.0
V = 2.0 V
.
Potential difference across internal
resistance, v = I r
v = 0.5 ×2.0
v = 1.0 V
Or
𝞮=V+v
or 3.0 = 2.0 + v

v = 3.0 – 2.0 = 1.0 v

12/5/2023 ELECTRICITY 83
Q. A battery of e.m.f. 6.0 V and negligible internal resistance is connected to
two 10 𝛀 resistor in series.
What charge flows through each of
the 10 𝛀 resistors in 1 minute?
. A. 0.30 C
B. 0.60 C
C. 3.0 C
D. 18 C

12/5/2023 ELECTRICITY 84
12/5/2023 ELECTRICITY 85
Q. A battery of e.m.f. 24 V and an internal resistance 2 𝛀 is connected to two
resistors of resistance 6 𝛀 and 4 𝛀 respectively in series as shown in the figure.
The potential difference across 6 𝛀
𝞮 = 24 V r=2𝛀 resistor is 12 V.
. i. What is the current in the
v=?
circuit?
I=? V=? ii. Calculate the potential
R2 = 4 𝛀
difference across 4 𝛀 resistor.
R1 = 6 𝛀
iii. What is the lost volts ?
iv. What is the terminal potential
V1 = 12 V V2 = ?
difference?

12/5/2023 ELECTRICITY 86
Q. A battery of e.m.f. 24 V and an internal resistance 2 𝛀 is connected to two
resistors of resistance 6 𝛀 and 4 𝛀 respectively in series as shown in the figure.
The potential difference across 6 𝛀
𝞮 = 24 V r=2𝛀 resistor is 12 V.
. i. What is the current in the circuit?
Solution: We have,
I=? I=
𝞮 Alternatively,
𝑹𝟏 +𝑹𝟐 +𝒓
R1 = 6 𝛀 R2 = 4 𝛀 𝟐𝟒 𝑉1 = I 𝑅1
or, I =
𝟔+𝟒+𝟐 𝑉1
or, I =
𝟐𝟒 or, I =
V1 = 12 V 𝟏𝟐 𝑅1
12
I=2A or, I =
6
Thus, I = 2 A
12/5/2023 ELECTRICITY 87
Q. A battery of e.m.f. 24 V and an internal resistance 2 𝛀 is connected to two
resistors of resistance 6 𝛀 and 4 𝛀 respectively in series as shown in the figure.
The potential difference across 6 𝛀
𝞮 = 24 V resistor is 12 V.
r=2𝛀
.
ii. Calculate the potential difference 4
𝛀 resistor.
Solution: We have,
I=2A
𝑉2 = I 𝑅2
R1 = 6 𝛀 R2 = 4 𝛀
𝑉2 = 2× 4
V1 = 12 V V2 = ? 𝑉2 = 8 V

𝑉2 = 8 V
12/5/2023 ELECTRICITY 88
Q. A battery of e.m.f. 24 V and an internal resistance 2 𝛀 is connected to two
resistors of resistance 6 𝛀 and 4 𝛀 respectively in series as shown in the figure.
The potential difference across 6 𝛀
resistor is 12 V.
𝞮 = 24 V r=2𝛀 iii. What is the lost volts ?
.
v=? Solution: We have,
Alternatively,
v=Ir
I=2A 𝞮 = V1 + V2+ v
v = 2× 2
R1 = 6 𝛀 R2 = 4 𝛀 𝟐𝟒 = 12 + 8+ v
v=4V 𝟐𝟒 = 20 + v
V1 = 12 V V2 = 8 V v=4V 𝟐𝟒 - 20 = v
𝟒V= v
Thus, v = 4 V
12/5/2023 ELECTRICITY 89
Q. A battery of e.m.f. 24 V and an internal resistance 2 𝛀 is connected to two
resistors of resistance 6 𝛀 and 4 𝛀 respectively in series as shown in the figure.
The potential difference across 6 𝛀
𝞮 = 24 V resistor is 12 V.
r=2𝛀
.
iv. What is the terminal potential
v=4V difference?
Solution: We have,
I=2A V=? Alternatively,
𝑽 = V1 + V 2
R1 = 6 𝛀 R2 = 4 𝛀 𝞮 = V+v
𝑽 = 12 + 8 𝟐𝟒 = V + 4
V = 24 – 4
V1 = 12 V V2 = 8 V 𝑽 = 20 V V = 20 V
Terminal p.d. (V) = 20 V
12/5/2023 ELECTRICITY 90
Q. A battery of e.m.f. 24 V and an internal resistance 1 𝛀 is connected to two
resistors of resistance 5 𝛀 and 4 𝛀 respectively in series as shown in the figure.
The resistance of connecting leads A, B
𝞮 = 24 V and C are 0.75 𝛀 , 0.5 𝛀 and 0.75 𝛀
r=1𝛀 respectively.
. Also, the potential difference across 5 𝛀
v=? resistor is 10 V.
0.75 𝛀
A i. What is the current in the circuit?
I=? V=? C
0.75 𝛀 ii. Calculate the potential difference
across 4 𝛀 resistor, across resistive
R1 = 5 𝛀 B R2 = 4 𝛀 conductor A, B and C.
iii. What is the p.d. across internal
0.5 𝛀 resistance (lost volt)?
V1 = 10 V V2 = ? iv. What is the terminal potential
difference?

12/5/2023 ELECTRICITY 91
Q. A battery of e.m.f. 24 V and an internal resistance 1 𝛀 is connected to two
resistors of resistance 5 𝛀 and 4 𝛀 respectively in series as shown in the figure.
The resistance of connecting leads A, B and
𝞮 = 24 V C are 0.75 𝛀 , 0.25 𝛀 and 0.75 𝛀
r=1𝛀 respectively.
. Also, the potential difference across 5 𝛀
resistor is 10 V.
0.75 𝛀
A i. What is the current in the circuit?
I=? C
0.75 𝛀 Solution: We have,
𝒆.𝒎.𝒇.
R1 = 5 𝛀 B R2 = 4 𝛀 I=
𝑻𝒐𝒕𝒂𝒍 𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒊𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒄𝒆
𝞮
=
𝑹𝟏 +𝑹𝟐 +𝒓+ 𝐫𝐀 +𝐫𝐁 + 𝐫𝐂
0.5 𝛀 𝟐𝟒
V1 = 10 V or, I =
𝟓+𝟒+𝟏+𝟎.𝟕𝟓+𝟎.𝟓+𝟎.𝟕𝟓
𝟐𝟒
or, I =
𝟏𝟐
12/5/2023
I=2A
ELECTRICITY 92
Alternatively, 𝑉1 = I 𝑅1
𝞮 = 24 V r=1𝛀 𝑉1
or, I =
. 𝑅1

𝒑.𝒅.𝒂𝒄𝒓𝒐𝒔𝒔 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒄𝒐𝒎𝒑𝒐𝒏𝒆𝒏𝒕

I=? =
𝑹𝒆𝒔𝒊𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒄𝒆 𝒐𝒇 𝒕𝒉𝒂𝒕 𝒄𝒐𝒎𝒑𝒐𝒏𝒆𝒏𝒕
R1 = 5 𝛀 R2 = 4 𝛀
10
or, I =
5
V1 = 10 V
Thus, I = 2 A

12/5/2023 ELECTRICITY 93
Q. A battery of e.m.f. 24 V and an internal resistance 1 𝛀 is connected to two
resistors of resistance 5 𝛀 and 4 𝛀 respectively in series as shown in the figure.
The resistance of connecting leads A, B and C
𝞮 = 24 V are 0.75 𝛀 , 0.25 𝛀 and 0.75 𝛀 respectively.
Also, the potential difference across 5 𝛀
r=1𝛀 resistor is 10 V.
.
ii. Calculate the potential difference across 4
0.75 𝛀 𝛀 resistor, across resistive conductor A, B and
A C.
I=2A C Solution: We have,
0.75 𝛀

R1 = 5 𝛀 B R2 = 4 𝛀
𝑉2 = I 𝑅2
𝑉2 = 2× 4
0.5 𝛀
V1 = 10 V V2 = ? 𝑉2 = 8 V
𝑽𝟐 = 8 V

12/5/2023 ELECTRICITY 94
Now, Potential difference across
connecting leads C is
Potential difference across
connecting leads A is VA = 2 A × 0.75 𝛀
VA = 2 A × 0.75 𝛀 VC = 1.5 V
VA = 1.5 V
𝞮 = 24 V r=1𝛀
Potential difference across
connecting lead B is
VB = 2 A × 0.5 𝛀 A 0.75 𝛀 C 0.75 𝛀
VB = 1.0 V I=2A
R1 = 5 𝛀 B R2 = 4 𝛀

0.5 𝛀
12/5/2023 ELECTRICITY V1 = 10 V V2 = 8 V 95
Q. A battery of e.m.f. 24 V and an internal resistance 2 𝛀 is connected to two
resistors of resistance 6 𝛀 and 4 𝛀 respectively in series as shown in the figure.
The resistance of connecting leads A, B
and C are 0.75 𝛀 , 0.25 𝛀 and 0.75 𝛀
𝞮 = 24 V r=1𝛀 respectively.
. Also, the potential difference across 5 𝛀
v=? 1.5 V resistor is 10 V.
0.75 𝛀 0.75 𝛀 iii. What is the lost volts ?
A
I=2A C Solution: We have, Alternatively,
1.5 V
R1 = 5 𝛀 B R2 = 4 𝛀 v=Ir 𝞮 = V1 + V2+ v + VA + VB + VC
𝟐𝟒 = 10 + 8 + v + 1.5 + 1.0 + 1.5
v = 2× 1
0.5 𝛀 𝟐𝟒 = 22 + v
V1 = 10 V1.0V V2 = 8 V v=2V 𝟐𝟒 - 22 = v
𝟐V= v
v=2V
Thus, v = 2 V
12/5/2023 ELECTRICITY 96
Q. A battery of e.m.f. 24 V and an internal resistance 1 𝛀 is connected to two
resistors of resistance 5 𝛀 and 4 𝛀 respectively in series as shown in the figure.
The resistance of connecting leads A, B and C
𝞮 = 24 V are 0.75 𝛀 , 0.25 𝛀 and 0.75 𝛀 respectively.
Also, the potential difference across 5 𝛀
r=1𝛀 resistor is 10 V.
.

v=2 iv. What is the terminal potential difference?

0.75 𝛀 1.5 V Solution: We have,
A
I=2A V=? C 𝑽 = V1 + V2 + VA + VB + VC
0.75 𝛀
1.5 V
R1 = 5 𝛀 B R2 = 4 𝛀 𝑽 = 10 + 8 + 1.5 + 1.0 + 1.5
𝑽 = 22.0 V
0.25 𝛀
V1 = 10 V V2 = 8 Terminal p.d. (V) = 22.0 V
1.0 V

12/5/2023 ELECTRICITY 97
 Alternatively,
𝞮 = 24 V
𝞮 = V+v
r=1𝛀
.

v=2
0.75 𝛀 1.5 V 𝟐𝟒 = V + 2
A
I=2A V=? C
0.75 𝛀
1.5 V V = 24 – 2
R1 = 5 𝛀 B R2 = 4 𝛀

0.5 𝛀 V = 22 V
V1 = 10 V V2 = 8
1.0 V

12/5/2023 ELECTRICITY 98
Q. A battery of e.m.f. 24 V and an internal resistance 1 𝛀 is connected to two
resistors of resistance 6 𝛀 and 5 𝛀 respectively in series as shown in the figure.
𝞮 = 24 V 2A
I=? 2A r=1𝛀 I=? i. What is the current in the
.
circuit?
Solution: We have,
2A 𝞮
I=? I=? I=
𝑹𝟏 +𝑹𝟐 +𝒓
2 A R1 = 6 𝛀 R2 = 5 𝛀 𝟐𝟒
or, I=
𝟔+𝟓+𝟏
2A 𝟐𝟒
I=? I=? I=? or, I=
𝟏𝟐
2A 2A
I=2A

12/5/2023 ELECTRICITY 99
12/5/2023 ELECTRICITY 100
Q. Figure below shows a source with emf 𝞮 = 12 V and internal resistance r = 2 𝛀
connected across a 4 𝛀 resistor. What are the voltmeter and ammeter readings Vab
and I ? Solution:
According to the question,
Voltmeter reading ( Vab ) = ?
= Va’b’ = ?
Ammeter readings( I ) = ?
Now, we have,
𝞮
I=
𝑅+𝑟
12
I=
4+2
12
I=
6
I=2A
Hence, ammeter reading (I) = 2 A
12/5/2023 ELECTRICITY 101
Q. Figure below shows a source with emf 𝞮 = 12 V and internal resistance r = 2 𝛀
connected across a 4 𝛀 resistor. What are the voltmeter and ammeter
readings Vab and I ?
Now, Vab = Va’b’ = I R
.
=2×4
Vab = Va’b’ = 8 V
Alternatively,
𝞮=V+v
or 𝞮 = V + I r -------- (1)
or 12 = Vab + 2 × 2
or 12 = Vab + 4
Vab = 12 – 4 = 8 V
Vab = 8 V
12/5/2023 ELECTRICITY 102
Q. Suppose a high-resistance voltmeter reads 10 V when connected across a dry battery in open
circuit, and 8 V when the same battery is supplying a current of 2 A through a lamp of resistance
R.
10 V
What is
(a)The e.m.f. of the battery (𝞮 ) ? 𝞮
. r
(b)The internal resistance of the
battery (r)? R
(c) The value of R?
8V

𝞮
r
2A
R
12/5/2023 ELECTRICITY 103
Q. Suppose a high-resistance voltmeter reads 10 V when connected across a dry battery on
open circuit, and 8 V when the same battery is supplying a current of 2 A through a lamp of
resistance R.
What is
. (a)The e.m.f. of the battery (𝞮 ) ?
10 V
Solution:
𝞮 Since the terminal p.d. on open circuit equals
the e.m.f., we have
r
e.m.f. (𝞮) = 10 V
R

12/5/2023 ELECTRICITY 104

Q. Suppose a high-resistance voltmeter reads 10 V when connected across a dry battery on
open circuit, and 8 V when the same battery is supplying a current of 2 A through a lamp of
resistance R.
What is
The internal resistance of the battery (r)?
. 8V
Solution:
𝞮 = V+v
𝞮
r 𝞮 = V + I r ------- (1)
2A Since, 𝞮 = 10 V, V = 8 V and I = 2 A. Equation (1)
R becomes
𝟏𝟎 = 8 + 2 × r
𝟏𝟎 − 𝟖 = 𝟐 × r
2=2×𝐫
r = 1.0 𝛀
12/5/2023 ELECTRICITY 105
Q. Suppose a high-resistance voltmeter reads 10 V when connected across a dry battery on
open circuit, and 8 V when the same battery is supplying a current of 2 A through a lamp of
resistance R. Solution:
What is 𝞮 = V+v
(c)The value of R? 𝞮 = V + I r ------- (1)
Since, 𝞮 = 10 V, V = IR, I = 2 A and r = 1.0 𝛀.
8V Equation (1) becomes
𝟏𝟎 = I R + I × r
𝞮
𝟏𝟎 = 𝟐 × 𝑹 + 𝟐 × 1.0
r
2A 10 = 2× 𝑹 + 2
R
10 - 2 = 2 × R

8=2×R
𝟖
R= = 4.0 𝛀
12/5/2023 ELECTRICITY 𝟐 106
12/5/2023 ELECTRICITY 107
Combination of resistors:
In actual practice, we may need large value
of resistance but if only small value of
resistances are only available then in such
.
a situation, what to do?
Likewise, sometimes we may need small
value of resistance but what is only large
value of resistances are available?
So to solve such problems, we combine
the available resistors and connect it in an
electrical circuit.
This can be done basically in two ways:
1. Series Combination of Resistors
2. Parallel Combination of Resistors

12/5/2023 ELECTRICITY 108

1. Series Combination of Resistors
Resistors are said to be connected in
series when they are joined end-to-end,
so that same current flows through each
.
of them.
Suppose three resistors having
V resistances R1, R2 and R3 are combined
I I in series.
I When the combination is connected to
two terminals of a battery, then the
same current flows through each
resistor.
R1 R2 I
I
I R3 I But the potential difference across the
individual resistor is different.
V1
12/5/2023
V2 V3 ELECTRICITY 109
 Let I be the current flowing through each resistor,
Contd… and V1,V2, & V3 be the potential difference across
R1, R2 & R3 respectively.
V
I I Then, we have:
V1 = I R1, V2 = I R2, & V3 = I R3
Since V is the total potential difference across the
I combination so we have
. V
V = V1 + V2 + V3
R1 R2 R3 or V = IR1 + IR2 + IR3
or V = I(R1 + R2 + R3)
I V1 I V2 I V3 I 𝑉
= R1 + R2 + R3 ------(1)
I
Let Req be the equivalent resistance of the series
combination of resistors then
V = I Req
𝑉
= Req------------------(2)
I
From equations (1) and (2), we have:
Req = R1 + R2 + R3 ----------(3)
12/5/2023 ELECTRICITY 110
Contd… Req = R1 + R2 + R3 ----------(3)

Req = R1 + R2 + R3 + R4
.
Req = R1 + R2 + R3 + ------- + Rn

Thus, when resistors are connected in

series, the equivalent resistance of
the combination is equal to the sum
of resistances of individual resistors.
So, the equivalent resistance
increases in the series combination of
resistors.

12/5/2023 ELECTRICITY 111

Practice
What is the equivalent resistance?
Req = R1 + R2 + R3
Req = 10 𝛀 + 40 𝛀 + 25 𝛀
Req = 75 𝛀 10 𝛀 40 𝛀 25 𝛀
What is the equivalent resistance?
Req = R1 + R2 + R3 + R4
Req = 18 𝛀 + 7 𝛀 + 35 𝛀 + 40 𝛀

Req = 100 𝛀
18 𝛀 7𝛀 35 𝛀 40 𝛀

12/5/2023 ELECTRICITY 112

12/5/2023 ELECTRICITY 113
2. Parallel Combination of Resistors
Resistors are said to be connected in
parallel if one end of each resistor is
.
connected to one common point and
the other end of each resistor is
connected to another common point
so that the potential difference
across each resistor is the same.
i.e. V1 = V2 = V3 = V (suppose)
In this case, the current (I) divides
into I1, I2 & I3 along resistors R1, R2 &
R3 respectively.
12/5/2023 ELECTRICITY 114
Contd…
Suppose three resistors having
resistances R1, R2 and R3 are combined
in parallel across two points A and B.
V When a battery is connected across this
.
combination, the potential difference
across each resistor is same.
(i.e. V1= V2= V3= V)
But the current through each resistor is
different because the resistors have
different resistances.

12/5/2023 ELECTRICITY 115

Contd… Let V be the potential difference across A and B and I1, I2
and I3 be the current passing through R1, R2 & R3
respectively.
The total current I flowing in the circuit is the sum of the
currents in different resistors in the combination so
V I = I1 + I2+ I3 -------(1)
.
Then we have:
V1 = I1R1
𝑉1 𝑉
I1 = = ----------- (2)
𝑅1 𝑅1
V2 = I2R2
𝑉2 𝑉
I2 = = ------------- (3)
𝑅2 𝑅2
V3 = I3R3
𝑉3 𝑉
I3 = = ---------- (4)
3 𝑅3
Substituting the values of I1, I2 and I3 in equation (1) we
get:
𝑉 𝑉 𝑉
I= + +
𝑅1 𝑅2 𝑅3
12/5/2023 116
ELECTRICITY
 𝑉 𝑉 𝑉
Contd… or, I = + +
𝑅1 𝑅2 𝑅3
1 1 1
I =V ( + + )
𝑅1 𝑅2 𝑅3
𝐼 1 1 1
= + + ------ (5)
𝑉 𝑅1 𝑅2 𝑅3
Let Req be the equivalent resistance of the parallel
. V combination of resistors then
V = I Req
𝐼 1
= ------------------(6)
V 𝑅𝑒𝑞
From equations (5) and (6), we have:
𝟏 𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
= + + -------- (7)
𝑹𝒆𝒒 𝑹𝟏 𝑹𝟐 𝑹𝟑
If there are n resistors having resistances R1, R2,R3….Rn
combined in parallel then the equivalent resistance will
be….
1 1 1 1 1
= + + ---------- +
𝑅𝑒𝑞 𝑅1 𝑅2 𝑅3 𝑅𝑛
Thus, when resistors are combined in parallel, the
reciprocal of equivalent resistance is equal to the sum of
reciprocal of the resistance of individual resistors.
12/5/2023 ELECTRICITY 117
Practice Alternatively,
Calculate the equivalent resistance of the network of 1 1 1
resistors shown in the figure below?
= +
𝑅𝑒𝑞 𝑅1 𝑅2
𝟏 𝟏 𝟏 1 𝑅2 +𝑅1
= + =
𝑹𝒆𝒒 𝑹𝟏 𝑹𝟐
𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
𝑅𝑒𝑞 𝑅1 𝑅2
= + 𝑅1 𝑅2
𝑹𝒆𝒒 𝟏𝟎 𝟏𝟎
Req =
𝟏 𝑅1 +𝑅2
=2
𝟏𝟎 10 ×10 100
=
𝟏 Req = =
𝟓 10+10 20
𝟏 𝟏
=
𝑹𝒆𝒒 𝟓

Req = 5 𝛀 Req = 5 𝛀

12/5/2023 ELECTRICITY 118

Practice Alternatively,
1 1 1 𝟏
Calculate the equivalent resistance between points A = + +
and B shown in the figure below? 𝑅𝑒𝑞 𝑅1 𝑅2 𝑹𝟑
𝟏 𝟏 𝟏 𝟏 1 𝑅1 𝑅2 +𝑅2 𝑅3 +𝑅3 𝑅1
= + + =
𝑹𝒆𝒒 𝑹𝟏 𝑹𝟐 𝑹𝟑 𝑅𝑒𝑞 𝑅1 𝑅2 𝑅3
𝟏 𝟏 𝟏 𝟏 𝑅1 𝑅2 𝑅3
𝑹𝒆𝒒
= + +
𝟔 𝟑 𝟐 Req =
𝑅1 𝑅2 +𝑅2 𝑅3 +𝑅3 𝑅1
=
𝟑+𝟔 𝟏
+ 6 ×3 ×2
𝟏𝟖 𝟐 Req =
𝟗 𝟏 6×3+3×2+2×6
= + 36
𝟏𝟖 𝟐 =
𝟏 𝟏 𝟏 18+6+12
= + 36
𝑹𝒆𝒒 𝟐 𝟐
=
Req = 1 𝛀 36
=1𝛀
Req = 1 𝛀
12/5/2023 ELECTRICITY 119
12/5/2023 ELECTRICITY 120
Q. Find the equivalent resistance between points A and B.
Solution:
Since same current passes through R1
and R2, they are connected in series…
Thus, Req1 = R1 + R2
. Req1 = 5𝛀 + 5𝛀 = 10 𝛀
Now, you can see Req1 and R3 are
connected in parallel since total
current divides among Req1 and R3.
𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
= +
𝑹𝒆𝒒 𝑹𝒆𝒒𝟏 𝑹𝟐
𝑅𝑒𝑞1 𝑅2 10 ×10 100 10
Req = = = = =5
𝑅𝑒𝑞1 +𝑅2 10+10 20 2
12/5/2023 𝛀 ELECTRICITY 121
Q. Find the equivalent resistance between points A and B.
Solution:
Here, R2 and R3 are connected in
parallel since current I divides
among R1 and R3.
𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
= +
𝑹𝒆𝒒𝟏 𝑹𝟐 𝑹𝟑
. 𝑅2 𝑅3 6×3 18
Req1 = = = =2 𝛀
𝑅2 +𝑅3 6+3 9

Now, same current passes through

R1 and Req1, they are connected in
series…
Thus, Req = R1 + Req1
Req1 = 2𝛀 + 2𝛀 = 4 𝛀
12/5/2023 ELECTRICITY 122
Q. Find the equivalent resistance between
two points P and Q. 4𝛀 R
10 𝛀
.
P Q

6𝛀 S 8𝛀

14 𝛀

7𝛀

14 𝛀
12/5/2023 ELECTRICITY 123
Q. Find the equivalent resistance between points A and B.
20 𝛀
10 𝛀 20 𝛀
30 𝛀
10𝛀
30 𝛀

30 𝛀
30 𝛀 30 𝛀

30 𝛀
45 𝛀 30 𝛀
30 𝛀 15 𝛀

12/5/2023 ELECTRICITY 124

Q. Find the equivalent resistance between points A and B.
10 𝛀

10 𝛀
2𝛀
5𝛀

12 𝛀 2𝛀 5𝛀 5𝛀

12/5/2023 ELECTRICITY 125

12/5/2023 ELECTRICITY 126
Q. Six identical 12 𝛀 resistors are arranged in two groups, one with three in
series and the other with three in parallel.
What are the combined resistances of each
of these two arrangements?
.

12/5/2023 ELECTRICITY 127

Q. A network of resistors consists of two 3.0 𝛀 resistors and three 6.0 𝛀
resistors.
What is the combined resistance of this network between points X
and Y?
A . 0.86 𝛀 B 1.2 𝛀 C 3.5 𝛀 D 24 𝛀

12/5/2023 ELECTRICITY 128

Q. The diagram shows part of a circuit.
What is the resistance between the points P and Q due to the
resistance networ?
A 1.3 𝛀 B 4.0 𝛀 C 10 𝛀 D 37 𝛀

12/5/2023 ELECTRICITY 129

Solution:

12/5/2023 ELECTRICITY 130

 1.0 𝛀

12/5/2023 ELECTRICITY 131

 1.0 𝛀

1.0 𝛀

12/5/2023 ELECTRICITY 132

 1.0 𝛀

1.0 𝛀

12/5/2023 ELECTRICITY 133

Q. Find the equivalent resistance between points A and B.

12/5/2023 ELECTRICITY 134

Q. Find the equivalent resistance between points A and B.
.

12/5/2023 ELECTRICITY 135

Q. Find the equivalent resistance between points A and B.

12/5/2023 ELECTRICITY 136

Q. Find the equivalent resistance between points A and B.

12/5/2023 ELECTRICITY 137

Q. Find the equivalent resistance between points A and B.

12/5/2023 ELECTRICITY 138

Q. Find the equivalent resistance between points A and B.

12/5/2023 ELECTRICITY 139

Q. Find the equivalent resistance between points A and D.
.

12/5/2023 ELECTRICITY 140

Q. Find the equivalent resistance between points A and D.
.

12/5/2023 ELECTRICITY 141

Q. Find the equivalent resistance of the network shown in the figure below between points A and D.

12/5/2023 ELECTRICITY 142

Q. A battery of e.m.f. 12 V and internal resistance 2 𝛀 is connected to
two resistors of resistances 6 𝛀 and 12 𝛀 connected in parallel as
shown in the figure below.
. Calculate:
1.The total current in the circuit
2.The terminal p.d. of the battery
3.P.d. across 6 𝛀 and 12 𝛀 resistors
4.The current in 12𝛀 resistor
5.The current in 6 𝛀 resistor

𝟐
V=8V 𝟒 I2 = 𝟑 A
I=2A V=8V I1 = A
𝟑
12/5/2023 ELECTRICITY 143
Q. A battery of e.m.f. 12 V and internal resistance 2 𝛀 is connected to
two resistors of resistances 3 𝛀 and 6 𝛀 connected in parallel as shown
in the figure below.
. Calculate:
1.The total current in the circuit
𝑅1 𝑅2 6 ×12 72
Here, Req = = = = 4𝛀
𝑅1 +𝑅2 6+12 18
𝐸 12 12
I= = = =2A
𝑅𝑒𝑞 +𝑟 4+2 6

12/5/2023 ELECTRICITY 144

Q. A battery of e.m.f. 12 V and internal resistance 2 𝛀 is connected to
two resistors of resistances 3 𝛀 and 6 𝛀 connected in parallel as shown
in the figure below.
. Calculate:
2. The terminal p.d. of the battery
Here, Lost volt (v) = I × r = 2 × 2 = 4 V
Terminal potential difference (V) = ?
We have, E = V + Ir
or V = E – v = 12 – 4 = 8 V
Hence, terminal p.d. (V) = 8 V

12/5/2023 ELECTRICITY 145

Q. A battery of e.m.f. 12 V and internal resistance 2 𝛀 is connected to
two resistors of resistances 3 𝛀 and 6 𝛀 connected in parallel as shown
in the figure below.
Calculate:
.
3. P.d. across 6 𝛀 and 12 𝛀 resistors
V6 = V12 = ?
We know,
V6 = V12 = terminal p.d. (V)
Since, terminal p.d. (V) = 8 V,
V6 = V12 = 8 V

12/5/2023 ELECTRICITY 146

Q. A battery of e.m.f. 12 V and internal resistance 2 𝛀 is connected to
two resistors of resistances 3 𝛀 and 6 𝛀 connected in parallel as shown
in the figure below.
Calculate:
.
4.The current in 12𝛀 resistor
I2 = ?
We know,
V6 = V12
or, I1 × R1 = I2 ×R2
I1 R2
or, = -------- (A)
I2 R1
I1 12
or, = = 2
I2 6
12/5/2023 ELECTRICITY 147
 I1 12
Contd... or, = =2
I2 6
I1 = 2 I2
Again, we know, I = I1 + 12
.
I = 2 I2 + I2
I = 3 I2
I
I2 =
3
2
I2 = A
3

12/5/2023 ELECTRICITY 148

Q. A battery of e.m.f. 12 V and internal resistance 2 𝛀 is connected to
two resistors of resistances 3 𝛀 and 6 𝛀 connected in parallel as shown
in the figure below.
Calculate:
. 5. The current in 6 𝛀 resistor
I1 = ?
We know,
I1 = 2 I2
2
or, I1 = 2× A
3
4
I1 = A
3

12/5/2023 ELECTRICITY 149

Q. A battery of e.m.f. 24 V and internal resistance r is connected to a combination
of resistors of resistances 3 𝛀, 6 𝛀 and 8 𝛀 as shown in the figure below. The
current flowing in the 3𝛀 resistor is then 0.8 A.
Calculate:
. 1. The equivalent resistance
2. The current in the 6 𝛀 resistor
3. The terminal p.d. of the battery
4. Internal resistance r

Req = 10 𝛀 I6 = 0.4 A r = 10 𝛀 V = 12.0 V

12/5/2023 ELECTRICITY 150
Q. A battery of e.m.f. 24 V and internal resistance r is connected to a combination
of resistors of resistances 3 𝛀, 6 𝛀 and 8 𝛀 as shown in the figure below. The
current flowing in the 3𝛀 resistor is then 0.8 A.
Calculate:
. 1. The equivalent resistance
Solution:
3 ×6
Req = +8
3+6
=2+8
= 10 𝛀

12/5/2023 ELECTRICITY 151

Q. A battery of e.m.f. 24 V and internal resistance r is connected to a combination
of resistors of resistances 3 𝛀, 6 𝛀 and 8 𝛀 as shown in the figure below. The
current flowing in the 3𝛀 resistor is then 0.8 A. Calculate:
2. The current in the 6 𝛀 resistor
. I = 0.8 A
R1 Solution:
1
We know,
V3 = V6
or, I1 × R1 = I2 ×R2
I2 R1
I2 = ? R2 or, = -------- (A)
I1 R2
I2 3 1
or, = =
I1 6 2
1 1
I2 = ×I1 = × 0.8
2 2
I2 = 0.4 A
12/5/2023 ELECTRICITY 152
Q. A battery of e.m.f. 24 V and internal resistance r is connected to a combination
of resistors of resistances 3 𝛀, 6 𝛀 and 8 𝛀 as shown in the figure below. The
current flowing in the 3𝛀 resistor is then 0.8 A.
Calculate:
R 1
3. The terminal p.d. of the battery
. I = 0.8 A
1
Solution:
We know, Req = 10 𝛀
I = I1 + I2 = 0.8 A + 0.4 A = 1.2 A
I2 = 0.4 A R2
Terminal p.d. (V) = I Req
or, V = 1.2 × 10
= 12 V
I = 1.2 A

12/5/2023 ELECTRICITY 153

Q. A battery of e.m.f. 24 V and internal resistance r is connected to a combination
of resistors of resistances 3 𝛀, 6 𝛀 and 8 𝛀 as shown in the figure below. The
current flowing in the 3𝛀 resistor is then 0.8 A.
Calculate:
4. Internal resistance r
R1
. I1 = 0.8 A Solution:
We know, E = V + I r
24 = 12 + 1.2 × r
12 = 1.2 × r
12
r=
I2 = 0.4 A R2 1.2
r = 10 𝛀

I = 1.2 A

12/5/2023 ELECTRICITY 154

12/5/2023 ELECTRICITY 155
Electrical Power (P): Thus, the power of a device is the
The rate of doing work is called
rate at which it transfers energy.
power. Its S.I. unit is watt (W).
Work done (𝑊)
i.e. Power (P) = What is 1 watt power?
Time (t)
𝑊 The power of an electrical device
P= --------- (1)
t is 1 watt when 1 joule of energy is
Since, doing work (W) is a way of transferred in 1 second.
transferring energy (E).
Larger units are kilowatt (kW),
Equation (1) can be written as,
𝐸
Megawatt (MW) etc.
P= ------------- (2) 1 kW = 1000 W (103 W)
t
𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑑 (𝐸)
Power (P) =
time 𝑡𝑎𝑘𝑒𝑛 (𝑡)
1 MW = 106 W
12/5/2023 ELECTRICITY 156
 If W is the work done to move Q coulomb
Contd… of charges from one point to another
point then from the definition of p.d.,
we have,
𝑊
Q V=
𝑄
.
W E
t or W = V Q ------(3)
I This is the amount of energy transferred
by Q coulombs of charge to the device.
R From equation (1) and (3), we have:
𝑊 𝑉Q
P= =
t t
Q
=V
t
=VI
P = I V --------- (4)
12/5/2023 ELECTRICITY 157
Power (P) = current (I) × potential difference (V)
From equation (4), we have:
P = I V --------- (4)
Using, V = I R in equation (4); We get:
P=I×IR
P = I2 R ------------ (5)
𝑉
Using , I = in equation (4); we get:
𝑅
P=IV
𝑉
P= ×V
𝑅
𝑽𝟐
P= ------------------- (6)
𝑹
12/5/2023 ELECTRICITY 158
12/5/2023 ELECTRICITY 159
Calculation of Energy Using P = I2 R in equation (7), we get:
transformed E = P × t = I2 R × t
We have, E = I2 R t ---------- (9)
𝐸
P= 𝑽𝟐
t Using P = in equation (7), we get:
𝑹
E = P × t --------- (7)
Using P = I V in above 𝑉2
E=P×t= ×t
equation, we get: 𝑅

E=P×t=IV×t 𝑽𝟐
E= t ----------- (8)
E = IVt ----------- (8) 𝑹

12/5/2023 ELECTRICITY 160

12/5/2023 ELECTRICITY 161
Q. Find the heat energy 𝞮
Solution: I=
developed in each of the 𝑹𝟏 +𝑹𝟐 +𝒓
𝟐𝟒
three resistors show in the or, I =
𝟔+𝟒+𝟐
figure below in 1 minute. 𝟐𝟒
or, I =
𝟏𝟐
.
I=2A
𝞮 = 24 V H3 = ?
Time (t) = 1 min. = 60 s
r=2𝛀 Now, heat developed across resistor
R1 is
H1 = I2 R1t E = I2 R t
I
= 22 × 6 × 60
R1 = 6 𝛀 R2 = 4 𝛀 = 4 × 6 × 60
= 1440 J
H1 = 1440 J
12/5/2023
H1 = ? H2 = ? ELECTRICITY 162
Contd…
Now, heat developed across Now, heat developed across internal
resistor R2 is resistance r is
H2 = I2 R2t H3 = I2 r t
= 22 × 4 × 60 = 22 × 2 × 60
= 4 × 4 × 60 = 4 × 2 × 60
= 960 J = 480 J
H2 = 960 J H2 = 480 J

12/5/2023 ELECTRICITY 163

12/5/2023 ELECTRICITY 164
Q. A filament lamp has a resistance of 180 𝛀 when the current in it
is 500 mA. What is the power transformed in the lamp?
A 45 W Alternatively,
B 50 W V=IR
C 90 W = 500 × 10-3 × 180
D 1400 W 𝟏
= × 180
Solution: 𝟐
= 90 V
P = I2 R
P=IV
P = (500 × 10-3)2 × 180
𝟏 2 = 500 × 10-3 × 90
P= ( ) × 180 𝟏
𝟐
𝟏
= × 90
𝟐
P= × 180 = 45 W
𝟒
= 45 W

12/5/2023 ELECTRICITY 167

Q. A battery has an e.m.f. of 3.0 V and an internal resistance of 2.0 𝛀. The
battery is connected to a load of 4.0 𝛀 . What are the terminal potential
difference V and output power P ?

.]

Solution:
𝞮 3.0 3.0 1
I= = = = A
𝑅+𝑟 4.0+2.0 6.0 2
1
V = I R = 2 × 4.0 = 2.0 V
1
P = I V = 2 × 2.0 = 1.0 W
12/5/2023 ELECTRICITY 168
Q. Two heating coils X and Y, of resistance RX and RY respectively, deliver the
same power when 12 V is applied across X and 6 V is applied across Y.
Solution:
What is the ratio
𝑅𝑋
? 𝑽𝑿 𝟐
𝑅𝑌 𝑷𝑿 =
𝑹𝑿
1
A 𝑽𝒀 𝟐
4 𝑷𝒀 =
1 𝑹𝒀
B Since power delivered is same.
2
C 2 𝑷𝒀 = 𝑷𝑿
D 4 𝑽𝒀 𝟐 𝑽𝑿 𝟐
=
𝑹𝒀 𝑹𝑿
𝑹𝑿 𝑽𝑿 𝟐
= 𝟐
𝑹𝒀 𝑽𝒀
𝑹𝑿 𝟏𝟐𝟐 144
= 𝟐 = =4
𝑹𝒀 𝟔 36
12/5/2023 ELECTRICITY 169
12/5/2023 ELECTRICITY 170
Determining e.m.f. (E)and internal resistance: (r)
When you use a power supply or other source of
e.m.f., you cannot assumed that it is providing you
with the exact voltage across its terminals as
suggested by the value of its e.m.f., why?
This may be due to several reasons, such as the
supply may not be made to a high degree of
precision, batteries become flat, and an internal
resistance of the supply (r).
The resistance of a cell or a power supply to the
flow charge carriers (current) through it is called
internal resistance. There is dissipation of electrical
energy in the form of heat in the internal resistance.
For a power supply, this may be due to the wires and
components inside, whereas for a cell the internal
resistance is due to the chemicals within it.
We have, E=V+Ir
V = E - I r ------- (A)
Determining e.m.f. (E) and internal resistance: (r)
Experiments show that the voltage (V) across
the terminal of the power supply decreases if
it is required to supply more current (I).
Figure alongside shows a circuit which can be
used to investigate this effect.
When the variable resistor is altered, the
current in the circuit changes, and
measurements can be recorded of the circuit
current (I) and terminal p.d. (V).
By plotting a graph with these data, you can
see how the voltage across the terminals (V) of
a power supply might decrease as the supplied
current increases (I).
Determining e.m.f. (E)and internal resistance: (r)
This can also be analyzed form the equation,
E=V+Ir
V = E - I r ------- (A)
V = (-r) I +E
Comparing equation (A) with the equation of a
straight line y = m x + c ; [We get: y = V, m = -r
& c = E]
By plotting V on the y-axis and I on the x-axis, a
straight line should result.
The intercept on the y-axis is E , and the
gradient is –r.
Q. A circuit used to measure the power transfer from a battery is shown in Fig.
below. The power is transferred to a variable resistor of resistance R.
The battery has an electromotive
force (e.m.f.) E and an internal
resistance r. There is a potential
difference (p.d.) V across R. The
current in the circuit is I.
(a) By reference to the circuit shown
in figure alongside, distinguish
between the definitions of e.m.f.
and p.d. [3]
(b) Determine an expression for the
currents in the circuit. [1]
Q. A circuit used to measure the power transfer from a battery is shown in Fig.
below. The power is transferred to a variable resistor of resistance R.
The battery has an electromotive force (e.m.f.) E
and an internal resistance r. There is a potential
difference (p.d.) V across R. The current in the
circuit is I.
(a) By reference to the circuit shown in figure
alongside, distinguish between the
definitions of e.m.f. and p.d. [3]
e.m.f. = The amount of electrical energy
received by each coulomb of charge when it
passes through the battery due to the
conversion of chemical energy into electrical
energy.
p.d. = The conversion of electrical energy to
heat energy when 1 C of charge passes through
the resistor.
Q. A circuit used to measure the power transfer from a battery is shown in Fig.
below. The power is transferred to a variable resistor of resistance R.
The battery has an electromotive force
(e.m.f.) E and an internal resistance r.
There is a potential difference (p.d.) V
across R. The current in the circuit is I.
(b) Determine an expression for the
currents in the circuit. [1]
E=V+Ir
E = IR + I r
E = I (R + r)
𝑬
I=
𝑹+𝒓
(c) The variation with current I of the p.d. V across R is shown in figure
below.
Use Figure alongside to determine
(i) The e.m.f. E,

E = ……………… V [1]
(ii) The internal resistance r.

r = …………….. 𝛀 [2]
(c) The variation with current I of the p.d. V across R is shown in figure
below. Use Figure alongside to determine
(i) The e.m.f. E,
From the graph, the intercept,
c = 5.8 V
E = c = 5.8 V

E = 5.8 V [1]
(ii) The internal resistance r.
2.2 −5.8 −3.6
r = - gradient = - =-( )
2.0 −0.0 2.0
r = - (-1.8) = 1.8 𝛀

r = 1.8 𝛀 [2]
(d) Using data from Figure below,
(i) Calculate the power transferred
to R for a current of 1.6 A.
P = ……………… W [2]
(ii) Use your answers from (c) (i) and
(d) (i) to calculate the efficiency of
the battery for a current of 1.6 A.

efficiency = …………… % [2]

(d) Using data from Figure below,
(i) Calculate the power transferred
to R for a current of 1.6 A.
From the graph,
For I = 1.6 A, V = 2.9 V
So, P = I V = 1.6 × 2.9
= 4.64 W
P = 4.64 W [2]
(d) Using data from Figure below,
(ii) Use your answers from (c) (i) and (d)
(i) to calculate the efficiency of the
battery for a current of 1.6 A.
Here, Output power (Pout) = I V
Input power (Pin) = I E
𝑂𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 (𝑃𝑜𝑢𝑡 )
𝛈= × 100 %
𝐼𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 (𝑃𝐼𝑛 )
𝐼𝑉
= × 100 %
𝐼𝐸
𝑉
= × 100 %
𝐸
2.9
= × 100 %
5.8
= 50 %
efficiency = 50 % [2]
12/5/2023 ELECTRICITY 184
Q. An electrical quantity is defined as ‘the energy converted by a source in
driving a unit charge round a complete circuit.’

What is this quantity called?

A. Current
B. Electromotive force
C. Potential difference
D. power

12/5/2023 ELECTRICITY 185

Q. The diagram shows two resistors
connected in series with a cell.
Which statement defines the potential
difference across XY?
. A. The power needed to drive a unit
charge through the cell.
B. The power needed to drive a unit
charge through X and Y.
C. The work done in driving a unit
charge through the cell.
D. The work done in driving a unit
charge between X and Y.

12/5/2023 ELECTRICITY 186

Kirchhoff’s laws: In order to solve complex circuit which
consists of more than one loop and more than
one sources of e.m.f. , Kirchhoff has given two
laws, which are known as Kirchhoff’s laws.
They are:
1. Kirchhoff’s first law/ Kirchhoff’s current
law/ Kirchhoff’s junction law.
2. Kirchhoff’s second law/Kirchhoff’s voltage
law/Kirchhoff’s loop law.
 Statement:
Kirchhoff’s first law: “The algebraic sum of the currents at any
junction of an electric circuit is zero”.
i.e. 𝐼 = 0
Sign Convention:
1. If I flows into the junction (point), then I is
assumed to be positive.
2. If I flows out of the junction (point), then I is
assumed to be negative.
Here, 𝐼=0
+ I1 + I2 +( – I2 ) + (– I3 ) = 0
+ I1 + I2 – I2 – I3 = 0
I1 + I2 = I3 + I4
“The sum of the currents entering any point in a
circuit is equal to the sum of the currents leaving
that same point”.
Contd…

The junction rule is based on principle of conservation of electric charge.

No charge can accumulate or deplete at a junction, so the total charge
entering the junction per unit time must be equal to the total charge
leaving the junction per unit time.
i.e. current entering the junction = current leaving the junction

I = 2.0 A
Into the junction
I = 4.5 A
12/5/2023 ELECTRICITY 190
Q. The diagram represents a circuit. Some currents have been
shown on the diagram.
What are the currents 𝐼1 and 𝐼2 ?

12/5/2023 ELECTRICITY 191

Kirchhoff’s second law: Statement:
“The algebraic sum of the e.m.f.s and the p.d.s in any
E closed loop of an electric circuit is zero”.
i.e. (𝐸 + 𝑉) = 0
or 𝐸 + (− 𝑉 ) = 0
or, 𝐸 = 𝑉
“The sum of the e.m.f.s around any loop in a circuit is
equal to the sum of the p.d.s around the loop”.
This law is based on the principle of conservation of
R energy.
As we know, 𝐸 = 𝑉
i.e. Energy gained by 1 C of charge in passing through the
source of e.m.f. = Energy lost by 1 C of charge in passing
V through the electrical component.
 When a unit charge moves all the way
Contd… round the electric circuit and ends up
at the starting point then the energy
gained by each coulomb of charge as it
passes through the source must be
equal to the energy lost by each
coulomb of charge as it passes
through the resistors.
So, 1 C of charge must have the same
energy at the end as it initially had.
Otherwise, we would be able to create
energy from nothing simply by moving
charges around the circuit.
Thus, Kirchhoff’s second law is a direct
consequence of principle of
conservation of energy.
Sign Convention for KVL
“The rise in potential should be taken as
positive and the fall in potential should
be taken as negative”.
1. E.m.f. Rule
2. Resistance Rule
1. E.m.f. Rule When we move through an ideal
e.m.f. device in the direction of the
e.m.f. arrow (-ve to +ve), the change
E in potential is taken +E; in the
opposite direction it is taken as –E.
E

Travel

Travel
+ E: Travel direction from – to +
- E: Travel direction from + to -
2. Resistance Rule When moving through a resistance
in the direction of the current, the
change in potential is – IR; in the
opposite direction of the current,
the change in potential is + IR.

I I
Travel

- IR: Travel in current direction

I Travel I
+ IR: Travel opposite to current direction
Techniques for the application Kirchhoff’s laws
Q. Find the current ( I1, I2 & I3 ) in various Let us consider a complex circuit as
branches of the complex circuit as shown
below? shown in the figure.
To find the current in various
I1 I2 branches, Kirchhoff’s laws can be
used.
Here, the directions of current is
I3 chosen arbitrarily.
At junction b, applying Kirchhoff’s
first law, we get:
𝐼=0

I2 – I1 – I3 = 0
I2 = I1 + I3 -------------- (1)
 We have three loops from which to
Contd… choose; (1) the left hand loop (abefa),
(2) the right hand loop (bcdeb), and
(3) the big loop (abcdefa).
Whichever two loops we choose does
not matter- let’s choose the left-hand
loop and the right hand loop.
Then applying Kirchhoff’s second law
in the left hand loop (abefa) by
traversing in a counterclockwise
direction arbitrarily from point b, we
get:
E1 – I1 R1 + I3 R3 = 0 -------- (2)
Contd…. Similarly, traversing the right hand
loop in a conter-clockwise
I2 = I1 + I3 -------------- (1)
direction from point b, the loop
E1 – I1 R1 + I3 R3 = 0 -------- (2)
– I3 R3 – I2R2 – E2 = 0 -------- (3)
rule gives us,
– I3 R3 – I2R2 – E2 = 0 -------- (3)
E2 + I2R2 + I3 R3 = 0
Solving these 3 equations, we can
calculate the value of currents I1,
I2 & I3 because there are 3
equations for 3 unknowns.
Contd… If we had applied the loop rule to
the big loop (abcdefa), we would
I2 = I1 + I3 -------------- (1) have obtained (moving
E1 – I1 R1 + I3 R3 = 0 -------- (2) counterclockwise from b) the
– I3 R3 – I2R2 – E2 = 0 -------- (3) equation,
E1 – I1 R1 – I2R2 – E2 = 0 -------- (4)
This equation may look as if it
contains fresh information, but in
fact it is only the sum of equations
(2) & (3).
[It would, however, yield the
proper results when used with
equation (1) and either (2) or (3).]
Q. Find the magnitude and direction of the current in each of the three
branches shown in the circuit below. The three batteries are ideal batteries.

Applying Junction rule at point a,

I3 = I1 + I2 -------------- (1)
We first arbitrarily choose the
left-hand loop, arbitrarily start
at point a, and arbitrarily
traverse the loop in the
counter-clockwise direction,
obtaining
– I1 R1 – E1- I1R1 + E2 + I2 R2= 0
Substituting values we get,
4 I1 – 4 I2 = 3 -------- (2)
 Again, we arbitrarily choose Right hand loop and arbitrarily choose to
traverse clockwise from point a, finding
I3 R1 – E2 + I3R1 + E2 + I2 R2= 0
Substituting the given data and simplifying yield,
4 I2 + 4 I3 = 0 -------- (3)
Using equation (1) to eliminate I3 from equation (3) and simplifying
gives us
4 I1 + 8 I2 = 0 -------- (4)
I3 = I1 + I2 -------------- (1)
Solving Equations (2) & (4), we find:
4 I1 – 4 I2 = 3 -------- (2)
I2 = - 0.25 A 4 I2 + 4 I3 = 0 -------- (3)
I1 = 0.50 A
I3 = I1+I2 = 0.50 - 0.25 = 0.25 A
The positive answers obtained for I1 and I3 signal that our choices of
directions for these currents are correct.
We can now correct the direction for I2 and write its magnitude as
I2 = 0.25 A
0.50 A 0.25 A

I2
0.25 A
Q. In the circuit shown below, (a) find the current in the 3𝛀 resistor, (b) the
unknown emf’s E1 and E2, (c) the resistance R. Note that three currents are
given.

Ans: a) 8 A b) 36 V, 54 V c) 9𝛀
In the circuit shown below, find a) the current in the resistor R,
b) the unknown emf E, c) the resistance R, d) If the circuit is
broken at point x, what is the current in resistor R?

Ans: a) 2 A b) 42 V c) 5𝛀 d) 3.5 A
Ans: A
Ans: A
Ans: C
Ans: B
Ans: A
Ans: B
Ans: B
Ans: D
Ans: D
Ans: A
Q. Find the current in each resistor and the equivalent resistance of
the network of 5 resistors shown in the circuit below.
Solution: Req =1.2 𝛀
KVL to loop 1:
2 2I1-I3 - 13= 0 ------------ (1)
KVL to loop 2:
1 3 -3I2 – 2I3 + 13 = 0 ---------- (2)
KVL to loop 3:
I2 = I1 + I3 ------- (3)
Substitute the value of I2 in equation (2):
3I1 + 5I3 - 13 = 0 ------- (4)
Solving equations (1) & (4):
I1 = 6 A
From equation (1): I3 = - 1 A
From equation (3): I2 = I1 + I3 = 6 - 1 = 5 A
Ans: I1 = 6 A, I2 = 5 A & I3 = - 1 A I = 6 + 5 = 11 A
𝑽 𝟏𝟑
I = 11 A Now , Req = =
𝑰 𝟏𝟏
=1.2 𝛺
12/5/2023 ELECTRICITY 221
Q. Find the equivalent resistance and current through the source in
the following circuit.

• Ans:
• 0.5 A
Ans: A
12/5/2023 ELECTRICITY 224
12/5/2023 ELECTRICITY 225
Q. An electric kettle has a power of 2.2 kW at 240 V. Calculate:
(a) the current in the kettle,
(b) the resistance of the kettle element.
Solution:
Here, power of the kettle is P = 2.2 kW = 2200 W
Power supply voltage (V) = 240 V
Current in the kettle, I = ?
We have, P = I V
𝑃 2200
I= = = 9.16 A
𝑉 240
Resistance of the kettle element, R = ?
𝑉2 Alternatively, P = I2 R
We have, P = 𝑷 𝟐𝟐𝟎𝟎
𝑅
𝑉2 2402 R= 𝟐=
𝑰 𝟗.𝟏𝟔𝟐 = 26.22 𝛀
R= = = 26. 18 𝛀
𝑃 2200

12/5/2023 ELECTRICITY 226

Q. An electric kettle is rated at 2.2 kW, 240 V. The supply voltage is reduced
from 240 V to 230 V. Calculate the new power of the kettle.
Solution:
Specification of electric kettle is 2.2 kW, 240 V.
𝑉2 2402
So, the resistance of the electric kettle is R = = = 26. 18 𝛀
𝑃 2200
Supply voltage is reduced from 240 V to 230 V.
So, new power of the kettle (P) = ?
𝑉𝑛 2 2302 52900
Now, P = = = = 2020.6 W
𝑅 26.18 26.18
Hence, the new power of the kettle is 2.02 kW.

12/5/2023 ELECTRICITY 227

Q. A battery has an e.m.f. of 3.0 V and an internal resistance of 2.0 𝛀. The
battery is connected to a load of 4.0 𝛀 . Calculate input power, output
power, lost power and efficiency (𝛈) of the circuit ?
Solution:
𝞮 3.0 3.0 1
I= = = = A
𝑅+𝑟 4.0+2.0 6.0 2
p.d. across 4 𝛀 resistor, V = I R
r 1
V = × 4.0 = 2.0 V
2
1
Input power, Pin = I 𝞮 = ×3
= 1.5 W
2
Output power, Pout = I V = I2 R
1
= × 2.0 = 1.0 W
2
R 1 2
Lost power, Plost = I2 r= ( ) ×2
2
1
= ×2 = 0.5 W
4
12/5/2023 ELECTRICITY 228
Q. A battery has an e.m.f. of 3.0 V and an internal resistance of 2.0 𝛀. The
battery is connected to a load of 4.0 𝛀 . Calculate input power, output
power, lost power and efficiency (𝛈) of the circuit ?
Solution:
Input power, Pin = 1.5 W
Output power, Pout = 1.0 W
𝑂𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 (𝑃𝑜𝑢𝑡 )
Efficiency, 𝛈 = × 100 %
r 𝐼𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 (𝑃𝑖𝑛 )
1.0
= × 100 %
1.5
𝛈 = 66.67 %
𝑅
Alternatively, 𝛈 = × 100 %
𝑅+𝑟
4
R = × 100 %
4+2
4
= × 100 %
6
2
= × 100 % = 66.67 %
3
12/5/2023 ELECTRICITY 229
 𝑂𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 (𝑃𝑜𝑢𝑡 )
Efficiency, 𝛈 = × 100 %
𝐼𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 (𝑃𝐼𝑛 )

𝐼𝑉 𝑉
= × 100 % = × 100 %
𝐼𝞮 𝞮

𝐼𝑅
= × 100 %
𝐼 ( 𝑅+𝑟)

𝑅
= × 100 %
𝑅+𝑟

𝑅
𝛈= × 100 %
𝑅+𝑟
12/5/2023 ELECTRICITY 230
12/5/2023 ELECTRICITY 231
Ohm’s Law: Discovered by George Simon Ohm in 1827 A.D.
It states that, “the electric current (I) in a
conductor is directly proportional to the
potential difference (V) across its ends at
constant temperature”.
i.e. I ∝ V
or, V ∝ I -------- (1)
If a graph is plotted between I and V, a straight
line passing through the origin is obtained.
Such a graph is known as an I-V characteristic.
We can also say, a conductor obeys ohm’s law
only if I-V curve is linear i.e. R is independent
of I and V at constant temperature.

Fig. I-V characteristic for

a metallic conductor.
Contd…: From equation (1), we have
V∝I
or, V = I R ------- (2)
Where, R is a constant of proportionality known as
the resistance of the conductor.
𝑉
or, R = --------- (3)
𝐼
The straight line graph passing through the origin
shows that the resistance of the conductor remains
constant.
This means that its resistance is independent of both
the current (I) and the p.d. (V).
If you double the p.d. (V), the current (I) will also
Fig. I-V characteristic for double.
a metallic conductor. 𝑉
But, the ratio remains constant.
𝐼
Contd…: 𝑉
Instead of using R = to determine the resistance of a
𝐼
conductor that depends on a single experimental data
point, it is more accurate to use gradient of the graph.
1
i.e. Resistance =
gradient
From the graph, we have:
∆𝐼
gradient =
∆𝑉
1 1
or, gradient = ∆𝑉 =
𝑅
∆𝐼
1
Hence, gradient =
Fig. I-V characteristic for a 𝑅
metallic conductor. Resistors have different resistances, hence the gradient
of the I-V graph will be different for different resistors.
Contd…
Figure alongside shows the I-V
characteristic of two different
metals, which one of them has
more resistance?
Metal 1

Resistance = gradient
Metal 2

Metal 1
R1 > R2
Fig. 1
𝟏
Resistance = 𝐠𝐫𝐚𝐝𝐢𝐞𝐧𝐭
Metal 2

R1 < R2

Fig. 2
Contd… What will be the nature of I-V
characteristic, if the connection to the
metal conductor is reversed?
The p.d. across the metal conductor
will be reversed. i.e. negative.
The current will flow in the opposite
direction. i.e. it will also be negative.
Hence, the graph obtained is
symmetrical.
Ohmic Conductor
The conductors which obey ohm’s
law i.e. I ∝ V, are called ohmic
conductors and their resistances are
called ohmic resistances.
Most of the metals such as copper,
silver, gold, etc are ohmic
conductors.
The current voltage graph of the
ohmic conductor is a straight line
passing through the origin.
Non-ohmic conductors
The conductors which don’t obey
ohm’s law are called non-ohmic
conductors and their resistances are
called non-ohmic resistances.
Semiconductor diodes, filament
lamp, thermistor, electrolytes,
transistors etc.
The current voltage graph of the
non-ohmic conductors is not a
straight line passing through the
origin but it is a curve.
12/5/2023 ELECTRICITY 239
Factors affecting resistance of a metallic conductor:
1. Temperature:
The resistance of a metal arises As the temperature of the metallic
due to the collision of free conductor increases, the atoms
electrons (charge carriers) with (positive ions) of the metallic
the vibrating atoms or ions of conductor vibrate with larger
the metal. amplitudes.
The resistance of a metal is Thus, the free electrons collide more
affected by two factors: frequently with the vibrating atoms
(positive ions), and this decreases
1. The temperature their mean drift velocity and increases
2. The presence of impurities the resistance.
In addition to this, during the collision
the free electrons lose energy to the
vibrating atoms (ions).
12/5/2023 ELECTRICITY 240
Contd…

A. At low temperatures, free electrons

can move easily past the positive ions.
.

B. At higher temperatures, electrons are

obstructed by the vibrating ions and they
make very frequent collision with the
ions.

12/5/2023 ELECTRICITY 241

 What about semiconductors?
However, conduction in semiconductors is different.
At low temperatures, there are few delocalised or
Metals have a high electron number free electrons.
density (n)-typically of the order of 1028
or 1029 m-3. For conduction to occur, electrons must have
sufficient energy to free themselves from the atom
Semiconductors, such as silicon and they are bound to.
germanium, have much lower values of
n i.e. of the order of 1023 m-3. As the temperature increases, a few electrons gain
enough energy to break free of their atoms to
Electrical insulators, such as rubber and become conduction electrons.
plastic, have very few conduction
electrons per unit volume to act as a The number of conduction electrons thus increases
charge carriers. and so the material becomes a better conductor.
At the same time, there are more electron – ion
collisions, but this effect is small compared with the
increase in the number of conduction electrons.

12/5/2023 ELECTRICITY 242

2. The presence of impurities

If the metal contains impurities, some of

the atoms will be of different sizes
.
(bigger). Again, this disrupts the free flow
of electrons.
In colliding with impurity atoms, the
mean drift velocity of free electrons
decreases and the resistance of the
metallic conductor increases.
In addition to this, during the collision the
free electrons lose energy to the vibrating
atoms (ions).

12/5/2023 ELECTRICITY 243

Contd…
Figure alongside shows that the resistance of
the pure metal increases linearly as the
temperature increases from 00C to 1000C.
It also shows how the resistance of the metal
changes if it is slightly impure.
The resistance of an impure metal is greater
than that of the pure metal and follows the
same gradual upward slope.
The resistance of a metal changes in this
gradual way over a wide range of
temperature – from close to absolute zero up
to its melting point, which may be over
20000C.

12/5/2023 ELECTRICITY 244

Resistance of the metallic conductor depends on
the following factors:
The resistance of a particular metallic wire depends on
various factors as listed below:
1) Length of the metallic wire (L).
2) Cross-sectional area (A) of the metallic wire.
3) The material from which the wire is made.
4) The temperature of the wire.

12/5/2023 ELECTRICITY 245

1. Length of the metallic wire (L).
A longer wire offers more resistance than
shorter one because there will be more
collisions between free electrons and
.
vibrating atoms (ions).
At a constant temperature and other
factors remaining constant, the resistance
is directly proportional to the length of the
wire.
i.e. Resistance (R) ∝ length (l)

R ∝ l -------------(1)

12/5/2023 ELECTRICITY 246

2. Cross-sectional area (A) of the metallic wire.
A thicker wire offers less resistance than
thinner one because in thicker wire there is
more area of cross-section for the free
.
electrons to flow so that more number of
free electrons (and hence more charge)
passes through the thicker wire than thinner
wire at the same time interval.
At a constant temperature and other factors
remaining constant, the resistance is
inversely proportional to the cross-sectional
area (A) of the wire.
1
i.e. Resistance (R) ∝
corss−sectinal area (A)
1
R∝ -------- (2)
12/5/2023 ELECTRICITY A 247
Contd…
We have, R ∝ l -------------(1)
1
R∝ -------- (2)
A
Combining equations (1) and (2); we get:
𝑙
R∝
A

𝑙 Where, 𝝆 is the constant of proportionality known

or R=𝜌 as resistivity of the material of the wire.
A

𝑙
R = 𝜌 --------- (3)
A
𝝆 is related to the material of the wire of which it is made.

12/5/2023 ELECTRICITY 248

3. The material from which the wire is made.
𝑙
R = 𝜌 --------- (3)
A
From equation (3), it is clear that Resistance of a metallic wire depends
on the material of which it is made (𝜌).
Because different materials have different arrangements of atoms that
causes different rate of collisions between free electrons and vibrating
atoms (ions).
For example: Copper is a better conductor than steel, steel is a better
conductor than silicon, and so on.

12/5/2023 ELECTRICITY 249

Resistivity(𝝆):

From equation (3); We have: Thus, resistivity of a material of a conductor is

numerically equal to the resistance of the
𝑙
R=𝜌 conductor having unit length and unit cross-
A
𝑅𝐴
sectional area.
𝜌= −−−− −(4) SI unit = 𝛀 m
l
If l = 1 m , A = 1 m2 then 𝑅𝐴 𝛀𝑚 2
[𝜌 = = = 𝛀 m]
l m
we get: The value of 𝜌 is independent of the dimension of the
𝑅1 wire.
𝜌=
1
It depends only on the nature of the material and the
𝝆=R temperature.
Different materials have different values of resistivity.

12/5/2023 ELECTRICITY 250

Resistivity (𝝆) and temperature:
• Resistivity (𝜌), like resistance, depends on temperature.
• For a metal, resistivity increases with temperature.
• This is because there are more frequent collision between the
conduction electrons and the vibrating ions of the metal.

12/5/2023 ELECTRICITY 251

12/5/2023 ELECTRICITY 252
Potential Divider (Voltage Divider):
A potential divider is an arrangement of
resistors in series connected across the fixed
p.d. which provides a convenient way of
getting a variable p.d. out of given fixed p.d.
A simple potential divider circuit can be
constructed by connecting two resistors in
series and joining the combination across the
given fixed p.d. as shown in the figure.
I I Here, same current I passes through each
resistors but the p.d. (V) provided by the cell is
divided into each resistors.
I I I

V 1
12/5/2023 ELECTRICITY 253
Potential Divider (Voltage Divider): Let V1 and V2 be the potential difference
across resistors having resistances R1 & R2
I I respectively.
Here, Equivalent resistance R = R1 + R2
𝑉
Electric Current, I = -------- (1)
𝑅1 + 𝑅2
Now,
I I I P.d. across R1, V1 = I×R1
𝑉
V1 V1 = × R1
𝑅1 + 𝑅2
𝑅1
I I V1 = ( ) V ---------- (2)
𝑅1 + 𝑅2
Similarly, p.d. across R2, V2 = I×R2
𝑉
V2 = × R2
𝑅1 + 𝑅2
𝑅2
V2 = ( ) V ---------- (3)
I I I 𝑅1 + 𝑅2
12/5/2023
V2 ELECTRICITY 254
Potential Divider (Voltage Divider):
I I V2

V1
I I I
V1 V2

If R1 = 10 𝛀 & R2 = 90 𝛀 and V = 10 V then V1 = ? & V2 = ?

𝑅1 10 10 𝑅2 90 90
V1 = ( ) V = ( ) 10 = ( ) 10 V2 = ( ) V = ( ) 10 = ( ) 10
𝑅1 + 𝑅2 10+90 100 𝑅1 + 𝑅2 10+90 100

12/5/2023 V1 = 1 V ELECTRICITY V2 = 9 V 255