Detailed Revision

Atom and Nuclie

Important Atomic Models.

(1) Thomson's model
J.J. Thomson gave the first idea regarding structure of atom. According to this model.
(i) An atom is a solid sphere in which entire and positive charge and it's mass is uniformly distributed and
in which negative charge (i.e. electron) are embedded like seeds in watermelon.

Positively charged sphere

–
– –
–
– Electron
–

Success and failure

Explained successfully the phenomenon of thermionic emission, photoelectric emission and ionization.
The model fail to explain the scattering of - particles and it cannot explain the origin of spectral lines
observed in the spectrum of hydrogen and other atoms.
(2) Rutherford's model
Rutherford's -particle scattering experiment
Rutherford performed experiments on the scattering of alpha particles by extremely thin gold foils and
made the following observations


Number of scattered particles :
N

b 1
r0 N
sin 4 ( / 2) N(180°)
Nucleus

-particle

(energy E )
 (i) Most of the -particles pass through the foil straight away undeflected.
(ii) Some of them are deflected through small angles.
(iii) A few -particles (1 in 1000) are deflected through the angle more than 90 o.

(iv) A few  -particles (very few) returned back i.e. deflected by 180o.
(v) Distance of closest approach (Nuclear dimension)
The minimum distance from the nucleus up to which the -particle approach, is called the distance of

1 Ze 2 1
closest approach (r0). From figure r0  . ; E  mv 2  K.E. of -particle
40 E 2

(vi) Impact parameter (b) : The perpendicular distance of the velocity vector ( v ) of the -particle from the

centre of the nucleus when it is far away from the nucleus is known as impact parameter. It is given as

Ze 2 cot( / 2)
b  b  cot( / 2)
1 2
40  mv 
2 

Note :  If t is the thickness of the foil and N is the number of -particles scattered in a particular
N N t
direction ( = constant), it was observed that  constant  1  1 .
t N 2 t 2

After Rutherford's scattering of -particles experiment, following conclusions were made as regard as
atomic structure :
Atom
(a) Most of the mass and all of the charge of an atom concentrated in a
Nucleus
very small region is called atomic nucleus. +

10–15 m
(b) Nucleus is positively charged and it's size is of the order of 10–15 m  1
–10
10 m
Fermi. –15
Size of the nucleus = 1 Fermi = 10 m
(c) In an atom there is maximum empty space and the electrons revolve –10
Size of the atom 1 Å = 10 m
around the nucleus in the same way as the planets revolve around the sun.

Draw backs
(i) Stability of atom : It could not explain stability of atom because according to classical electrodynamic
theory an accelerated charged particle should continuously radiate energy.
Thus an electron moving in an circular path around the nucleus should also
radiate energy and thus move into smaller and smaller orbits of gradually e
–

decreasing radius and it should ultimately fall into nucleus.

Instability of atom
 (ii) According to this model the spectrum of atom must be continuous where as practically it is a line
spectrum.
(iii) It did not explain the distribution of electrons outside the nucleus.
(3) Bohr's model
Bohr proposed a model for hydrogen atom which is also applicable for some lighter atoms in which a
single electron revolves around a stationary nucleus of positive charge Ze (called hydrogen like atom)
Bohr's model is based on the following postulates.
(i) The electron can revolve only in certain discrete non-radiating orbits, called stationary orbits, for which
h
total angular momentum of the revolving electrons is an integral multiple of ( )
2

 h 
i.e. L  n    mvr ; where n = 1, 2, 3, ……..= Principal quantum number
 2 
(ii) The radiation of energy occurs only when an electron jumps from one permitted orbit to another.
When electron jumps from higher energy orbit (E1) to lower energy orbit (E2) then difference of energies of
these orbits i.e. E1 – E2 emits in the form of photon. But if electron goes from E2 to E1 it absorbs the same
amount of energy. E1 E1

E1 – E2 = h E1 – E2 = h
E2 E2
Emission Absorption

Note :  According to Bohr theory the momentum of an e  revolving in second orbit of H 2 atom will be

h

 For an electron in the nth orbit of hydrogen atom in Bohr model, circumference of orbit  n  ;
where  = de-Broglie wavelength.
Bohr's Orbits (For Hydrogen and H2-Like Atoms).
(1) Radius of orbit

For an electron around a stationary nucleus the electrostatics force of attraction provides the necessary
centripetal force

1 (Ze )e mv 2 nh
i.e.  ……. (i) also mvr  …….(ii)
40 r 2 r 2

From equation (i) and (ii) radius of nth orbit

r

n
 n 2h2 n 2 h 2 0 n2  1 
rn    0 .53 Å  where k  
4 2 kZme 2
mZe 2
Z  4  0 

n2
 rn 
Z

Note :  The radius of the innermost orbit (n = 1) hydrogen atom (z = 1) is called Bohr's radius a0 i.e.
a 0  0 .53 Å .

(2) Speed of electron

From the above relations, speed of electron in nth orbit can be calculated as

2kZe 2 Ze 2  c  Z 6 Z
v
vn    .  2 .2  10 m / sec
nh 2 0 nh  137  n n

where (c = speed of light 3  108 m/s)

n

Note :  The ratio of speed of an electron in ground state in Bohr's first orbit of hydrogen atom to velocity
e2 1
of light in air is equal to  (where c = speed of light in air)
2 0 ch 137

(3) Some other quantities

For the revolution of electron in nth orbit, some other quantities are given in the following table

Quantity Formula Dependency on n and Z

(1) Angular speed vn mz 2 e 4 Z2
n   n 
rn 2 02 n 3 h 3 n3

(2) Frequency n mz 2 e 4 Z2
n   n 
2 4  02 n 3 h 3 n3

(3) Time period 1 4  02 n 3 h 3 n3

Tn   Tn 
n mz 2 e 4 Z2

(4) Angular momentum  h  Ln  n

L n  mv n rn  n  
 2 

(5) Corresponding current mz 2 e 5 Z2

in  e  n  in 
4  02 n 3 h 3 n3

(6) Magnetic moment  

M n  in A  in  rn2 Mn  n
 eh
(where 0   Bohr
4 m

magneton)
(7) Magnetic field  0 in m 2 z 3 e 7  0 Z3
B  B
2rn 8 03 n 5 h 5 n5

(4) Energy
(i) Potential energy : An electron possesses some potential energy because it is found in the field of
(Ze)(e ) kZe 2
nucleus potential energy of electron in nth orbit of radius rn is given by U  k . 
rn rn

(ii) Kinetic energy : Electron posses kinetic energy because of it's motion. Closer orbits have greater
kinetic energy than outer ones.

mv 2 k . (Ze )(e ) kZe 2 | U |

As we know   Kinetic energy K  
rn rn2 2rn 2

(iii) Total energy : Total energy (E) is the sum of potential energy and kinetic energy i.e. E = K + U

kZe 2 n 2 h 2 0  me 4  z2  me 4  z2
 E also rn  . Hence E    2 2 .
 n2    2 3  ch
 n2
2rn mze 2
 8 0 h   8  0 ch 

Z2 Z2
  R ch  13 . 6 eV
n2 n2

me 4
where R  = Rydberg's constant = 1.09  107 per metre
8  02 ch 3

Note :  Each Bohr orbit has a definite energy

13 .6
 For hydrogen atom (Z = 1)  E n   eV
n2
 The state with n = 1 has the lowest (most negative) energy. For hydrogen atom it is E1 = – 13.6
eV.

 Rch = Rydberg's energy ~– 2 .17  10 18 J ~– 31 .6 eV .

U
 E  K  .
2
(iv) Ionisation energy and potential : The energy required to ionise an atom is called ionisation energy.
It is the energy required to make the electron jump from the present orbit to the infinite orbit.
  Z2  13 . 6 Z 2
Hence Eionisation  E   En  0    13 .6 2    eV
 n  n2

 13 .6(1) 2
For H2-atom in the ground state E ionisation   13 .6 eV
n2
The potential through which an electron need to be accelerated so that it acquires energy equal to the
E ionisation
ionisation energy is called ionisation potential. Vionisation 
e
(v) Excitation energy and potential : When the electron is given energy from external source, it jumps to
higher energy level. This phenomenon is called excitation.
The minimum energy required to excite an atom is called excitation energy of the particular excited state
and corresponding potential is called exciting potential.
E excitation
EExcitation  EFinal  EInitial and VExcitation 
e
(vi) Binding energy (B.E.) : Binding energy of a system is defined as the energy released when it's
constituents are brought from infinity to form the system. It may also be defined as the energy needed to
separate it's constituents to large distances. If an electron and a proton are initially at rest and brought from
large distances to form a hydrogen atom, 13.6 eV energy will be released. The binding energy of a hydrogen
atom is therefore 13.6 eV.

13 .6
Note :  For hydrogen atom principle quantum number n  .
(B.E.)

(5) Energy level diagram

The diagrammatic description of the energy of the electron in different orbits around the nucleus is called
energy level diagram.
Energy level diagram of hydrogen/hydrogen like atom
 n= Infinite Infinite E = 0 eV 0 eV 0 eV

n=4 Fourth Third E4 = – 0.85 eV – 0.85 Z 2 + 0.85 eV

n=3 Third Second E3 = – 1.51 eV – 1.51 Z 2 + 1.51 eV
n=2 Secon First E2 = – 3.4 eV – 3.4 Z 2 + 3.4 eV
d
n=1 First Ground E1 = – 13.6 eV – 13.6 Z 2 + 13.6 eV

Principle Orbit Excited Energy for H2 Energy for H2 Ionisation

quantu state – atom – like atom energy
m from this level
number (for H2 – atom)

Note :  In hydrogen atom excitation energy to excite electron from ground state to first excited
state will be  3.4  (13 .6)  10 .2 eV .

and from ground state to second excited state it is [  1.51  (13 .6)  12 .09 eV ].

 In an H 2 atom when e  makes a transition from an excited state to the ground state it’s kinetic
energy increases while potential and total energy decreases.
(6) Transition of electron

When an electron makes transition from higher energy level having energy E2(n2) to a lower energy level
having energy E1 (n1) then a photon of frequency  is emitted

(i) Energy of emitted radiation E2 n2

 Rc h Z 2  Rch Z 2    E,,
E  E 2  E1       13 .6 Z 2  1  1 
n 22 n12   n2 n2  E1 n1
   1 2 
Emission

(ii) Frequency of emitted radiation

E E 2  E1  1 1 
E  h      Rc Z 2  2  2 

h h  n1 n 2 

(iii) Wave number/wavelength

1 
Wave number is the number of waves in unit length   
 c

1  1 1  13 .6 Z 2  1 1 
  RZ 2  2  2   
 n2  n2 
  n1 n 2  hc  1 2 
 (iv) Number of spectral lines : If an electron jumps from higher energy orbit to lower energy orbit it emits
raidations with various spectral lines.
If electron falls from orbit n2 to n1 then the number of spectral lines emitted is given by
(n 2  n1  1)(n 2  n1 )
NE 
2
If electron falls from nth orbit to ground state (i.e. n2 = n and n1 = 1) then number of spectral lines emitted
n (n  1)
NE 
2
Note :  Absorption spectrum is obtained only for the transition from lowest energy level to higher energy
levels. Hence the number of absorption spectral lines will be (n – 1).
(v) Recoiling of an atom : Due to the transition of electron, photon is emitted and the atom is recoiled

h  1 1 
Recoil momentum of atom = momentum of photon   hRZ 2  2  2 
  n1 n 2 

p2 h2
Also recoil energy of atom   (where m = mass of recoil atom)
2m 2 m  2
(7) Draw backs of Bohr's atomic model
(i) It is valid only for one electron atoms, e.g. : H, He+, Li+2, Na+1 etc.

(ii) Orbits were taken as circular but according to Sommerfield these are elliptical.

(iii) Intensity of spectral lines could not be explained.

(iv) Nucleus was taken as stationary but it also rotates on its own axis.
(v) It could not be explained the minute structure in spectrum line.
(vi) This does not explain the Zeeman effect (splitting up of spectral lines in magnetic field) and Stark
effect (splitting up in electric field)
(vii) This does not explain the doublets in the spectrum of some of the atoms like sodium (5890Å &
5896Å)
Hydrogen Spectrum and Spectral Series.
When hydrogen atom is excited, it returns to its normal unexcited (or ground state) state by emitting the
energy it had absorbed earlier. This energy is given out by the atom in the form of radiations of different
wavelengths as the electron jumps down from a higher to a lower orbit. Transition from different orbits cause
different wavelengths, these constitute spectral series which are characteristic of the atom emitting them.
When observed through a spectroscope, these radiations are imaged as sharp and straight vertical lines of a
single colour.
 Photon of
Spectrum
wavelength 
+ + +

Emission spectra

Spectral series

The spectral lines arising from the transition of electron forms a spectra series.
(i) Mainly there are five series and each series is named after it's discover as Lymen series, Balmer
series, Paschen series, Bracket series and Pfund series.
(ii) According to the Bohr's theory the wavelength of the radiations emitted from hydrogen atom is given
by

1 1 1 
 R 2  2
  n1 n 2 

where n2 = outer orbit (electron jumps from this orbit), n1 = inner orbit (electron falls in this orbit)

(iii) First line of the series is called first member, for this line wavelength is maximum (max)

(iv) Last line of the series (n2 = ) is called series limit, for this line wavelength is minimum (min)
 n12 n 22 n12
Wavelength ( )  
(n 22  n12 )R  2 
 1  n1  R
 n 22 


Spectral  max (n  1) 2
Maximum Minimum 
Transition  min (2n  1) Region
series wavelength wavelength
n1  n and n 2  n  1 n 2  , n1  n 

n 2 (n  1) 2 n2
 max  min 
(2n  1)R R

1. Lymen n2 = 2, 3, 4 (1) 2 (1  1) 2 4 n1 = n = 1 4 Ultraviolet

 max  
(2  1  1)R 3R 3
series … min 
1 region
R
n1 = 1

2.Balmer n2 = 3, 4, 5 n1 = n = 2, n2 = 2 + 1  min 
4 9 Visible
R 5
series … =3 region
n1 = 2 36
max 
5R

3. Paschen n2 = 4, 5, 6 n1 = n = 3, n2 = 3 + 1 = n1 = n = 3 16 Infrared
7
series … 4
min 
9 region
R
n1 = 3 144
max 
7R

4. Bracket n2 = 5, 6, 7 n1 = n = 4, n2 = 4 + 1 = n1 = n = 4 25 Infrared
9
series … 5
min 
16 region
R
n1 = 4 400
max 
9R

5. Pfund n2 = 6, 7, 8 n1 =  = 5, n2 = 5 + 1 = min 
25 36 Infrared
R 11
series … 6 region
n1 = 5 max 
900
11 R

Quantum Numbers.
An atom contains large number of shells and subshells. These are distinguished from one another on the
basis of their size, shape and orientation (direction) in space. The parameters are expressed in terms of
different numbers called quantum number.
 Quantum numbers may be defined as a set of four number with the help of which we can get complete
information about all the electrons in an atom. It tells us the address of the electron i.e. location, energy, the
type of orbital occupied and orientation of that orbital.
(1) Principal Quantum number (n) : This quantum number determines the main energy level or shell in
which the electron is present. The average distance of the electron from the nucleus and the energy of the
1
electron depends on it. En  2
and rn  n 2 (in H-atom)
n
The principal quantum number takes whole number values, n = 1, 2, 3, 4,….. 
(2) Orbital quantum number (l) or azimuthal quantum number (l)
This represents the number of subshells present in the main shell. These subsidiary orbits within a shell
will be denoted as 1, 2, 3, 4 … or s, p, d, f … This tells the shape of the subshells.

h
The orbital angular momentum of the electron is given as L  l(l  1) (for a particular value of n).
2
For a given value of n the possible values of l are l = 0, 1, 2, ….. upto (n – 1)
(3) Magnetic quantum number (ml) : An electron due to it's angular motion around the nucleus
generates an electric field. This electric field is expected to produce a magnetic field. Under the influence of
external magnetic field, the electrons of a subshell can orient themselves in certain preferred regions of space
around the nucleus called orbitals.
The magnetic quantum number determines the number of preferred orientations of the electron present in
a subshell.
The angular momentum quantum number m can assume all integral value between – l to +l including
zero. Thus ml can be – 1, 0, + 1 for l = 1. Total values of ml associated with a particular value of l is given by (2l
+ 1).
(4) Spin (magnetic) quantum number (ms) : An electron in atom not only revolves around the nucleus
but also spins about its own axis. Since an electron can spin either in clockwise direction or in anticlockwise
direction. Therefore for any particular value of magnetic quantum number, spin quantum number can have two
1 1
values, i.e. ms  (Spin up) or ms   (Spin down)
2 2
This quantum number helps to explain the magnetic properties of the substance.
Electronic Configurations of Atoms.
The distribution of electrons in different orbitals of an atom is called the electronic configuration of the
atom. The filling of electrons in orbitals is governed by the following rules.
(1) Pauli's exclusion principle
 "It states that no two electrons in an atom can have all the four quantum number (n, l, ml and ms) the
same."
It means each quantum state of an electron must have a different set of quantum numbers n, l, ml and ms.
This principle sets an upper limit on the number of electrons that can occupy a shell.
N max in one shell = 2n2; Thus Nmax in K, L, M, N …. shells are 2, 8, 18, 32,

Note :  The maximum number of electrons in a subshell with orbital quantum number l is 2(2l + 1).
(2) Aufbau principle

Electrons enter the orbitals of lowest energy first.

As a general rule, a new electron enters an empty orbital for which (n + l ) is minimum. In case the value
(n  l) is equal for two orbitals, the one with lower value of n is filled first.

Thus the electrons are filled in subshells in the following order (memorize)
1s, 2s, 2p, 3s, 3p, 4s, 3d, 4p, 5s, 4d, 5p, 6s, 4f, 5d, 6p, 7s, 5f, 6d, 7p, ……
(3) Hund's Rule

When electrons are added to a subshell where more than one orbital of the same energy is available,
their spins remain parallel. They occupy different orbitals until each one of them has at least one electron.
Pairing starts only when all orbitals are filled up.
Pairing takes place only after filling 3, 5 and 7 electrons in p, d and f orbitals, respectively.

Concepts

 With the increase in principal quantum number the energy difference between
E, 
the two
n = 4successive

energy level decreases, while wavelength of spectral line increases. n=3

E,  E, 
E'  E' '  E' ' ' n=2
E, 
'  ' '  ' ' ' n=1

E  E' E' ' E' ' '

1 1 1 1
  
 ' ' ' ' ' '

 Rydberg constant is different for different elements

R( =1.09  107 m–1) is the value of Rydberg constant when the nucleus is considered to be infinitely
massive as compared to the revolving electron. In other words, the nucleus is considered to be
stationary.
 In case, the nucleus is not infinitely massive or stationary, then the value of Rydberg constant is
R
given as R '  where m is the mass of electron and M is the mass of nucleus.
m
1
M

 Atomic spectrum is a line spectrum

Each atom has it's own characteristic allowed orbits depending upon the electronic configuration.
Therefore photons emitted during transition of electrons from one allowed orbit to inner allowed orbit
are of some definite energy only. They do not have a continuous graduation of energy. Therefore the
spectrum of the emitted light has only some definite lines and therefore atomic spectrum is line
spectrum.
 Just as dots of light of only three colours combine to form almost every conceivable colour on T.V.
screen, only about 100 distinct kinds of atoms combine to form all the materials in the universe.

Nuclear Physics & Radioactivity

Rutherford's -scattering experiment established that the mass of atom is concentrated with small positively
charged region at the centre which is called 'nucleus'.
–
e
Nuclei are made up of proton and neutron. The number of protons in a
nucleus (called the atomic number or proton number) is represented by the
symbol Z. The number of neutrons (neutron number) is represented by N. The
total number of neutrons and protons in a nucleus is called it's mass number A e
–

–
e
so A = Z + N.
Neutrons and proton, when described collectively are called nucleons.
Nucleus contains two types of particles : Protons and neutrons

Nuclides are represented as Z X A ; where X denotes the chemical symbol of the element.

Neutron.
Neutron is a fundamental particle which is essential constituent of all nuclei except that of hydrogen atom.
It was discovered by Chadwick.
(1) The charge of neutron : It is neutral A free neutron outside the nucleus is unstable
and decays into proton and electron.
(2) The mass of neutron : 1.6750  10–27 kg
 1 H1  1   
1 0
0n
Proton Electron Antinutrino
 1  h 
(3) It's spin angular momentum :  J -s
2  2 

(4) It's magnetic moment : 9.57  10–27 J/Tesla

(5) It's half life : 12 minutes
(6) Penetration power : High
(7) Types : Neutrons are of two types slow neutron and fast neutron, both are fully capable of penetrating
a nucleus and causing artificial disintegration.
Thermal neutrons
Fast neutrons can be converted into slow neutrons by certain materials called moderator's (Paraffin wax,
heavy water, graphite) when fast moving neutrons pass through a moderator, they collide with the molecules of
the moderator, as a result of this, the energy of moving neutron decreases while that of the molecules of the
moderator increases. After sometime they both attains same energy. The neutrons are then in thermal
equilibrium with the molecules of the moderator and are called thermal neutrons.
Note :  Energy of thermal neutron is about 0.025 eV and speed is about 2.2 km/s.
Nucleus.
(1) Different types of nuclei

The nuclei have been classified on the basis of the number of protons (atomic number) or the total
number of nucleons (mass number) as follows
(i) Isotopes : The atoms of element having same atomic number but different mass number are called
isotopes. All isotopes have the same chemical properties. The isotopes of some elements are the following

1 H 1, 1H 2, 1H 3 8O
16
, 8 O17 , 8 O18 2 He 3 , 2 He
4
17 Cl
35
, 17 Cl
37
92 U
235
, 92 U
238

(ii) Isobars : The nuclei which have the same mass number (A) but different atomic number (Z) are called
isobars. Isobars occupy different positions in periodic table so all isobars have different chemical properties.
Some of the examples of isobars are

1 H 3 and 2 He
3
, 6C
14
and 7 N 14 , 8 O 17 and 9F
17

(iii) Isotones : The nuclei having equal number of neutrons are called isotones. For them both the atomic
number (Z) and mass number (A) are different, but the value of (A – Z) is same. Some examples are

4 Be 9 and 5 B 10 , 6 C 13 and 7N
14
, 8 O 18 and 9F
19
, 3 Li 7 and 4 Be
8
, 1 H 3 and 2 He 4

(iv) Mirror nuclei : Nuclei having the same mass number A but with the proton number (Z) and neutron
number (A – Z) interchanged (or whose atomic number differ by 1) are called mirror nuclei for example.
3
1H and 2 He 3 , 3 Li 7 and 4 Be
7
 (2) Size of nucleus
(i) Nuclear radius : Experimental results indicates that the nuclear radius is proportional to A1/3, where A is

the mass number of nucleus i.e. R  A1 / 3  R  R 0 A 1 / 3 , where R0 = 1.2  10–15 m = 1.2 fm.

Note :  Heavier nuclei are bigger in size than lighter nuclei.

4 4
(ii) Nuclear volume : The volume of nucleus is given by V   R 3   R 03 A  V  A
3 3
(iii) Nuclear density : Mass per unit volume of a nucleus is called nuclear density.
Mass of nucleus mA
Nuclear density ( )  
Volume of nucleus 4
 (R 0 A 1 / 3 ) 3
3
where m = Average of mass of a nucleon (= mass of proton + mass of neutron = 1.66  10–27 kg)
and mA = Mass of nucleus

3m
   2.38  10 17 kg / m 3
4R 0
3

Note :   is independent of A, it means  is same of all atoms.

 Density of a nucleus is maximum at it's centre and decreases as we move outwards from the
nucleus.
(3) Nuclear force

Forces that keep the nucleons bound in the nucleus are called
nuclear forces. At low speeds, electromagnetic repulsion prevents
the collision of nuclei
(i) Nuclear forces are short range forces. These do not exist at
large distances greater than 10–15 m.

(ii) Nuclear forces are the strongest forces in nature.

(iii) These are attractive force and causes stability of the nucleus.
At high speeds, nuclei come close enough for the
(iv) These forces are charge independent. strong force to bind them together.

(v) Nuclear forces are non-central force.

Nuclear forces are exchange forces

According to scientist Yukawa the nuclear force between the two nucleons is the result of the exchange of
particles called mesons between the nucleons.

 - mesons are of three types – Positive  meson (+), negative  meson ( –), neutral  meson (0)
The force between neutron and proton is due to exchange of charged meson between them i.e.

p     n, n  p  
 The forces between a pair of neutrons or a pair of protons are the result of the exchange of neutral meson
(o) between them i.e. p  p ' 0 and n  n' 0

Thus exchange of  meson between nucleons keeps the nucleons bound together. It is responsible for
the nuclear forces.
Dog-Bone analogy

The above interactions can be explained with the dog bone analogy according to
which we consider the two interacting nucleons to be two dogs having a common bone
clenched in between their teeth very firmly. Each one of these dogs wants to take the
bone and hence they cannot be separated easily. They seem to be bound to each other
with a strong attractive force (which is the bone) though the dogs themselves are strong
enemies. The meson plays the same role of the common bone in between two nucleons.
(4) Atomic mass unit (amu)
The unit in which atomic and nuclear masses are measured is called atomic mass unit (amu)

1
1 amu (or 1u) = th of mass of 6 C 12 atom = 1.66  10–27 kg
12
Masses of electron, proton and neutrons

Mass of electron (me) = 9.1  10–31 kg = 0.0005486 amu, Mass of proton (mp) = 1.6726  10–27 kg =
1.007276 amu

Mass of neutron (mn) = 1.6750  10–27 kg = 1.00865 amu, Mass of hydrogen atom (me + mp) = 1.6729  10–27 kg =
1.0078 amu

Mass-energy equivalence

According to Einstein, mass and energy are inter convertible. The Einstein's mass energy relationship is given by
E  mc 2

If m = 1 amu, c = 3  108 m/sec then E = 931 MeV i.e. 1 amu is equivalent to 931 MeV or 1 amu (or 1 u) = 931 MeV

(5) Pair production and pair-annihilation

When an energetic -ray photon falls on a heavy substance. It is absorbed by some nucleus of the
substance and an electron and a positron are produced. This phenomenon is called pair production and may
be represented by the following equation h  1
0
 1 
0
0
(  photon) (Positron) (Electron)
+1

+Ze
h
The rest-mass energy of each of positron and electron is
-photon Nucleus
E0 = m0c2 = (9.1  10–31 kg)  (3.0  108 m/s)2
–1 0
 = 8.2  10–14 J = 0.51 MeV

Hence, for pair-production it is essential that the energy of -photon must be at least 2  0.51 = 1.02 MeV.
If the energy of -photon is less than this, it would cause photo-electric effect or Compton effect on striking the
matter.

The converse phenomenon pair-annihilation is also possible. Whenever an electron and a positron come
very close to each other, they annihilate each other by combining together and two -photons (energy) are
produced. This phenomenon is called pair annihilation and is represented by the following equation.

1   1   h  h
0 0

(Positron) (Electron ) ( - photon ) ( - photon )

(6) Nuclear stability

Among about 1500 known nuclides, less than 260 are stable. The others are unstable that decay to form
other nuclides by emitting , -particles and  - EM waves. (This process is called radioactivity). The stability of
nucleus is determined by many factors. Few such factors are given below :

N 
(i) Neutron-proton ratio  Ratio 
 Z 

The chemical properties of an atom are governed entirely by the number of protons (Z) in the nucleus, the
stability of an atom appears to depend on both the number of protons and the number of neutrons.

For lighter nuclei, the greatest stability is achieved when the number of protons and neutrons are
N
approximately equal (N  Z) i.e. 1
Z

Heavy nuclei are stable only when they have more neutrons than protons. Thus heavy nuclei are neutron
rich compared to lighter nuclei (for heavy nuclei, more is the number of protons in the nucleus, greater is the
electrical repulsive force between them. Therefore more neutrons are added to provide the strong attractive
forces necessary to keep the nucleus stable.)
Neutron number (N)

Stable nuclei (Line

of stability)

N=Z

10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90
Proton number (Z)
 Figure shows a plot of N verses Z for the stable nuclei. For mass number upto about A = 40. For larger
value of Z the nuclear force is unable to hold the nucleus together against the electrical repulsion of the
protons unless the number of neutrons exceeds the number of protons. At Bi (Z = 83, A = 209), the neutron
excess in N – Z = 43. There are no stable nuclides with Z > 83.

Note :  The nuclide 83 Bi 209 is the heaviest stable nucleus.

 A nuclide above the line of stability i.e. having excess neutrons, decay through   emission
(neutron changes into proton). Thus increasing atomic number Z and decreasing neutron
N
number N. In   emission, ratio decreases.
Z

Number (N)
Neutron
A nuclide below the line of stability have excess number of protons. It – N=Z

+
decays by   emission, results in decreasing Z and increasing N. In

N Proton number (Z)

  emission, the ratio increases.
Z
(ii) Even or odd numbers of Z or N : The stability of a nuclide is also determined by the consideration
whether it contains an even or odd number of protons and neutrons.

It is found that an even-even nucleus (even Z and even N) is more stable (60% of stable nuclide have
even Z and even N).

An even-odd nucleus (even Z and odd N) or odd-even nuclide (odd Z and even N) is found to be lesser
sable while the odd-odd nucleus is found to be less stable.

Only five stable odd-odd nuclides are known : 1 H 2 , 3 Li 6 , 5 Be 10 , 7 N 14 and 75 Ta

180

(iii) Binding energy per nucleon : The stability of a nucleus is determined by value of it's binding energy
per nucleon. In general higher the value of binding energy per nucleon, more stable the nucleus is
Mass Defect and Binding Energy.

(1) Mass defect (m)

It is found that the mass of a nucleus is always less than the sum of masses of it's constituent nucleons in
free state. This difference in masses is called mass defect. Hence mass defect

m = Sum of masses of nucleons – Mass of nucleus

 Zm p  ( A  Z )m n   M  Zm p  Zm e  ( A  Z )m z   M '

where mp = Mass of proton, mn = Mass of each neutron, me = Mass of each electron

M = Mass of nucleus, Z = Atomic number, A = Mass number, M = Mass of atom as a whole.

Note :  The mass of a typical nucleus is about 1% less than the sum of masses of nucleons.
 (2) Packing fraction

Mass defect per nucleon is called packing fraction

m M  A
Packing fraction (f )   where M = Mass of nucleus, A = Mass number
A A
Packing fraction measures the stability of a nucleus. Smaller
40
the value of packing fraction, larger is the stability of the nucleus. 30
20
(i) Packing fraction may be of positive, negative or zero value. 10
0 Mas
(iii) At A = 16, f  Zero A > 240 number (A)
– 10
– 20

(3) Binding energy (B.E.)

The neutrons and protons in a stable nucleus are held together by nuclear forces and energy is needed to
pull them infinitely apart (or the same energy is released during the formation of the nucleus). This energy is
called the binding energy of the nucleus.

or

The binding energy of a nucleus may be defined as the energy equivalent to the mass defect of the
nucleus.

If m is mass defect then according to Einstein's mass energy relation

Binding energy = m  c2 = [{mpZ + mn(A – Z)} – M] c2

(This binding energy is expressed in joule, because m is measured in kg)

If m is measured in amu then binding energy = m amu = [{mpZ + mn(A – Z)} – M] amu = m  931 MeV

(4) Binding energy per nucleon

The average energy required to release a nucleon from the nucleus is called binding energy per nucleon.

Total bind ing energy m  931 MeV

Binding energy per nucleon  
Mass number (i.e. total number of nucleons) A Nucleon

Binding energy per nucleon  Stability of nucleus

Binding Energy Curve.
It is the graph between binding energy per nucleon and total number of nucleons (i.e. mass number A)

8.0 He 56
Binding energy per

26Fe
nucleon (MeV)

6.0

4.0 Li

2.0 H
2

0
56 100 150 200
Mass number A

(1) Some nuclei with mass number A < 20 have large binding energy per nucleon than their neighbour
nuclei. For example 2 He 4 , 4 Be 8 , 6 C 12 , 8 O 16 and 10 Ne 20 . These nuclei are more stable than their neighbours.

(2) The binding energy per nucleon is maximum for nuclei of mass number A = 56 ( 26 Fe 56 ) . It's value is
8.8 MeV per nucleon.

(3) For nuclei having A > 56, binding energy per nucleon gradually decreases for uranium (A = 238), the
value of binding energy per nucleon drops to 7.5 MeV.

Note :  When a heavy nucleus splits up into lighter nuclei, then binding energy per nucleon of lighter
nuclei is more than that of the original heavy nucleus. Thus a large amount of energy is
liberated in this process (nuclear fission).

 When two very light nuclei combines to form a relatively heavy nucleus, then binding energy per
nucleon increases. Thus, energy is released in this process (nuclear fusion).

B. E.
A +

Fusion Fission
+

Nuclear Reactions.

The process by which the identity of a nucleus is changed when it is bombarded by an energetic particle
is called nuclear reaction. The general expression for the nuclear reaction is as follows.

X  a  C  Y  b  Q
(Parent nucleus) (Incident particle) (Compound nucleus) (Compound nucleus) (Product particles ) (Energy)
 Here X and a are known as reactants and Y and b are known as products. This reaction is known as (a,
b) reaction and can be represented as X(a, b) Y
(1) Q value or energy of nuclear reaction
The energy absorbed or released during nuclear reaction is known as Q-value of nuclear reaction.

Q-value = (Mass of reactants – mass of products)c2 Joules

= (Mass of reactants – mass of products) amu

If Q < 0, The nuclear reaction is known as endothermic. (The energy is absorbed in the reaction)

If Q > 0, The nuclear reaction is known as exothermic (The energy is released in the reaction)
(2) Law of conservation in nuclear reactions

(i) Conservation of mass number and charge number : In the following nuclear reaction

2 He 4  7 N 14  8 O 17  1 H 1

Mass number (A)  Before the reaction After the reaction

4 +14 = 18 17 + 1 = 18

Charge number (Z)  2+7=9 8+1=9

(ii) Conservation of momentum : Linear momentum/angular momentum of particles before the reaction is
equal to the linear/angular momentum of the particles after the reaction. That is p = 0

(iii) Conservation of energy : Total energy before the reaction is equal to total energy after the reaction.
Term Q is added to balance the total energy of the reaction.
(3) Common nuclear reactions

The nuclear reactions lead to artificial transmutation of nuclei. Rutherford was the first to carry out artificial
transmutation of nitrogen to oxygen in the year 1919.

2 He 4  7 N 14  9 F 18  8 O 17  1 H 1

It is called (, p) reaction. Some other nuclear reactions are given as follows.

(p, n) reaction  1 H 1  5 B 11  6 C 12  6 C 11  0 n 1

(p, ) reaction  1 H 1  3 Li 11  4 Be 8  2 He 4  2 He 4

(p, ) reaction  1H
1
 6 C 12  7 N 13  7 N 13  

(n, p) reaction  0n
1
 7 N 14  7 N 15  6 C 14  1 H 1

(, n) reaction    1 H 2  1 H 1  0 n1

Nuclear Fission and Fusion.

 Nuclear fission

The process of splitting of a heavy nucleus into two lighter nuclei of comparable masses (after
bombardment with a energetic particle) with liberation of energy is called nuclear fission.
The phenomenon of nuclear fission was discovered by scientist Ottohann and F. Strassman and was
explained by N. Bohr and J.A. Wheeler on the basis of liquid drop model of nucleus.
(1) Fission reaction of U235

(i) Nuclear reaction :

92 U
235
 0 n1  92 U
236
 56 Ba
141
 36 Kr
92
 3 0 n1  Q
(unstable nucleus)

(ii) The energy released in U235 fission is about 200 MeV or 0.8 MeV per nucleon.
235
(iii) By fission of 92 U , on an average 2.5 neutrons are liberated. These neutrons are called fast
neutrons and their energy is about 2 MeV (for each). These fast neutrons can escape from the reaction so as
to proceed the chain reaction they are need to slow down.
(iv) Fission of U235 occurs by slow neutrons only (of energy about 1eV) or even by thermal neutrons (of
energy about 0.025 eV).

(v) 50 kg of U235 on fission will release  4 × 1015 J of energy. This is equivalence to 20,000 tones of TNT
explosion. The nuclear bomb dropped at Hiroshima had this much explosion power.
(vi) The mass of the compound nucleus must be greater than the sum of masses of fission products.

Binding energy
(vii) The of compound nucleus must be less than that of the fission products.
A

(viii) It may be pointed out that it is not necessary that in each fission of uranium, the two fragments 56 Ba
and 36 Kr are formed but they may be any stable isotopes of middle weight atoms.

Same other U 235 fission reactions are

92 U
235
 0 n 1  54 Xe 140  38 Sr
94
 2 0 n1

 57 La 148  35 Br
85
 3 0 n1

 Many more

(ix) The neutrons released during the fission process are called prompt neutrons.
(x) Most of energy released appears in the form of kinetic energy of fission fragments.
 Ba

Energy

Energy
Slow
Neutron
235 236
92U 92U

Energy

Energy
Kr

(2) Chain reaction

In nuclear fission, three neutrons are produced along with the release of large energy. Under favourable
conditions, these neutrons can cause further fission of other nuclei, producing large number of neutrons. Thus
a chain of nuclear fissions is established which continues until the whole of the uranium is consumed.

Kr

U
Kr Ba

n
U
Kr
Ba
U

Ba

In the chain reaction, the number of nuclei undergoing fission increases very fast. So, the energy
produced takes a tremendous magnitude very soon.
Difficulties in chain reaction

(i) Absorption of neutrons by U 238 , the major part in natural uranium is the isotope U238 (99.3%), the
isotope U 235 is very little (0.7%). It is found that U 238 is fissionable with fast neutrons, whereas U 235 is
fissionable with slow neutrons. Due to the large percentage of U 238 , there is more possibility of collision of

neutrons with U 238 . It is found that the neutrons get slowed on coliding with U 238 , as a result of it further
fission of U238 is not possible (Because they are slow and they are absorbed by U238). This stops the chain
reaction.
 235
Removal : (i) To sustain chain reaction 92 U is separated from the ordinary uranium. Uranium so

obtained  92 U
235
 is known as enriched uranium, which is fissionable with the fast and slow neutrons and
hence chain reaction can be sustained.

(ii) If neutrons are slowed down by any method to an energy of about 0.3 eV, then the probability of their
absorption by U 238 becomes very low, while the probability of their fissioning U 235 becomes high. This job is
done by moderators. Which reduce the speed of neutron rapidly graphite and heavy water are the example of
moderators.

(iii) Critical size : The neutrons emitted during fission are very fast and they travel a large distance before
being slowed down. If the size of the fissionable material is small, the neutrons emitted will escape the
fissionable material before they are slowed down. Hence chain reaction cannot be sustained.

Removal : The size of the fissionable material should be large than a critical size.
The chain reaction once started will remain steady, accelerate or retard depending upon, a factor called
neutron reproduction factor (k). It is defined as follows.
Rate of product ion of neutrons
k
Rate of loss of neutrons
 If k = 1, the chain reaction will be steady. The size of the fissionable material used is said to be the
critical size and it's mass, the critical mass.
 If k > 1, the chain reaction accelerates, resulting in an explosion. The size of the material in this case is
super critical. (Atom bomb)
 If k < 1, the chain reaction gradually comes to a halt. The size of the material used us said to be sub-
critical.
Types of chain reaction : Chain reactions are of following two types

Controlled chain reaction Uncontrolled chain reaction

Controlled by artificial method No control over this type of nuclear reaction

All neurons are absorbed except one More than one neutron takes part into reaction

It's rate is slow Fast rate

Reproduction factor k = 1 Reproduction factor k > 1

Energy liberated in this type of reaction is always A large amount of energy is liberated in this type
less than explosive energy of reaction

Chain reaction is the principle of nuclear reactors Uncontrolled chain reaction is the principle of atom
 bomb.

Note :  The energy released in the explosion of an atom bomb is equal to the energy released by 2000
tonn of TNT and the temperature at the place of explosion is of the order of 10 7 oC.
Nuclear Reactor.
A nuclear reactor is a device in which nuclear fission can be carried out through a sustained and a controlled
chain reaction. It is also called an atomic pile. It is thus a source of controlled energy which is utilised for many
useful purposes. Cadmium
rods Core
Coolant
Coolant out
Turbine
Concrete To electric
wall generator

Condenser

Moderator Water
Heat
Coolant in
exchanger

Fuel elements

(1) Parts of nuclear reactor

(i) Fissionable material (Fuel) : The fissionable material used in the reactor is called the fuel of the
reactor. Uranium isotope (U235) Thorium isotope (Th232) and Plutonium isotopes (Pu239, Pu240 and Pu241) are the
most commonly used fuels in the reactor.
(ii) Moderator : Moderator is used to slow down the fast moving neutrons. Most commonly used
moderators are graphite and heavy water (D2O).
(iii) Control Material : Control material is used to control the chain reaction and to maintain a stable rate
of reaction. This material controls the number of neutrons available for the fission. For example, cadmium rods
are inserted into the core of the reactor because they can absorb the neutrons. The neutrons available for
fission are controlled by moving the cadmium rods in or out of the core of the reactor.
(iv) Coolant : Coolant is a cooling material which removes the heat generated due to fission in the
reactor. Commonly used coolants are water, CO2 nitrogen etc.
(v) Protective shield : A protective shield in the form a concrete thick wall surrounds the core of the
reactor to save the persons working around the reactor from the hazardous radiations.
 Note :  It may be noted that Plutonium is the best fuel as compared to other fissionable material. It is
because fission in Plutonium can be initiated by both slow and fast neutrons. Moreover it can be
obtained from U 238 .
 Nuclear reactor is firstly devised by fermi.
 Apsara was the first Indian nuclear reactor.
(2) Uses of nuclear reactor
(i) In electric power generation.
(ii) To produce radioactive isotopes for their use in medical science, agriculture and industry.

(iii) In manufacturing of PU 239 which is used in atom bomb.

(iv) They are used to produce neutron beam of high intensity which is used in the treatment of cancer and
nuclear research.
Note :  A type of reactor that can produce more fissile fuel than it consumes is the breeder reactor.
Nuclear fusion
In nuclear fusion two or more than two lighter nuclei combine to form a single heavy nucleus. The mass of
single nucleus so formed is less than the sum of the masses of parent nuclei. This difference in mass results in
the release of tremendous amount of energy

1 H 2  1 H 2  1 H 3  1 H 1  4 MeV

1 H 3  1 H 2  2 He 4  0 n 1  17 .6 MeV

or 1 H 2  1 H 2  2 He 4  24 MeV

For fusion high pressure ( 106 atm) and high temperature (of the order of 10 7 K to 108 K) is required and
so the reaction is called thermonuclear reaction.
Fusion energy is greater then fission energy fission of one uranium atom releases about 200 MeV of

energy. But the fusion of a deutron (1 H 2 ) and triton (1 H 3 ) releases about 17.6 MeV of energy. However the
energy released per nucleon in fission is about 0.85 MeV but that in fusion is 4.4 MeV. So for the same mass
of the fuel, the energy released in fusion is much larger than in fission.
Plasma : The temperature of the order of 108 K required for thermonuclear reactions leads to the
complete ionisation of the atom of light elements. The combination of base nuclei and electron cloud is called
plasma. The enormous gravitational field of the sun confines the plasma in the interior of the sun.
The main problem to carryout nuclear fusion in the laboratory is to contain the plasma at a temperature of
8
10 K. No solid container can tolerate this much temperature. If this problem of containing plasma is solved,
then the large quantity of deuterium present in sea water would be able to serve as in-exhaustible source of
energy.
Note :  To achieve fusion in laboratory a device is used to confine the plasma, called Tokamak.
Stellar Energy
Stellar energy is the energy obtained continuously from the sun and the stars. Sun radiates energy at the
rate of about 1026 joules per second.
Scientist Hans Bethe suggested that the fusion of hydrogen to form helium (thermo nuclear reaction) is
continuously taking place in the sun (or in the other stars) and it is the source of sun's (star's) energy.
The stellar energy is explained by two cycles

Proton-proton cycle Carbon-nitrogen cycle

1H
1
 1 H 1  1 H 2  1 e 0  Q1 1H
1
 6 C 12  7 N 13  Q1

1H
2
 1 H 1  2 He 3  Q 2 7 N 13  6 C 13  1 e
0

2 He 3  2 He 3  2 He 4  2 1 H 1  Q 3 1H
1
 6 C 13  7 N 14  Q 2

4 1 H 1 2 He 4  2 1 e 0  2  26 .7 MeV 1H
1
 7 N 14  8 O 15  Q 3

8 O 15  7 N 15  1 e 0  Q 4

1H
1
 7 N 15  6 C 12  2 He 4

4 1 H 1  2 He 4  2 1 e 0  24 .7 MeV

About 90% of the mass of the sun consists of hydrogen and helium.
Nuclear Bomb.
Based on uncontrolled nuclear reactions.

Atom bomb Hydrogen bomb

Based on fission process it involves the fission of Based on fusion process. Mixture of deutron and
U235 tritium is used in it

In this critical size is important There is no limit to critical size

Explosion is possible at normal temperature and High temperature and pressure are required
pressure

Less energy is released compared to hydrogen More energy is released as compared to atom
bomb bomb so it is more dangerous than atom bomb
 Concepts

 A test tube full of base nuclei will weight heavier than the earth.
 The nucleus of hydrogen contains only one proton. Therefore we may say that the proton is the
nucleus of hydrogen atom.
 If the relative abundance of isotopes in an element has a ratio n 1 : n2 whose atomic masses are
n1 m 1  n2 m 2
m1 and m2 then atomic mass of the element is M 
n1  n 2

Radioactivity.
The phenomenon of spontaneous emission of radiatons by heavy elements is called radioactivity. The
elements which shows this phenomenon are called radioactive elements.
(1) Radioactivity was discovered by Henery Becquerel in uranium salt in the year 1896.
(2) After the discovery of radioactivity in uranium, Piere Curie and Madame Curie discovered a new
radioactive element called radium (which is 10 6 times more radioactive than uranium)
(3) Some examples of radio active substances are : Uranium, Radium, Thorium, Polonium, Neptunium
etc.
(4) Radioactivity of a sample cannot be controlled by any physical (pressure, temperature, electric or
magnetic field) or chemical changes.
(5) All the elements with atomic number (Z ) > 82 are naturally radioactive.
(6) The conversion of lighter elements into radioactive elements by the bombardment of fast moving
particles is called artificial or induced radioactivity.
(7) Radioactivity is a nuclear event and not atomic. Hence electronic configuration of atom don't have any
relationship with radioactivity.
Nuclear radiatons
According to Rutherford's experiment when a sample of radioactive substance is put in a lead box and
allow the emission of radiation through a small hole only. When the radiation enters into the external electric
field, they splits into three parts

 -rays    -rays  
–  -rays +  -rays Magnetic field
– +     
– +  -rays
–  -rays +     
– +
    
 (i) Radiations which deflects towards negative plate are called -rays (stream of positively charged
particles)
(ii) Radiations which deflects towards positive plate are called  particles (stream of negatively charged
particles)
(iii) Radiations which are undeflected called -rays. (E.M. waves or photons)
Note :  Exactly same results were obtained when these radiations were subjected to magnetic field.
 No radioactive substance emits both  and  particles simultaneously. Also -rays are emitted
after the emission of  or -particles.

 -particles are not orbital electrons they come from nucleus. The neutron in the nucleus decays
into proton and an electron. This electron is emitted out of the nucleus in the form of -rays.

Properties of ,  and -rays

Features - particles  - particles  - rays

1. Identity Helium nucleus or Fast moving electron Photons (E.M. waves)

doubly ionised (  0 or  – )
helium atom (2He4)

2. Charge + 2e –e Zero

3. Mass 4 mp (mp = mass 4 mp me Massless

–27
of proton = 1.87  10

4. Speed  107 m/s 1% to 99% of speed of Speed of light

light

5. Range of kinetic energy 4 MeV to 9 MeV All possible values Between a minimum
between a minimum
 certain value to 1.2 MeV value to 2.23 MeV

6. Penetration power (, 1 100 10,000

, ) (Stopped by a paper) (100 times of ) (100 times of  upto
30 cm of iron (or Pb)
sheet

7. Ionisation power ( >  > 10,000 100 1

)

8. Effect of electric or Deflected Deflected Not deflected

magnetic field

9. Energy spectrum Line and discrete Continuous Line and discrete

10. Mutual interaction with Produces heat Produces heat Produces, photo-
matter electric effect,
Compton effect, pair
production
 decay
11. Equation of decay Z X A   Z XA  Z 1 Y
A
 1 e
0
 z X A  zXa 

A 4 n
Z 2 Y  2 He 4 ZX 
A

Z' X
A

 n β  (2 n α  Z  Z')
X A   Z' Y
n
 A'
Z

A'  A
 nα 
4

Radioactive Disintegration.
(1) Law of radioactive disintegration

According to Rutherford and Soddy law for radioactive decay is as follows.

"At any instant the rate of decay of radioactive atoms is proportional to the number of atoms present at
dN dN
that instant" i.e.  N   N . It can be proved that N = N0e– t
dt dt

This equation can also be written in terms of mass i.e. M = M0e–t

where N = Number of atoms remains undecayed after time t, N0 = Number of atoms present initially (i.e. at t =
0), M = Mass of radioactive nuclei at time t, M0 = Mass of radioactive nuclei at time t = 0, N0 – N = Number of
disintegrated nucleus in time t
 dN
= rate of decay,  = Decay constant or disintegration constant or radioactivity constant or Rutherford
dt
Soddy's constant or the probability of decay per unit time of a nucleus.

Note :   depends only on the nature of substance. It is independent of time and any physical or
chemical changes. N0

– t
N N = N0e

0 t
(2) Activity

It is defined as the rate of disintegration (or count rate) of the substance (or the number of atoms of any
dN
material decaying per second) i.e. A    N  N 0 e t  A 0 e t
dt
where A0 = Activity of t = 0, A = Activity after time t

Units of activity (Radioactivity)

It's units are Becqueral (Bq), Curie (Ci) and Rutherford (Rd)

1 Becquerel = 1 disintegration/sec, 1 Rutherford = 106 dis/sec, 1 Curie = 3.7  1011 dis/sec

Note :  Activity per gm of a substance is known as specific activity. The specific activity of 1 gm of radium –
226 is 1 Curie.
 1 millicurie = 37 Rutherford

 The activity of a radioactive substance decreases as the number of undecayed nuclei decreases with
time.

1
 Activity 
Half life

(3) Half life (T1/2)

Time interval in which the mass of a radioactive substance or the number of it's atom reduces to half of it's
initial value is called the half life of the substance. N
N0
N0
i.e. if N  then t  T1 / 2
2 Half life = T

N0/2
Hence from N  N 0 e  t N0/4

N0   (T1 / 2 ) log e 2 0 .693 0 1 2T 3T t

 N0e  T1 / 2  
2  
 Time (t) Number of undecayed atoms (N) Remaining fraction of Fraction of atoms
(N0 = Number of initial atoms) active atoms (N/N0) decayed (N0 – N) /N0
probability of survival probability of decay

t=0 N0 1 (100%) 0

t = T1/2 N0 1 1
(50%) (50%)
2 2 2

t = 2(T1/2) 1 N0 N 1 3
  02 (25%) (75%)
2 2 (2) 4 4

t = 3(T1/2) 1 N0 N 1 7
  0 (12.5%) (87.5%)
2 (2) (2) 3 8 8

t = 10 (T1/2) N0 1
10  99 .9 %
10    0.1 %
(2 ) 2

t = n (N1/2) N 1
n
  1  n 
(2) 2   1    
2   2  

Useful relation
n t / T1 / 2
1 1
After n half-lives, number of undecayed atoms N  N 0    N 0  
2 2

(4) Mean (or average) life ()

The time for which a radioactive material remains active is defined as mean (average) life of that material.
Other definitions
(i) It is defined as the sum of lives of all atoms divided by the total number of atoms
Sum of the lives of all the atoms 1
i.e.   
Total number of atoms 
N
ln
N0
(ii) From N  N 0 e  t    slope of the line shown in the graph
t

N
i.e. the magnitude of inverse of slope of ln vs t curve is known as mean life ().
N0
N
 t ln
(iii) From N  N 0 e N0 Slope = – 

1 1
If t     N  N 0 e 1  N 0    0 .37 N 0  37 % of N0.
 e  t
 1
i.e. mean life is the time interval in which number of undecayed atoms (N) becomes times or 0.37
e
times or 37% of original number of atoms. or

 1
It is the time in which number of decayed atoms (N0 – N) becomes  1   times or 0.63 times or 63% of
 e
original number of atoms.
0 .693 1 1
(iv) From T1 / 2     . (t1 / 2 )  1 .44 (T1 / 2 )
  0 .693
i.e. mean life is about 44% more than that of half life. Which gives us  > T(1/2)
Note :  Half life and mean life of a substance doesn't change with time or with pressure, temperature
etc.
Radioactive Series.
If the isotope that results from a radioactive decay is itself radioactive then it will also decay and so on.
The sequence of decays is known as radioactive decay series. Most of the radio-nuclides found in nature
are members of four radioactive series. These are as follows

Mass number Series (Nature) Parent Stable and Integer Number of lost
product n particles

4n Thorium (natural) 90 Th 232 82 Pb 208 52  = 6,  = 4

4n + 1 Neptunium Np 237
93
83 Bi 209 52  = 8,  = 5
(Artificial)

4n + 2 Uranium (Natural) 92 U
238
82 Pb 206 51  = 8,  = 6

4n + 3 Actinium (Natural) 89 Ac 227 82 Pb 207 51  = 7,  = 4

Note :  The 4n + 1 series starts from 94 PU 241 but commonly known as neptunium series because

neptunium is the longest lived member of the series.

 The 4n + 3 series actually starts from 92 U

235
.

Successive Disintegration and Radioactive Equilibrium.

Suppose a radioactive element A disintegrates to form another radioactive element B which intern
disintegrates to still another element C; such decays are called successive disintegration.
1 2
A B C
 dN 1
Rate of disintegration of A   1 N 1 (which is also the rate of formation of B)
dt
dN 2
Rate of disintegration of B    2 N 2
dt
 Net rate of formation of B = Rate of disintegration of A – Rate of disintegration of B
= 1N1 – 2N2
Equilibrium
In radioactive equilibrium, the rate of decay of any radioactive product is just equal to it's rate of production
from the previous member.
1 N 2  2 (T )
i.e. 1N1 = 2N2     1/2
 2 N 2  1 (T1 / 2 )1

Note :  In successive disintegration if N0 is the initial number of nuclei of A at t = 0 then number of

1 N 0
nuclei of product B at time t is given by N 2  (e 1 t  e 2 t ) where 12 – decay constant
( 2  1 )

of A and B.
Uses of radioactive isotopes
(1) In medicine
(i) For testing blood-chromium - 51 (ii) For testing blood circulation - Na - 24
(iii) For detecting brain tumor- Radio mercury - 203
(iv) For detecting fault in thyroid gland - Radio iodine - 131
(v) For cancer - cobalt - 60
(vi) For blood - Gold - 189
(vii) For skin diseases - Phospohorous - 31
(2) In Archaeology

(i) For determining age of archaeological sample (carbon dating) C 14

(ii) For determining age of meteorites - K 40

(iii) For determining age of earth-Lead isotopes
(3) In agriculture

(i) For protecting potato crop from earthworm- CO 60 (ii) For artificial rains - AgI (iii) As fertilizers - P 32
(4) As tracers - (Tracer) : Very small quantity of radioisotopes present in a mixture is known as tracer
(i) Tracer technique is used for studying biochemical reaction in tracer and animals.
(5) In industries
 (i) For detecting leakage in oil or water pipe lines (ii) For determining the age of planets.

Concept

 If a nuclide can decay simultaneously by twodifferent

,T ,
process which have decay constant 1 and 2,
1 1 1 1

half life T1 and T 2 and mean lives 1 and 2 respectively then

T
 2 2, T2, 2   = 1 + 2
T1T2
 T
T1  T2

 1 2
 
1   2