EEE 4381

Electronics and Digitization Techniques

Lecture-2
Ref: Electronic Devices and Circuit Theory by Robert L. Boylestad & Louis Nashelsky (11th edition)
Article: 1.6

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 Semiconductor Diode
The semiconductor diode is created by simply joining an n -type and a p -type
material together.
• Before they are joined, the n material has a large concentration of
electrons and few holes, whereas the converse is true for the p
material.
• Upon joining the two regions diffusion of carriers take place because of
the large carrier concentration gradients at the junction.
• Thus holes diffuse from the p side into the n side, and electrons diffuse
from n to p.
• The resulting diffusion current cannot build up indefinitely because an
opposing electric field is created at the junction.
• Electrons diffusing from n to p leave behind uncompensated donor ions
in the n-type material.
• Holes leaving the p region leave behind uncompensated acceptors in
the p-type material.
• Development of a region of positive space charge near the n side of the
junction and negative charge near the p side.
 Semiconductor Diode

• At the instant the two materials are

“joined” the electrons and the holes in the
region of the junction will combine
• A lack of free carriers in the region near
the junction.
• Depletion region: This region of uncovered
positive and negative ions due to the
“depletion” of free carriers in the region.
• Bias: the application of an external voltage
across the two terminals of the device to
extract a response.
 Semiconductor Diode
No Applied Bias (VD = 0 V)
In the absence of an applied bias across a semiconductor diode, the net flow of charge in one
direction is zero.
• The applied voltage is 0 V (no bias) and the resulting
current is 0 A.
• Under No-bias condition: minority carriers (holes) in
the n-type material of the depletion region will pass
quickly into the p-type region. The closer the hole is
to the junction, the greater is the attraction for the
layer of negative ions and the less is the opposition
offered by the positive ions in the depletion region
of the n -type material.
• The majority carriers (electrons) in the n-type
material must push past the pull of the positive ions
in the n-type side and the barrier of negative ions in
the p-type side to move beyond the depletion
region into the p-type material.
 Semiconductor Diode
Reverse-bias Condition ( VD < 0 V)

• Positive terminal is connected to the n -type material

and the negative terminal is connected to the p -type
material.
• The number of uncovered positive ions in the depletion
region of the n-type material increases because many
free electrons are attracted to the positive voltage
applied. For similar reasons, the number of uncovered
negative ions will increase in the p -type material. ->
Widening of depletion region.
• The widening of the depletion region creates a barrier
that becomes too large for the majority carriers to
cross, effectively reducing their flow to zero. The current that exists under reverse-bias
• The number of minority carriers entering the depletion conditions is called the reverse saturation
region stays the same, so their flow remains constant. current and is represented by Is.
 Semiconductor Diode
Forward-bias Condition ( VD > 0 V)

• Positive potential to the p -type material and the

negative potential to the n -type material.
• The application of a forward-bias potential VD will
“pressure” electrons in the n -type material and holes
in the p -type material to recombine with the ions near
the boundary.
• Reduce the width of the depletion region.
• Minority carrier flow remains the same.
• Reduction of depletion layer width = reduced barrier.
Causing heavy majority carrier flow.
 Semiconductor Diode
Forward-bias Condition ( VD > 0 V)

• As the applied bias increases in

magnitude, the depletion region will
continue to decrease in width until a
flood of electrons can pass through the
junction.
• An exponential rise in current.
 Semiconductor Diode
It can be demonstrated through the use of solid-state physics that the general characteristics of a
semiconductor diode can be defined by the Shockley’s equation:

IS = Reverse saturation current

VD = applied forward-bias voltage across the diode
n = ideality factor (n=1)
VT = thermal voltage

k = Boltzmann’s constant = 1.38 X 10-23 J/K

TK = 273 + the temperature in °C
q = magnitude of electronic charge = 1.6 X 10 -19 C
 Semiconductor Diode
• In the negative region, there is a point where the
application of too negative a voltage with the
reverse polarity will result in a sharp change in the
characteristics.
• The current increases at a very rapid rate in a
direction opposite to that of the positive voltage
region.
• The reverse-bias potential that results in this
dramatic change in characteristics is called the
breakdown potential.
• The avalanche region ( VBV ) can be brought closer to
the vertical axis by increasing the doping levels in the
p - and n -type materials.
• As VBV decreases to very low levels, such as -5 V,
Zener breakdown will contribute to the sharp change
in the characteristic.
 Avalanche Breakdown Zener Breakdown
Happens in lightly doped diodes with Happens in heavily doped diodes
a wide depletion region. with a narrow depletion region.
Occurs at higher voltages (typically Occurs at lower voltages (typically
above 5V). less than 5V).
Minority carriers (electrons or holes) The strong electric field in the
gain enough energy from the electric depletion region becomes powerful
field to collide with atoms and knock enough to break bonds directly,
more electrons free. This chain causing electrons to "tunnel" through
reaction leads to the creation of the depletion region. This is called
more free carriers, causing a large quantum tunnelling.
current. This is called the avalanche
effect.